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ARENA2036
Philipp Weißgraeber
Frieder Heieck
Clemens Ackermann Eds.
Advances in
Automotive Production
Technology – Theory
and Application
Stuttgart Conference on Automotive
Production (SCAP2020)
ARENA2036
Series Editor
ARENA2036 e.V., ARENA2036 e.V., Stuttgart, Germany
Die Buchreihe dokumentiert die Ergebnisse eines ambitionierten Forschungspro-
jektes im Automobilbau. Ziel des Projekts ist die Entwicklung einer nachhaltigen
Industrie 4.0 und die Realisierung eines Technologiewandels, der individuelle
Mobilität mit niedrigem Energieverbrauch basierend auf neuartigen Produktions-
konzepten realisiert. Den Schlüssel liefern wandlungsfähige Produktionsformen für
den intelligenten, funktionsintegrierten, multimateriellen Leichtbau. Nachhaltigkeit,
Sicherheit, Komfort, Individualität und Innovation werden als Einheit gedacht.
Wissenschaftler verschiedener Disziplinen arbeiten mit Experten und
Entscheidungsträgern aus der Wirtschaft auf Augenhöhe zusammen. Gemeinsam
arbeiten sie unter einem Dach und entwickeln das Automobil der Zukunft in der
Industrie 4.0.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/16199

Philipp Weißgraeber Frieder Heieck
• •
Clemens Ackermann
Editors
Advances in Automotive
Production Technology –
Theory and Application
Stuttgart Conference on Automotive
Production (SCAP2020)
Editors
Philipp Weißgraeber Frieder Heieck
ARENA2036 e.V. ARENA2036 e.V.
Stuttgart, Germany Stuttgart, Germany
Clemens Ackermann
ARENA2036 e.V.
Stuttgart, Germany
ISSN 2524-7247 ISSN 2524-7255 (electronic)

ARENA2036
ISBN 978-3-662-62961-1 ISBN 978-3-662-62962-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-62962-8
© Der/die Herausgeber bzw. der/die Autor(en), exklusiv lizenziert durch Springer-Verlag GmbH, ein Teil
von Springer Nature 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard
to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Responsible Editor: Dr. Alexander Grün

This Springer Vieweg imprint is published by the registered company Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE part
of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: Heidelberger Platz 3, 14197 Berlin, Germany
Editorial
Clemens Ackermann, Philipp Weißgraeber, and Frieder Heieck

Reseach Campus ARENA2036, Stuttgart, Germany
[email protected]
Stuttgart Conference on Automotive Production: Advances

in Automotive Production Technology – Theory and Application
Mobility as well as the production of its means currently undergoes the vastest
changes since Henry Ford introduced the moving assembly line for its Model T in
1908. Today, the very industry that produces interconnected automobiles sees itself
constantly confronted with questions regarding interconnected and smart produc-
tion systems, with the necessity of an increasingly rapid incorporation of various
enabling technologies, and issues of data management & interoperability. It does
not come as a surprise then that there is a promising intersection of product and
production technologies, at which the intelligent product becomes part of the
production process already. Vice versa, an intelligent product has all the technical
requirements to inform production over the course of its entire life-cycle whilst
simultaneously benefiting from the data produced by every single comparable
vehicle; i.e. the “fleet-intelligence” informs both product and production.
Now, the practical questions that arise from the above stated hypotheses are
obviously manifold. And, more importantly, not to be answered or solved by any
single researcher, developer, or disruptive inventor. What they actually require is
the exchange of solution approaches and expert knowledge as well as a practical
take on collaboratively answering some of the more pressing issues.
The successor to last year’s “Stuttgarter Tagung zur Zukunft der
Automobilproduktion”1, namely, the Stuttgart Conference on Automotive
Production (SCAP2020) set out to be a forum that would not only allow for the
exchange of concepts and ideas but also for very specific answers within precisely
1
Stuttgart Congress on the Future of Automobile Production.
v
vi Editorial
defined solution spaces. The framework in which all contributions of the conference
would operate was defined by the questions mentioned at the beginning and given
the following headline: Advances in Automotive Production Technology – Theory
and Application.
The SCAP2020, organized by ARENA2036 in collaboration with
Fraunhofer IPA, University of Stuttgart, Startup Autobahn powered by Plug and
Play and IEEE TEMS, has proven to be a stimulating forum for researches from the
sciences, the industry, and startups allowing every participant to learn about
important current trends, gain insights regarding the overall research landscape, and
to find ways in which a transfer from theoretical approaches to practical applica-
tions becomes feasible.
Every single contribution up for discussion was peer-reviewed by either mem-
bers of the scientific committee comprised of 19 international experts or by indi-
vidual domain experts for specific subject matters. Accordingly, and in order to
ensure the scientific quality of the conference in general and of this volume in
particular, the organizing committee of the SCAP2020 was in the position to choose
the contributions to the conference from a far larger number of submissions.2
The contributions in this volume are arranged thematically in four parts,
allowing the readers to choose their fields of interest from a broad range of auto-
motive production technologies. Part A focusses on Novel Approaches for Efficient
Production and Assembly Planning, Part B on Smart Production Systems and Data
Services, Part C discusses Advances in Manufacturing Processes and Materials,
and Part D presents New Concepts for Autonomous, Collaborative Intralogistics.
Now, we would also like to thank everyone involved in planning and running the
conference, as well as all the contributors to and attendees of the conference –
especially Dr. Jörg Burzer, Rainer Brehm, Prof. Dr. Thomas Bauernhansl, and Prof.
Dr. Soumaya Yacout for their inspiring and insightful keynotes.
Finally, we would like to invite you to stay in touch with ARENA2036, to stay
tuned for SCAP2022, and to enjoy the following papers.
Stuttgart Philipp Weißgraeber

11/30/2020 Frieder Heieck
Clemens Ackermann
2
This book includes contributions submitted directly by the respective authors. The editors cannot
assume responsibility for any inaccuracies, comments, and opinions.
Contents
Part A New Approaches for Efficient Production

