CLASSIFICATION
OF LIVING
THINGS
Prof. Dr. Elif Aylin Özüdoğru
Fall 2024-2025, İstanbul
[email protected] How many species are there?
~ 1.8 million
> 80%
close to 9 million species
6.5 million,
living on the land 2.2 million, in the oceans
How many species are there?
> 99%
When did scientists begin classifying living things?
Aristotle, around the middle of the 4th century BC
When did scientists begin classifying living things?
His careful examination led to the understanding that:
mammals have lungs,
breathe air,
are warm-blooded,
and suckle their young.
Aristotle was the first to show an understanding of an overall
systematic taxonomy and to recognize units of different degrees
within the system.
When did scientists begin classifying living things?
Throughout the 16th century, interest in botanical study
increased. The reasons were;
Thus, the need of a classification
system was obvious.
When did scientists begin classifying living things?
The approach of systematizing and classifying was to dominate
biology in the 17th and 18th centuries, as well. However, most
classification schemes proposed were still confused and
unsatisfactory.
When did scientists begin classifying living things?
One of the most important 18th-
century naturalists, Swedish
botanist and medical doctor Karl
von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus).
Prior to Linnaeus
When did scientists begin classifying living things?
One of the most important 18th-
century naturalists, Swedish
botanist and medical doctor Karl
von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus).
The Linnaean system (binomial
nomenclature (or binomen) uses
’genus’ and ’species’ to designate
each type of organism.
When did scientists begin classifying living things?
One of the most important 18th-
century naturalists, Swedish
botanist and medical doctor Karl
von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus).
species species
genus
species
The Linnaean system (binomial
nomenclature (or binomen) uses family
’genus’ and ’species’ to designate species
each type of organism. genus
species species
When did scientists begin classifying living things?
He explains the basis of his system as follows:
• Each species must have an own scientific name, unique and
universal.
• When a species is given more than one name by different
scientists, the oldest one must prevail.
• Scientific names are composed by two Latin or Greek terms:
the first one corresponds to the Genus and the second one, to
the species belonging this genus.
• The first letter of the first term must be written in upper
case, while the second must be in lower case, and both
terms must be written in italic or underlined.
When did scientists begin classifying living things?
Polynomial system: a term (the genus) followed by a specific
epithet or name composed by one or more words which described
the species. gray thorax
brown abdomen
E.g., Apis pubescens, thorace subgriseo, abdomine fusco,
pedibus posticis glabris utrinque margine ciliatis.
hairless hind legs on
mature bee both sides
Apis mellifera,
European honeybee.
Why classifying living things is important?
Why classifying living things is important?
For example: the red panda, which is near to mustelids, and the
giant panda, a bear, don’t belong to the same family despite
being called pandas.
Why classifying living things is important?
A study about macaw populations…
Ara macao
Why classifying living things is important?
Cowslip or marsh Another cowslip Another marsh narrowleaf stoneseed, golden puccoon, fringed gromwell
Catthus palustris Primula vulgaris Tagetes spp. Lithospermum incisum
Mountain ash in USA Mountain ash in England Mountain ash in Australia
Sorbus americana Sorbus aucuparia Eucalyptus regnans
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
The classification system
starts by sorting living
things into groups based
on basic and shared
characteristics (such as a
plant or animal). Then
each group is broken
down further into more
specific classifications.
İstanbul, residence for
The Taxonomic Hierarchy sale;
148.467
İstanbul, residence for
sale, Kadıköy; 10.720
İstanbul, residence for
sale, Kadıköy,
apartmant; 10.247
İstanbul, residence for
sale, Kadıköy,
apartman, min. 100
m2; 8.257
İstanbul, residence for
sale, Kadıköy,
apartman, min. 100
m2, 3+1; 4.839
İstanbul, residence for
sale, Kadıköy,
apartman, min. 100
m2, 3+1, Bostancı; 516
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
Domain:
The first or top level of the classification system is the domain
(the most number of individuals). The domain level helps to
distinguish between cell types.
Currently, there are three types of
domains, which include Bacteria,
Archaea, and Eukarya.
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
Domain Bacteria:
The most abundant organisms on earth. There are many
different kinds (about 5000 recognised) and 12-15 major groups
of bacteria, and the evolutionary links between them are not well
understood.
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
Domain Bacteria:
Bacteria are ubiquitous on Earth; they live everywhere
eukaryotes do. Besides, many of the other more extreme
environments in which bacteria are found would be lethal to any
other form of life.
Bacteria are found in three major forms:
straight and rodshape spherical shape long and helical shape
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
Domain Archaebacteria (Archaea):
The term archaebacteria (in Greek, archaio means ancient)
refers to the ancient origin of this group of bacteria. This
conclusion comes from comparisons of genes that encode
ribosomal RNAs. The archaebacteria are grouped into three
general catogories, based primarily on the environment in which
they live or their specialized metabolic pathways, as
methanogens, halophiles (very salty environments) and
thermoacidophiles (hot acidic environments).
Archaebacteria and bacteria are both prokaryotes.
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
Domain Eukarya:
Their structure and function allowed larger cell sizes (with
energy-producing organelles) and, eventually, multicellular life to
evolve.
The evolution of multicellularity allowed organisms to deal with
their environments in novel ways. Distinct types of cells, tissues
and organs can be differentiated within the complex bodies of
multicellular organisms. A multicellular organism can protect
itself, resist efficiently, regulate its internal conditions, move,
seek mates and carry out other activities.
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
Domain Eukarya:
Another key characteristics of them is the sexuality (sexual
reproduction), which differs sharply from what we see in
bacteria. Sexual reproduction produces genetic variation.