and Assembly Planning
Agile Hybrid Assembly Systems: Bridging the Gap Between Line
and Matrix Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Amon Göppert, Esben Schukat, Peter Burggräf, and Robert H. Schmitt
Economic Feasibility of Highly Adaptable Production Systems . . . . . . . 12
Urs Leberle and Yannick-Léon Weigelt
Reconfiguration of Production Equipment of Matrix
Manufacturing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Michael Trierweiler and Thomas Bauernhansl
A User-friendly Planning Tool for Assembly Sequence Optimization . . . 28
Dominik Schopper and Claudia Tonhäuser
Fluid Manufacturing Systems (FLMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Christian Fries, Manuel Fechter, Daniel Ranke, Michael Trierweiler,
Anwar Al Assadi, Petra Foith-Förster, Hans-Hermann Wiendahl,
and Thomas Bauernhansl
Automated Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) via Asset
Administration Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Anwar Al Assadi, Lara Waltersmann, Robert Miehe, Manuel Fechter,
and Alexander Sauer
Business Model Innovation in Manufacturing Equipment Companies:
Joint Project Fluid Production, ARENA2036 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Alberto Mesa Cano, Tobias Stahl, and Thomas Bauernhansl
Identification of Reconfiguration Demand and Generation
of Alternative Configurations for Cyber-Physical Production Systems . . . 63
Timo Müller, Simon Walth, Nasser Jazdi, and Michael Weyrich
vii
viii Contents
Method for Data-Driven Assembly Sequence Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Susann Kärcher and Thomas Bauernhansl
Evaluation of Material Supply Strategies in Matrix Manufacturing
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Daniel Ranke and Thomas Bauernhansl
Smart Factory and the Unique Digital Order Twin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Wilmjakob Johannes Herlyn and Hartmut Zadek
Developing Technology Strategies for Flexible Automotive Products
and Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Lukas Block, Maximilian Werner, Matthias Mikoschek,
and Sebastian Stegmüller
Structured Information Processing as Enabler of Versatile, Flexible
Manufacturing Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Simon Komesker, Wolfgang Kern, Achim Wagner, Thomas Bauernhansl,
and Martin Ruskowski
A Novel Approach to Generate Assembly Instructions Automatically
from CAD Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Alexander Neb and Johannes Scholz
Selective Assembly Strategy for Quality Optimization in a Laser
Welding Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Manuel Kaufmann, Ira Effenberger, and Marco Huber
FlexPress – An Implementation of Energy Flexibility at Shop-Floor
Level for Compressed Air Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Can Kaymakci, Christian Schneider, and Alexander Sauer
Part B Smart Production Systems and Data Services

A Framework for Digital Twin Deployment in Production Systems . . . . 145
Ayman AboElHassan, Ahmed Sakr, and Soumaya Yacout
Assets2036 – Lightweight Implementation of the Asset Administration
Shell Concept for Practical Use and Easy Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Daniel Ewert, Thomas Jung, Timur Tasci, and Thomas Stiedl
AutomationML in Industry 4.0 Environment: A Systematic
Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Jiaqi Zhao, Matthias Schamp, Steven Hoedt, El-Houssaine Aghezzaf,
and Johannes Cottyn
Generic and Scalable Modeling Technique for Automated Processes . . . 170
Martin Karkowski, Rainer Müller, and Matthias Scholer
Contents ix
On Automation Along the Automotive Wire Harness Value Chain . . . . 178

Marc Eheim, Dennis Kaiser, and Roland Weil
An ISA-95 based Middle Data Layer for Data Standardization—
Enhancing Systems Interoperability for Factory Automation . . . . . . . . . 187
Chen Li, Soujanya Mantravadi, Casper Schou, Hjalte Nielsen,
Ole Madsen, and Charles Møller
Deep Reinforcement Learning for IoT Interoperability . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Sebastian Klöser, Sebastian Kotstein, Robin Reuben, Timo Zerrer,
and Christian Decker
Wireless Industrial Networks for Real-Time Applications . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Jorge Luis Juárez Peña, Stefan Lipp, Andreas Frotzscher,
and Frank Burkhardt
A Novel ‘Automated Hardware Upgrade Service’
for Manufacturing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Christian Schneider, Martin Reisinger, Thomas Adolf, Nicolas Heßberger,
and Alexander Sauer
Deep Learning-Enabled Real Time In-Site Quality Inspection Based
On Gesture Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Ioan-Matei Sarivan, Stefan Andreas Baumann, Daniel Díez Álvarez,
Felix Euteneuer, Matthias Reichenbach, Ulrich Berger, Ole Madsen,
and Simon Bøgh
Detection and Monitoring for Anomalies and Degradation
of a Robotic Arm Using Machine Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Hussein A. Taha, Soumaya Yacout, and Lionel Birglen
Using Deep Neural Networks to Separate Entangled Workpieces
in Random Bin Picking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Marius Moosmann, Felix Spenrath, Manuel Mönnig,
Muhammad Usman Khalid, Marvin Jaumann, Johannes Rosport,
and Richard Bormann
Automatic Grasp Generation for Vacuum Grippers for Random
Bin Picking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Muhammad Usman Khalid, Felix Spenrath, Manuel Mönnig,
Marius Moosmann, Richard Bormann, Holger Kunz, and Marco F. Huber
Flat Knitted Sensory Work Glove for Process Monitoring
and Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Sarah Kim, Paul Hofmann, Hermann Finckh, Röder Uwe,
Albrecht Dinkelmann, Michael Haupt, and Götz T. Gresser
Predictable and Real-Time Message-Based Communication
in the Context of Control Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Timur Tasci, Marc Fischer, Armin Lechler, and Alexander Verl
x Contents
Part C Advances in Manufacturing Processes and Materials

A New Adjustable Hemming Die for Automotive Body Construction:
Simulation, Design and Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Moritz Nowack and Arndt Birkert
Production of Thin Outer Skin Car Body Panels by Using Novel Short
Cycle Stretch-Forming (SCS) Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Mathias Liewald and Adrian Schenek
Automated Generation of Clamping Concepts and Assembly Cells
for Car Body Parts for the Digitalization of Automobile Production . . . 293
Andreas Zech, Ralf Stetter, Markus Till, and Stephan Rudolph
A self-programming painting cell »SelfPaint«: Simulation-based
path generation with automized quality control for painting
in small lot sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Nico Guettler, Niklas Sandgren, Stefan Weber, Philipp Knee,
Raad Salman, Jens Klier, Fredrik Edelvik, and Oliver Tiedje
Less Chemicals and More Power: Pulsed Electric Field-Treatment
for Reduction of Microorganisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Philipp Preiß, Monika Eva Bohem, Christian Gusbeth, Martin Sack,
Dennis Herzog, Thomas Schwartz, Stefan Dekold, Norman Poboss,
Claus Lang-Koetz, and Wolfgang Frey
Safety in Electromobility – Technical Cleanliness Between the Poles
of Design Requirements and Efficient Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Patrick Brag and Markus Rochowicz
Highly Integrative Rear End Concept of Battery Electric Vehicles . . . . 327
Dominik Klaiber, Dr. Philipp Kellner, Marc Meyer, Matthias Biegerl,
Dr. Gabriele Gorbach, Thomas Goetz, and Dr. Marco Schneider
Modelling Defects of Unhardened Adhesives Resulting from Handling
and Warpage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Silvio Facciotto, Daniel Sommer, Martin Helbig, André Haufe,
and Peter Middendorf
Experimental Study on Depth of Cure During UV-Post-Curing
of Photopolymers Used for Additive Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Jan Nitsche, Tristan Schlotthauer, Florian Hermann,
and Peter Middendorf
Simulation Supported Manufacturing of Profiled Composite Parts
Using the Braiding Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Jörg Dittmann, Matthieu Vinot, Peter Middendorf, Nathalie Toso,
and Heinz Voggenreiter
Contents xi
A New Concept for Producing High Strength Aluminum

Line-Joints in Car Body Assembly by a Robot Guided Friction
Stir Welding Gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Dominik Walz, Martin Werz, and Stefan Weihe
Multi-robotic Composite Production of Complex and Large-Scaled
Components for the Automotive Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Florian Helber, Stefan Carosella, and Peter Middendorf
Integrated Machining, Quality Inspection and Sealing
for CFRP Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Philipp Esch, Andreas Gebhardt, Oliver Tiedje, and Andreas Frommknecht
A Universal Machine: Enabling Digital Manufacturing
with Laser Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Thomas Graf, Max Hoßfeld, and Volkher Onuseit
Advancing from Additive Manufacturing to Large-Scale Production
of Face Shields During the COVID-19 Pandemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Frieder Heieck, Fabian Muhs, Marlies Springmann, Nicolas Unger,
and Philipp Weißgraeber
Part D New Concepts for Autonomous, Collaborative Intralogistics

Towards an Artificial Perception Framework for Autonomous Robots
in Logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Christopher Mayershofer and Johannes Fottner
Concept of a Safety-Related Sensor System for Collaboration Between
Human and Automated Guided Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
David Korte
Novel Autonomous Guided Vehicle System for the Use
in Logistics Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Javier Stillig and Nejila Parspour
Increased Agility by Using Autonomous AGVs
in Reconfigurable Factories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Daniel Strametz, Michael Reip, Rudolf Pichler, Christian Maasem,
Martin Höffernig, and Michael Pichler
Safety and Operating Concept for Collaborative Material
Flow Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Matthias Hofmann
Combining Safe Collaborative and High-Accuracy Operations
in Industrial Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Andreas Otto, Shuxiao Hou, Antje Ahrens, Uwe Frieß,
Marcel Todtermuschke, and Mohamad Bdiwi
xii Contents
Industrial Indoor Localization: Improvement of Logistics Processes

Using Location Based Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Niklas Hesslein, Mike Wesselhöft, Johannes Hinckeldeyn,
and Jochen Kreutzfeldt
Interface-Free Connection of Mobile Robot Cells to Machine Tools
Using a Camera System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Johannes Abicht, Torben Wiese, Arvid Hellmich, and Steffen Ihlenfeldt
The Fully Flexible Body Shop – A Holistic Approach for the Vehicle
Production of Tomorrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Marcel Todtermuschke, Alexander Voigt, Rayk Fritzsche,
Jens H. Lippmann, and Jörn Zastera
Development of an Integrated Data-Driven Process to Handle
Uncertainties in Multi-Variant Production and Logistics: A Survey . . . 486
Simon Dürr, Raphael Lamprecht, Matthias Kauffmann, Jörg Winter,
Heinz Alexy, and Marco Huber
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495

Part A New Approaches for Efficient
Production and Assembly Planning
Agile Hybrid Assembly Systems: Bridging
the Gap Between Line and Matrix
Configurations
Amon Göppert1(B) , Esben Schukat1 , Peter Burggräf1,2 , and Robert H. Schmitt1

1 Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production Engineering (WZL), RWTH Aachen
University, Campus Boulevard 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany
[email protected]
2 Chair of International Production Engineering and Management (IPEM), University of Siegen,
Paul-Bonatz-Straße 9-11, 57076 Siegen, Germany
Abstract. The ongoing transition towards electro-mobility requires an increased

reactivity and reconfigurability in automotive assembly. However, the traditional
line assembly, which is characterized by rigid cycle times and linear product flow,
has already been pushed to its flexibility limits. Drivers are the increase of prod-
uct changes, variants and derivatives within assembly lines. To further increase
reactivity and reconfigurability, matrix structured assembly configurations are a
possible solution. Several studies highlight the theoretical advantages, but it has
not been applied and validated in industrial use-cases, due to the high transfor-
mational gap between line and matrix configurations. In contrast, segment-wise
line-less structures show a high potential for this.
A use-case oriented approach improves reactivity and reconfigurability by
implementing an agile hybrid assembly system that combines the advantages of
line and matrix structured (also referred to as line-less) assembly systems and
offers a lower investment threshold. Three fields of action are presented: The first
consists of flexible planning and control software modules. Within the planning
phase, an automated scenario analysis is performed for optimization by apply-
ing simulations. During the production phase, the simulated model is re-used for
the operation of a dynamical multi-agent manufacturing execution system with
online scheduling algorithms. The second field of action deals with reconfigurable
infrastructures, which comprises short-term dispatching intralogistics and a flex-
ible layout, facilitated by AGV transport routes and reconfigurable self-adaptive
workstations. The third field of action comprises a system model that is an under-
lying fully integrated digital twin. Control interfaces integrate the infrastructure
into the manufacturing execution system to enable rapid system changes.
The presented hybrid system contributes to the design of future assembly sys-
tems by showing which aspects of line and matrix configuration can be combined
to have a beneficial impact on a broad spectrum of production scenarios. By con-
sidering all relevant fields of action in a holistic way and by analyzing a hybrid
configuration, the arising challenges for producing companies are addressed in a
practical and functional manner.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE,

part of Springer Nature 2021
P. Weißgraeber et al. (Eds.): Advances in Automotive Production Technology – Theory
and Application, ARENA2036, pp. 3–11, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-62962-8_1
4 A. Göppert et al.
1 Introduction
The transition towards electro-mobility has a profound impact on the development of
Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) and the entire value chain of the automotive
industry [1, 2]. German, American and Japanese OEMs are announcing over 80 new
electric models for 2019/20 alone [3]. The parallel production of conventional, hybrid
and purely electrically powered vehicles confronts OEMs with major challenges and
the growing product variance on integrated assembly lines is leading to far-reaching
efficiency losses [4]. In addition to the high variety of products OEMs are facing, product
lifecycles are being shortened, making even more reconfigurations of the production
line necessary [5]. As today’s globalized society opens new markets for manufacturers,
competition is increasing accordingly. A customizable product and efficient, cost saving
manufacturing remains the best way to gain an edge over competitors and increase
product value [6].
The stated trends are particularly evident for automotive assembly. Assembly has
a significant impact on the value chain, accounting for 50% of production time and up
to 20% of total costs [7, 8]. Since the final assembly will remain a core competence of
OEMs in the future [9], novel strategies for the successful transformation of the industrial
value-chain towards electro-mobility must take the design of assembly systems into
account.
Currently, assembly systems for automotive production are designed for stable mar-
ket environments and only a few changes at a time [10]. They are limited by fixed transfer
systems (e.g. roll conveyors) and only very few buffers. To further increase reactivity
and reconfigurability and thus meet future requirements, matrix structured assembly
configurations (also referred to as line-less) present a promising solution [11, 12].
The basis for matrix structured assembly systems is the removal of the restrictions
imposed by fixed transfer systems, enabling movements between different assembly sta-
tions [5]. However, due to the high transformation gap between line and matrix structured
assembly systems, industrial applications have not yet reached a practical level [11]. Fur-
ther, the full potential of matrix structured assembly systems can only be explored when
the product´s precedence graphs contain a certain level of flexibility.
Accordingly it can be assumed, that an assembly system should contain both,
elements from matrix and line configurations, creating a hybrid form. Thus, this
paper presents a use case based design approach for hybrid assembly systems, which
incorporate the advantages of both matrix and line structured assembly systems.
2 Theoretical Background
Matrix-structured assembly systems have been well studied and explored over the past
years. However, there exists no uniform terminology and classification for the description
of matrix-structured assembly systems yet. Thus, the following explanations are intended
to highlight the most important characteristics in a cross-section manner.
The aim of matrix-structured assembly systems is to design a more flexible assem-
bly system in comparison to line assembly, while maintaining the same efficiency and
profitability [12]. Flexibility is achieved by decoupled assembly stations and assem-
bly stations arranged in a matrix structure. This allows for a dynamical adjustment of
Agile Hybrid Assembly Systems: Bridging the Gap … 5
assembly process sequences within the restrictions of the assembly precedence graph as
required during operation. [13, 14]. The assembly sequence as well as the route of each
job is not proactively planned and determined, but defined according to the availability of
resources and other situational circumstances such as the availability of workers, station
efficiency, transport times or even malfunctions at stations [13, 14]. The absence of a
higher-level cycle time eliminates the need for assembly scheduling or line balancing
[12, 15]. Sequence flexible assembly thus enables the realization of flow assembly with
different cycle times or cycle-independent assembly stations, as well as the production
of highly individualized products within the same assembly system [12]. A requirement
for the operational feasibility is the existence of a real-time control system, e.g. based
on multi-agent system [16].
Further advantages of the matrix structured assembly system are the scalability and
reconfigurability. Scalability can be achieved by duplicating bottleneck resources at
station or equipment level. Reconfigurability is realized by the modular design of the
assembly stations as well as associated resources [17, 18]. When reaching a situational
and near-real time adaptation of the assembly system, the term “agile assembly system”
is used. The planning process is characterized by a comparatively later as well as smaller
reduction in systemic degrees of freedom compared to line assembly [19].
All outlined aspects show that the tasks of planning and controlling matrix structured
assembly systems are increasingly merging [20]. In case of strong restrictions such as
limited flexibility of the precedence graph or space availability, it is sensible to transfer
only specific manufacturing segments into a matrix structure. This will reduce complex-
ity as well as the transformation gap and costs. For these reasons, a framework for agile
hybrid assembly systems is presented below, which addresses the segment-by-segment
break-up of line structures both in terms of the relevant fields of action and the selection
of potential production segments.
3 A Framework for Agile Hybrid Assembly Systems