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
The three Domains:
HOMEWORK:
1. Prepare a table to describe common chracteristics of all three (max. 1
page).
Bacteria Archaea Eukaryotes
Shape
Movement
Reproduction
DNA
RNA…
2. Make a conclusion about their differences and similarities (max. ½ page).
3. Make a conclusion about which one’s DNA is more similar to eukaryotic
DNA, bacteria or archaeabacteria? (max. ½ page).
Word document,
Times New Roman, 12 p,
Max. 2 pages in total
Due date: 12.12.2024
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
Kingdom:
Living things are placed into certain kingdoms
based on how they obtain their food, the types
of cells that make up their body, and the
number of cells they contain.
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
Kingdom:
The earliest classification systems recognised
only two kingdoms; animals and plants.
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
Kingdom:
Today most biologists use a six-kingdom
system, which includes Eubacteria,
Archaebacteria, Plantae, Animalia, Fungi, and
Protista.
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
Four Kingdoms of the Eukaryotes:
The first eukaryotes were unicellular organisms. Wide variety of
unicellular eukaryotes exist today are grouped together in the
kingdom Protista.
Fungi, Plants and Animals are largely multicellular kingdoms, each
a distinct evolutionary line from a single-celled ancestor that
would be classified in the kingdom Protista. In other words,
because of their size and ecological dominance, and because they
are predominantly multicellular, we recognise Plants, Animals and
Fungi as kingdoms distinct from Protista.
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
Kingdom Protista:
The word protist originates from the Greek word ‘protos’,
meaning the first. Protista are the most diverse of the four
kingdoms in the domain Eukaryota. The kingdom Protista contains
many unicellular, colonial and multicellular groups, composed of
15 major phyla. They have a nucleus, but they are not plants,
animals or fungi. The most recognised group of protista is algea.
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
Kingdom Fungi:
The fungi are a distinct kingdom of organisms, comprising about
77,000 named species. Mycologists believe there may be many
more species in existence, as many as 1.2 million.
A fungus is not a plant. Fungi are heterotrophs, they do not
have chlorophyll and they obtain their food by secreting
digestive enzymes onto the substrate, and then absorbing the
organic molecules that are released by the enzymes.
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
Kingdom Plants:
Plants evolved from a
multicellular, freshwater green
algae 450 million years ago.
Kingdom Animals:
Animals are multicellular heterotrophs without cell walls. The
great diversity of animals is the result of a long evolutionary
history. They actively move, and they reproduce by sexual
reproduction.
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
Kingdoms:
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
Phylum:
The phylum is used to group living organisms
within a kingdom, based on their common
features and physical similarities. These
physical similarities suggest that there is a
common ancestry among those organisms in a
particular phylum.
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
Class:
The class level groups together the organisms
that are alike, that have more in common than
those in an entire phylum. Humans belong to
the Mammal Class because we drink milk as a
baby.
There are more than 100 classes, but some of
the more common ones include the vertebrates,
invertebrates, dicots, or monocots.
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
Order: The order is just another way to break down
the class of plants and animals (“refining your
search”). E.g., carnivores, primates, rodents,
etc.
Family:
They share so much in common, organisms of a
family are said to be related to each other.
E.G., humans are in the Hominidae Family.
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
Genus:
The genus classification is very specific so
there are fewer organisms within each one. For
this reason there are a lot of different genera
among both animals and plants.
E.g.,Lion is Panthera leo and the tiger is
Panthera tigris. Panthera is the genus.
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
Species: A species is a group of organisms that are best
suited for breeding healthy offspring, which
can also continue to reproduce. Two organisms
that cannot interbreed and produce fertile
offspring are different species.
Species are groups of organisms that remain
relatively constant in their characteristics, can
be distinguished from other species.
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
Species:
Horse; Equus caballus Donkey; Equus asinus
Mule; Equus asinus x Equus caballus
The Taxonomic Hierarchy
Helps to distinguish between cell types; Bacteria,
Archaea, and Eukarya.
How they obtain their food, types of cells that
make up their body, number of cells they contain.
Common features and physical similarities.
Organisms that are alike, that have more in
common than those in an entire phylum.
Organisms that are even more alike.
They share so much in common. Organisms of a
family are said to be related to each other.
Very specific so there are a lot of different
genera but fewer organisms within each one.
Group of organisms that are best suited for
breeding healthy offspring, which can also
continue to reproduce.
Classification of humans: The Domain is Eukarya
because we have cells with
mitochondria, nucleus and
organelles, we are
multicellular, we reproduce
sexually.
The Kingdom is Animalia because
we ingest food, we are
multicellular, we have no cell
walls, we are motile.
The Phylum is Chordata because we have
spinal cords (our subphylum is vertebrata
because we have a segmented backbone).
The Class is Mammalia because we nurse our
offspring.
Classification of humans:
The Order is Primates due to
our higher level of intelligence.
The Family is Hominidae because
we are bipedal (walk upright).
The Genus is Homo for Human, and
The Species is H. sapiens, which
means modern human.
A Special Case; Viruses:
They do not possess the fundamental characteristics
of living organisms, thus they are not classified in
the kingdoms of life. But they need a living organism
(host) to survive.
Viruses are a kind of fragment of nucleic acids
originally derived from the genome of a living cell.
They are not cells and do not consist of cells. They
do not have a metabolism.
The one characteristic of life that they do display
is reproduction, which they do by hijacking the
metabolism of living cells.
Thanks for your
patience and
Aylin’i
attention