The framework for an agile hybrid assembly system combines the advantages of line and
matrix assembly systems. This way, the high efficiency and output of line configured
assembly systems are expanded by the adaptability and flexibility of matrix structured
system. Therefore, elements and principles from both configurations are considered for
the design of an agile assembly system (see Fig. 1).
A boundary condition for efficiency is a production scenario that clearly shows
potential caveats regarding key performance indicators e.g. adherence to due dates,
utilization and reconfiguration cost. Such a production scenario could be the described
parallel production of vehicles with various powertrain systems, which would result in
an increasing complexity of tasks and planning efforts. In addition to the efficiency the
profitability can be maintained. Operational costs, as one measure of the profitability,
correlates with the system’s efficiency. In addition, profitability includes investment
costs, which need to be taken into account for a transition towards a matrix system.
Thus, possible circumstances to maintain profitability are savings in operational costs,
due to a higher system’s efficiency in production scenario demanding for a flexible
system.
One key enabler of a hybrid assembly system is the one directional flow used in
line production. To dissolve bottlenecks, multifunctional assembly stations (i.e. stations
capable of performing two or more assembly processes) can be duplicated und operated
in parallel, a concept taken out of matrix structured assembly systems. Based on a
simulation-based analysis of the required level of agility, it is determined which assembly
stations should be duplicated, since highly efficient production segments can remain in
the line configuration.
Fig. 1. Benefits of matrix and line configuration combined in hybrid assembly
To easily dissolve bottlenecks and allow for high utilization, stations must be highly
adaptable. This includes the capability of stations to process multiple products and their
variants. The utilization of the described flexibility requires the implementation of a
control system. Various control architectures exist. A fully decentralized, autonomous
system without a central control unit would be one implementation of a heterarchical
architecture. Another approach would be a hierarchical control architecture, which is
chosen when a set of tasks is required to be centralized. For an agile hybrid assembly
system such a set of tasks demands for a hierarchical control architecture. The tasks
are described in the following. The control system is responsible for the assignment of
products to a specific work station. This is based on the product requirements and the
work station abilities regarding the assembly operations. Also, it is responsible for the
sequencing of assembly operations at the chosen work station. For these decisions, the
control system may consider different factors such as the transport time, the redundancy
of equipment at a work station or possible breakdowns at work stations. Since unforeseen
changes on the shop floor can occur at any time, the control system needs to dynamically
and frequently reassess decisions.
The framework for agile hybrid assembly systems adopts scheduling approaches for
mix-model lines as they represented a validated method for optimizing the sequencing of
orders. Since transport times are gaining considerable significance in matrix-structured
assembly the scheduling approaches must be enhanced.
Operating a hybrid assembly system with maximum efficiency requires multiple
components. These components can be grouped into three fields of action (see Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. System architecture and required technologies for an agile hybrid assembly system.
Flexible Planning and Control includes the before mentioned control system, also
called the multi-agent manufacturing execution system, that coordinates every move-
ment in the hybrid assembly system. The control system uses an online scheduling
algorithm to assign each product its next process and the station that will carry out this
process, planning an individual route for each job. For the planning phase of the hybrid
assembly system, an automated scenario analysis is included. Its goal is the optimization
of the production system by applying discrete event simulations (DES). Once production
begins, the scenario analysis can be used to further improve production, analyzing data
that was not available in the planning phase.
Reconfigurable Infrastructure enables the dynamic adjustment of production
capacities. Autonomously reconfigurable workstations can adjust their capability pro-
files to handle an increasing and changing number of different processes. This makes
a short-term dispatching intralogistics system crucial. The intralogistics system adapts
to the flexible production layout and utilizes automated guided vehicles (AGVs) to
ensure that all workstations receive necessary components and equipment for assem-
bly. Although other transport vehicles can be used, AGVs are used as a representative
vehicle form in this context. One feature of the system is the dynamic calculation of the
AGV transport routes, reacting to sudden changes in production, like prioritization of
certain jobs and breakdowns. Since the workstations are autonomously reconfigurable
and AGVs can easily change routes, the infrastructure can be arranged in a flexible
layout. This allows improvements if possible enhancements are uncovered during the
simulation-based optimization process.
The underlying fully integrated Digital System Twin builds the connection between
the first two fields of action as a structured and hierarchical data model. For the first
field of action, the digital twin provides the data for training the online scheduling
algorithms as well as the data for the simulation runs, done by the scenario analysis. To
generate this information, the digital twin retrieves machine data from the reconfigurable
infrastructure, e.g. movement information from the AGVs or processing times from
the work stations. To solve optimization problems during the scenario analysis, meta-
heuristics are made available to the control system described in the first field of action.
4 Use Case Development

For the implementation of the fields of action and their components described in the
previous chapter, use cases are defined. In theory, a use case is a description of actions
that a system can perform with the participation of actors. An actor can be any entity
that interacts with a system: a user, another system, but also the physical environment
of the system itself [21–23]. Thus, an actor can activate a use case of the system. This
use case can then activate applications within the system or request further information
from other actors. In this way, use cases enable the attainment of a defined goal for the
respective actors by describing the functions of a system and the benefits for the actors
involved [22].
In the context of this paper, examples of relevant actors are infrastructure, auto-
mated scenario analysis, a dynamic multi-agent manufacturing execution system, shop
floor employees, orders and resources. Within the production structures, actors can, for
example, have the option to evaluate the potential of a section-wise parallelization or
initiate the corresponding restructuring. The use case oriented approach guarantees the
practical feasibility and reduces the transformational gap of the agile hybrid assembly
system. The use cases themselves are planned in brownfield and are thus aligned with
the restrictions of existing production environments. They aim to solve the production
challenges addressed by the components of each field of action (see Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Focused challenges and systemic premises for the use case development
A multi-stage procedure is applied for the collection and evaluation of the use cases.
First, the three fields of action and each of their components are evaluated in an inter-
disciplinary project team regarding their possible integration into the current assembly
environment. For this purpose, current structural improvement potentials of the assembly
system, as well as assembly sections with restrictive and planning-intensive requirements
are examined. The resulting integration concepts can then be consolidated in a list with
specialist planners and evaluated using a qualitative criteria-based assessment of their
potential. Selected integration concepts are then transferred into a detailed, standardized
description, which include the basic functionalities, the systemic premises, the interrela-
tionships of the systems and actors as well as description models for resources, processes
and products. Those descriptions reflect the preliminary use cases and include alternative
system configurations.
The preliminary use cases will then be transferred into a simulation model to further
quantify their benefits. If a sufficient added value is proven, the relevant preliminary use
cases need to be detailed with regard to their technological embedding and interaction
in the existing system, e.g. the connection of the resources to the control system and
concrete decision algorithms for decision making. The further development of the use
cases is based on a hybrid planning strategy. This means that the development steps
are divided into increments, which are further detailed either in a plan-driven way or
developed in an agile way. By doing so, a late reduction of the degrees of freedom of the
assembly system is guaranteed. This leads to a shorter development time by parallelizing
work steps and also enables late modifications with little effort.
The necessary technological development requires cross-functional competencies
and a close collaboration with the OEM companies. Parallel to this, the integration
concept for the later system reconfiguration needs to be elaborated. This ensures that
the necessary infrastructure and employee’s competence are available in time for start
of operation and that negative effects on the existing production system are minimized.
By introducing use cases step-by-step the new components, e.g. the control system, can
be tested and improved. Gaining experience with the concept will allow OEMs to apply
the concept of matrix structured assembly on a bigger scale, integrating larger parts of
the plant into the matrix, ultimately leading from hybrid manufacturing to a fully matrix
configured assembly system, if reasonable. However, this is not always the ultimate goal.
Some parts of production will always function best in line configuration, making hybrid
assembly the most efficient manufacturing system in certain cases.
5 Conclusion
The presented hybrid system contributes to the design of future assembly systems by
showing how aspects of line and matrix configurations can be combined to have a ben-
eficial impact on a broad spectrum of production scenarios. By considering the relevant
fields of action, i.e. flexible planning and control, reconfigurable infrastructure and dig-
ital system twin, in a holistic way and by analyzing a hybrid configuration, the arising
challenges for producing companies are addressed in a practical and functional manner.
In addition to the presented fields of action an approach for the use-case development
as a method for a practical implementation of an agile hybrid assembly system includ-
ing the focused challenges and systemic premises was proposed. Further evaluation
potentials would be the analysis of implemented use-cases regarding key performance
indicators to achieve design guidelines for future implementations.
Acknowledgement. This work is part of the research project “AIMFREE” that is funded by the
German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi) within the indirective on a
joint funding initiative to fund research and development in the field of electromobility (funding
number: 01MV19002A) and supported by the project management agency German Aerospace
Center (DLR-PT). The authors are responsible for the content.
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Economic Feasibility of Highly Adaptable
Production Systems
Urs Leberle(B) and Yannick-Léon Weigelt
Robert Bosch GmbH, Robert-Bosch-Campus 1, 71272 Renningen, Germany

[email protected]
Abstract. An increasingly uncertain market environment, high product variety

and shortened product life cycles lead to an increased demand for adaptable pro-
duction systems. Due to higher initial investment costs, it becomes more difficult
to assess the profitability of such production systems with conventional methods,
since the advantages of adaptable production systems are not considered suffi-
ciently. This article presents an approach allowing to determine the economic
feasibility of highly adaptable production systems which are repeatedly under-
going reconfiguration processes to adapt to products, processes and technologies
that are unknown during planning and launch. In contrast to others, this approach
considers a preferably high level of adaptability enabling the production system
to change extensively and quickly. To test the method a scenario from the publicly
funded project Fluid Production is used.
1 Introduction and Motivation

An increasingly uncertain market environment, high product variety and shortened prod-
uct life cycles lead to an increased demand for adaptable production systems. In highly
adaptable production systems, production resources are no longer used exclusively for
one product family or production process, but instead are reconfigured repeatedly adapt-
ing to products, processes and technologies that are unknown during planning and launch.
Due to higher initial investment costs, it becomes more difficult to assess the profitability
of such production systems with conventional methods, since the advantages of adaptable
production systems are not considered sufficiently.
2 State of the Art

To evaluate long-term investment projects dynamic investment calculation methods such
as the internal rate of return (IRR) and the net present value (NPV) are frequently used
in the industry [1]. In contrast to static methods these approaches consider the time value
of money by taking into account the time payments are made. In addition, the life-cycle
costing (LCC) and total cost of ownership (TCO) make it possible to consider costs and
revenues over all life phases of an investment. Unfortunately, the application of these
presented methods lacks the possibility to consider the flexibility and adaptability of
production systems [1].

Economic Feasibility of Highly Adaptable Production Systems 13
Previous research to determine and evaluate the economic efficiency of adaptable

production systems focuses on determining the optimal reconfiguration potential [cf. 2–
7]. This approach assumes that the principle of diminishing marginal utility also applies
to the ability to change, hence cost and benefit are not linearly related [5]. The procedure
is not suitable for highly adaptable production systems, since maximizing reconfigura-
bility is a fundamental component of this production concept. It is considered necessary
to operate sustainably in a highly volatile and uncertain production environment. The
close involvement of humans as well as the dynamic and needs-based configuration are
intended to reduce the cost of versatility in production [8].
Life-cycle-oriented assessments based on the VDMA34160 [9], which include not
only procurement costs but also operating and disposal costs, are presented by Schweiger
and Pachow-Frauenhofer [10, 11]. The resources of highly adaptable production systems
are composed of individual modules that are solution-neutral and not linked to a specific
product in order to minimize pre-determinations and complexity costs. Additionally,
the individual modules and their respective composition is changed continuously which
leads to difficulties calculating the system’s service life, since each module has its own
useful life. Therefore, neither the product life cycle nor the service life of the system can
be used as a basis for cost considerations [12].
The uncertainty of future developments represents another challenge during the eval-
uation of adaptable production systems. Möller [4] applies the approach of the real option
theory known from financial mathematics to the problem of determining the economic
feasibility of reconfigurable production systems under uncertainty. This enables the
time-dependent consideration of uncertainty, but due to the calculation effort only a
few parameters can be considered. Since highly adaptable production systems intend to
improve the ability to act in a particularly volatile market environment, many different
parameters must be analyzed.
In summary, it can be stated that the determination of the optimal reconfiguration
potential is not feasible for highly adaptable production systems, since the planning
framework is too uncertain and the necessary adaptability depends strongly on the respec-
tive operating phases. Furthermore, the requirements for the assessment of a variable
evaluation period and the consideration of short-term and dynamic changes of resources
in production have so far hardly been taken into account. Ultimately, an appropriate
approach needs to be developed to allow the monetary measurement over a variable
observation period and consider uncertainty in the production environment.
3 Approach
To periodically allocate occurring costs during the use of a configuration the model
shown in Fig. 1 was developed. The observation period can be freely selected. The
incurring costs are determined based on a component-wise evaluation of residual values
at the end of each period. The occurrence of an adaption leads to a reduction of the
residual value if components of the system are no longer required. This procedure was
chosen because within highly adaptable production system it is very likely that most
components can be reused, thus minimizing the number of obsolete components. As an
outcome of the economic evaluation and foundation for an investment decision the NPV
was chosen. It is determined in six steps.
14 U. Leberle and Y.-L. Weigelt
Input Black Box Output

Equipment cost
Engineering cost Product
Start-up cost Configuration
Personnel cost Residual value Disposal of unrequired equipment
Area cost
Reuse of existing equipment
Additional Equipment cost

Engineering cost Product
Cost Start-up cost Configuration
Revenue Personnel cost Residual value
Area cost
Profit
Fig. 1. Description model for highly adaptable production systems
In the first step, an analysis of possible production scenarios as well as the definition of
general production conditions must be executed. The goal of the analysis is to determine
key data like the annual quantity of units or product variants that are expected within
the observation period. To set up a scenario funnel and to be able to consider possible
future developments, worst- and best-case scenarios must be determined in addition to
the forecast scenario [13, 14]. The production conditions include general production
data like the shift model, the working days per year or the payment rate of workers.
The subject of the second step is the planning of the production system. This includes
capacity planning by determining the production resources, such as type and number
of machines and workstations, the linking in-between and the number of employees
required for the production system in each period. The planning is based on the scenarios
developed before, the required process technology and the assembly sequence.
In the next step the reconfiguration potential of the production system is determined
according to Heger [2], allowing to estimate the share of components of a production
system that can be adapted to new products, processes or technologies regarding certain
conditions such as robot payload or dimensions of the assembly cell. However, Heger’s
method was reduced to essential aspects to evaluate the resources of a production system.
The value of a plant object, such as a production resource or an entire production system,
results from the sum of the individual normalized and weighted reconfiguration potential
values of the system components of the object under consideration.
The fourth step involves the periodic compilation of costs arising in each period. This
is done according to the LCC method presented within the VDMA 36160 guideline using
the description model presented above. The costs of a period At consist of acquisition
costs EK t , operating costs BK t and liquidation costs VK t (see Eq. 1).
At = EK t + BK t + VK t (1)
The acquisition costs EK t include investment costs for machinery equipment and
tools as well as engineering and start-up costs. The operation costs BK t comprise for
example worker, area and energy costs. The liquidation costs VK t consist of the disposal
costs, the residual value of the production resources and other possible liquidation costs.
Depending on the availability of data as well as the analyzed object and the degree of
abstraction, the scope of considered costs can be adjusted as required. In the case of
an adaption between two consecutive periods according to Stähr [6], the residual value
RW t results from the sum of the products of the reconfiguration potential values WP y of
the plant objects y and their present value BW y,t at the end of the corresponding period
(see Eq. 2). If no adaption takes place between the individual periods, the residual value
of the production resources RW t is the sum of the book values of all plant objects used
at the end of the period under consideration.
z
RW t = WP y ∗ BW y,t (2)
y=1
In the fifth step, the NPV of the production system is calculated based on the costs
occurring in each period. It results from the sum of all incoming and outgoing payments
per period within the observation period, discounted to the time of consideration.
In the last step, the results of the evaluation method are to be checked for accuracy
and stability by means of a local sensitivity analysis [15]. By examining the dependence
of the planning variants on changes in the production environment or on assumptions
made initially, the resulting investment decision can be secured.
4 Example of Application
The application of the developed method is demonstrated by comparing a fluid manufac-
turing system (FLMS) with a designated manufacturing line (DML) using an exemplary
product and quantity scenario. FLMS can be specified as highly adaptable production
systems characterized by the ability to adapt and change dynamically to cope with
challenges from increasingly volatile markets.
The comparison is based on a simple demo product. The product is composed of a
housing with cover, a printed circuit board (PCB) and a battery holder which is mounted
in the housing. While the mounting of the PCB and the battery holder are automated,
the remaining processes are carried out at a manual workstation. These steps include
inserting the batteries into the holder, connecting the wire to the PCB, flashing the soft-
ware, adjusting the integrated potentiometer and final testing and mounting the housing
with the customer label attached. It is assumed that the product will be available in three
variants within a period of ten years. For product variant A all components are fixed by
screws in the housing. A second product variant B is launched replacing parts of the
screwing process with a bonding process and with a faster flashing of the software to
achieve shorter cycle times and cheaper process costs for high quantities. Later, enabled
by a technological innovation, variant C is launched including a friction welding process
to further enhance the mounting and an automatic adjustment of the integrated poten-
tiometer. However, the production of previous variants must be continued for a certain
time. The assumed scenario (see Fig. 3) results from the four periods of the economic
cycle (expansion, boom, recession, depression) and other expected fluctuations. As gen-
eral conditions for the production in Germany 17 shifts per week with 7 working hours
each shift and 272 working days per year were assumed. The respective batch numbers
to be produced were set to be constant at 3000 units for product variant A, 1000 units
for variant B and 2500 units for variant C.
An automatic assembly cell in the form of the highly adaptable CESA3R system
[16] as well as the modular manual working station Active-Assist of Bosch Rexroth
and a flexible linking with intermediate buffers are used in the FLMS. The modular
concept of the CESA3R system, consisting of mechatronic objects with standardized

hard- and software interfaces, allows the removal, replacement or supplementation of
individual processes or technologies in the assembly cell or of whole assembly cells in
the production system. Only the characteristics of the base cell, like the dimensions or
the robot payload limit the reconfiguration potential and the productivity of the CESA3R
system. For operation and setup of these systems, a continuous adaption of qualification
requirements is necessary [17]. The concept allows a simple and accelerated start-up,
e.g. in the form of a software-assisted safety assessment concept [18], which requires
no additional specialists. A gradual increase in output is achieved by the parallel linking
of cells. Thereby the assembly is carried out on supplementary cells in the same steps.
For the DML an automatic station and two or three manual workstations (depending
on the product variant) were planned. The assembly takes place in a sequential process
with a serial linking by a belt driven transfer system. The product specific process
equipment and the sequential assembly allow a high productivity resulting from minimal
cycle and setup times as well as a simple operation by auxiliary stuff. However, the
production of new variants of an existing product or new products requires complex
reconfiguration or even new construction of mechanic and electric components as well
as software. In addition, changes to individual stations or the assembly line require
extensive re-commissioning and process approval by specialists. An increase in output
beyond the maximal capacity can only be achieved by a second assembly line.
The assumed investment and operating costs, cycle and setup times are compared
in Fig. 2. The capacity planning is based on the assumption that a new configuration of
the production is always necessary when either a new product variant is launched or the
maximum possible capacity utilization of the current configuration is exceeded.
Investment cost Operating cost Cycle time [s] Setup time [min]
Configuration Equipment Engineering Start-up Personnel Area Product Product
[€] [€] [€] [€/P*a] [€/m²*a] A B C A B C
CESA³R Screwing 100.000 € 96 30
FLMS
CESA³R Screwing + Bonding 120.000 € 21.385 € 540 € 96 76 30 60

96.300 €
CESA³R Screwing + Friction welding 135.000 € 96 59 30 90
Manual W orkplace 25.000 € 291 € 83 78 68 0 0 0
Screwing 225.000 € 48 30
DML
Screwing + Bonding 260.000 € 30.662 € 10.621 € 70.600 € 1.328 € 48 31 30 60

Screwing + Friction welding 275.000 € 48 29 30 60
Fig. 2. Investment- and operating cost & cycle and setup time for DML and FLMS
Using the evaluation approach by Heger [2] the reconfiguration potential of the DML
was rated with 30%. Due to reduced product commitment the FLMS configuration is
highly adaptable but product specific requirements like the fixing equipment are limiting
the reconfiguration potential at 90%.
Figure 3 shows the total costs of both production concepts and the quantity of the
three product variants produced in each period of the example scenario. The initially
lower costs of the FLMS result from the significantly smaller scaling steps per module.
Combined with the faster start-up time this increases the degree of utilization of the
FLMS for small piece numbers. On the other hand, at high production numbers many
modules must be purchased and operated because of the required capacity. This reduces
the economic efficiency of the FLMS with increasing quantities and explains its higher
cost in the seventh period compared to the DML. The high costs of the DML in the third
period result from an extraordinary depreciation that is incurred in this period because
of the change of technology by the introduction of the friction welding process at the
transition from the third to the fourth period. The FLMS can reuse most of the existing
components which leads to reduced acquisition costs. Whereas the DML reaches its full
potential in the seventh period due to optimal utilization it lacks the ability to adapt to
the decrease in quantity in period eight. The FLMS concept can handle the changes in
a more sufficient way and enables the production to operate sustainable even when the
number of produced units is declining.
1400 900.000
1200 800.000
700.000
Quantity [units/a]
1000 DML
600.000
Cost [T€/a]
800 500.000 FLMS
600 400.000 Product C

300.000 Product B
400
200.000 Product A
200 100.000
0 0
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 t9 t10
Fig. 3. Periodic cost analysis and accumulated quantity for DMS and FLMS
According to the periodic costs of this exemplary scenario, FLMS may be a more
suitable alternative than DML. The accumulated NPV difference regarding an internal
rate on return of 9% is 1.075.473 e. The difference in economic sustainability mainly
results from the ability of FLMS to react more cost-efficient to fluctuations in quantity
or the introduction of new products and technologies.
In the sensitivity analysis the reconfiguration potential value as well as the planning
and start-up times were varied exemplarily, and a more intense development of the
extreme scenarios was analyzed. It could be shown that the stability of the output variable
is guaranteed in relation to the considered input variables. Nevertheless, the variation
resulted in changes, which prove the influence of the selected input variables.
5 Discussion and Evaluation
The presented method allows to compare the economic feasibility of FLMS and DML.
Due to the reconfiguration potential value determined according to Heger and the recon-
figuration costs calculated therefrom according to Stähr, the adaption capability has a
direct influence on the overall evaluation result. The developed description model allows
the application of the LCC method for each individual period by describing it as a closed
operating state with cost of acquisition, operation and liquidation. As a result, it is pos-
sible to consider the short-term and dynamic combination of resources in production
systems and to analyze the profitability in an uncertain production environment over a
variable observation period. Depending on requirements, the method can also be used to
develop several scenarios with deviating forecasts, which can then be examined with the
sensitivity analysis for their stability regarding varied input parameters. The determined
NPVs can be compared in a results matrix to describe the situation under uncertainty.
Depending on the risk tolerance of the management a suitable option can be chosen [19].
The application of the method to the exemplary product and quantity scenario resulted
in the following findings for the comparison of FLMS and DML. The fast start-up time
and the possibility of scaling in small steps increase the efficiency of the FLMS compared
to the DML for low volumes significantly. This makes it possible to reduce the required
capacities resulting in a reduction of the necessary acquisition costs. Even in the case
of a technology or a product change, the individual acquisition costs are significantly
lower for the FMLS than for the DML. On the other hand, the low scaling effect reduces
the cost-effectiveness of FLMS at high volumes.
6 Summary and Outlook

The presented method allows to compare DML and FLMS during a selected observation
period using the determined NPVs. The consideration of uncertainty in the production
environment within the method is based on three scenarios determined in a scenario
analysis (forecast, best- and worst-case) and a sensitivity analysis. Implementing meth-
ods for uncertainty evaluation like the real option theory, could lead to a more specific
consideration of the aspect of uncertainty in the investment decision. But due to the
complexity of the decision, the NPVs should not be the only valuated dimension of the
investment decision. It is advisable to consider other factors that have a direct or indirect
influence on the result. Possible factors are quality, working conditions or environmental
impact.
The FLMS creates new degrees of freedom in the planning and operation of produc-
tion. The so far only discrete adaption becomes a steady adaption and the solution space
for possible adaptations is considerably larger due to short-term and dynamic combi-
nation of resources in production systems. Previously strategic decisions may become
operational decisions. However, the additional degrees of freedom also go hand in hand
with a much greater complexity of production. Digital planning tools could, for example,
help to control the degrees of freedom and efficiently use the possibilities of FLMS.
Acknowledgements. The research presented in this paper has received partial funding under
administration of the Project Management Agency (PTKA) inside the research campus
ARENA2036. Our sincere thanks go to the Federal Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF)
for supporting this research project by the grant agreement 02P18Q625.
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Reconfiguration of Production Equipment
of Matrix Manufacturing Systems
Michael Trierweiler1,2(B) and Thomas Bauernhansl1,2

1 Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Engineering and Automation IPA,
Stuttgart, Germany
{Michael.Trierweiler,miht}@ipa.fraunhofer.de
2 Institute of Industrial Manufacturing and Management IFF,
University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
Abstract. Since the introduction of the assembly line in production around

100 years ago, the principal of mass and series production has not changed much.
However, in the last decades, more individualized products lead to higher product
variants, which challenge rigidly linked assembly lines. To provide higher adapt-
ability to changing product variants and volumes, in manufacturing as well as in
assembly, the concept of a production system structured as a matrix is developed
(abbreviated as MMS). Here, the equipment of the production system is com-
posed of various process modules providing the needed functions. Depending on
the needed functions, the work pieces literally search by and by their way through
production. The process modules themselves consist of one or more stations pro-
viding process functionalities. Assuming that these stations can be distributed to
the various process modules in short time, this production structure offers a high
changeability during operation. It can be used to reconfigure the system continu-
ously to changing production programs. Through the high degrees of freedom of a
matrix production system, finding this optimal configuration of the equipment can
be seen as a complex task. For the initial planning of the system, several approaches
exist. However, so far, there is no method for reconfiguring the system to changed
requirements, mainly to changes of the composition of the production programs,
during the operation of the production system. This paper gives an overview of
the task and sketches an approach of how to indicate that a reconfiguration is
beneficial and subsequently to find and realize an optimized one. Therefore, the
feedback control technique is introduced and it is shown, how it can be applied in
continuous change processes of production entities. Then, the technique is adapted
to apply it to the reconfiguration problem of MMS. Finally, the needed research
to realize that approach is outlined.
1 Introduction and Motivation
More than 100 years after introducing the assembly line by Ford, most production
systems still follow the principles of line and tact dependency. However, for years now, an
increase of product variants can be observed [1], which challenge rigidly-linked assembly

Reconfiguration of Production Equipment … 21
lines [2]. Accordingly, there is research on new production systems, based on cyber-
physical systems dissolving the line characteristic with tact time dependency [3–5]. In
manufacturing as well as in assembly, a concept following this approach is the so-called
matrix manufacturing system (MMS). It consists of flexibly linked process modules
providing the functionalities [6]. That allows an individual flow of each product through
the system and thereby provides process and product flexibility [7]. So far, several initial
planning approaches for matrix production systems exist [6, 8, 9]. As in all manufacturing
and assembly planning processes, a prediction of the production program is an important
input value. The capacity planning and alignment of the production resources is based
on that. The in that way designed system is optimized to the forecasted production
program. However, it is very likely that after implementing and operating the system the
composition of the production program will be quite different. Especially, in production
programs with many variants it is very likely that the composition changes. Accordingly,
the requirements on the system will change. This affects the time required for production
resources as well as flows of process sequences. Actually, due to its flexibility, the MMS
could still manufacture the products but with lower efficiency.
The changeability enablers modularity, scalability and mobility [10] can be seen
as immanent properties of a MMS. Accordingly, it is seen as highly changeable [2,
4]. The present paper describes the options for changing MMS while focusing mainly
on reconfiguration. Furthermore, it shows how reconfiguration can be used to adapt a
MMS to changed requirements caused by varying production programs to maintain and
increase its efficiency. Therefore, a method based on the feedback control technique is
outlined.
2 Changeability of Matrix Manufacturing Systems

According to Westkämper and Zahn [11], changeability aims to continuously adapt
a company to changing requirements to reach and maintain high efficiency and stay
competitive. Therefore, they define a system as changeable, when it provides variability
in process, structural and behavioural aspects. Furthermore, they claim the need, that
these variabilities can be activated in a short time with minimal effort [11].
ElMaraghy and Wiendahl [12] give a good overview of changeability classes on the
different company levels. Figure 1 shows an extract, focusing on production, with the
levels station, cell and system. Here, the changeability classes change over ability, flex-
ibility, and reconfigurability are assigned. The authors define change over ability as the
ability to adapt a production resource to certain known operations with a minimal effort.
Flexibility relates to the operative ability on cell, station and system level to reprogram,
reroute and reschedule them to a known family of work pieces. Reconfigurability is
defined as the tactical ability to adapt cells and systems to new part groups. It includes
a physical change of the structure of processes and material flows (recombination) as
well as the adding or removing of production components [12].
To identify options of changes on the three production levels of a MMS in a systematic
way, the MMS can be described with the help of the structural concept of the system
theory [13]. Its objective is to understand a system by dividing it into its elements
[14]. Then options of changes can be derived. Tables 1 and 2 summarize them structured
22 M. Trierweiler and T. Bauernhansl
Producon Level Changeability Class

... ... ...
Flexibility
3 System
Reconfigurability
Flexibility
2 Cell
Reconfigurability
Flexibility
1 Staon
Change Over Ability
Fig. 1. Hierarchy of production with corresponding changeability classes, extract, based on [12]
column-wise by the need for adaptions which are ability, sequence and capacity. The lines
structure them regarding the changeability classes flexibility and reconfigurability. Table
1 focuses on system level, Table 2 on cell level. Station level is not further considered
since there are no MMS-specific options of change. More detailed information can be
found in Trierweiler et al. [13].
Table 1. Options of changes on system level of a MMS, based on [13]
Need for adaptions

Ability Sequence Capacity
Flexibility – Change of routing Variation of shift model
Reconfigurability Add/remove modules Change position of In-/decrease number of
with abilities modules modules
Table 2. Options of changes on cell level of a MMS, based on [13]
Need for adaptions

Ability Sequence Capacity
Flexibility – – Variation of shift model
Reconfigurability Add/remove stations Change position of In-/decrease number of
with certain abilities stations inside module stations
As shown, a MMS provides many options for changes, so it is accurate to see it

as a highly changeable system. The system is designed to use the options of flexibility
during its daily operation to provide the full set of functionalities to produce each product
and variant of a diverse production program. The options of reconfiguration can be
used occasionally to adapt the system to changes in the production program to increase
its efficiency. Here, the following questions evolve: How can the advantageousness
of reconfiguring the system be detected? What does indicate that reconfiguration can
increase or maintain the efficiency of the system? How can a better configuration of the
system be derived and implemented? In fact, these questions can be summarized in the
demand for a method detecting inefficiencies caused by the configuration of the system
and designs a reconfiguration to maintain and increase efficiency. The following chapter
introduces the feedback control technique as a meta model to solve this question. In
addition, it shows how it can be applied to adapt production entities.
3 Continuous Adaption of Production Entities

In general, industrial production systems are seen as complex [15]. The complexity is
caused through a high number of different elements and their various relations [14]. Since
a change of one factor can have many influences on others [16], the task of adapting a
system to changing requirements can be difficult. Accordingly, an effective adjustment
needs to be planned properly, by considering all possible influences. To handle this kind
of complex tasks, the systems theory has developed several approaches. The black-box
and hierarchy concept as well as the control technology can be mentioned among others
[14]. For adaption processes, the feedback control technique is often used as a meta
model, since it can be applied to control technical as well as sociotechnical systems as
production systems [17]. In general, to control a system, the system’s status is monitored
by the so-called feedback variables. Their values are then compared to reference values
to determine the deviations. Based on that, a control unit calculates a value to control
an actuator which influences the system to align the feedback to the reference variables
[18].
Nofen has applied this technique to model the adaption of a production facility to
changeability drivers [19]. This task shows similarities to the question assessed in this
paper – the continuously reconfiguration of a MMS. Accordingly, it is described more
in detail in the following.
In the mentioned approach, the control loop starts with monitoring the operation
of the factory by indicators. They can be seen as feedback variables and conclude the
need for changes. In the controller, these variables are compared with the reference
variables. These are guidelines in form of key performance indicators (KPI) given by
the management. The controller determines the need for adaption and derives the kind
of adjustment process. Regarding the reconfiguration, this can be a structural change or
the adjustment of elements. Here, all possible interdependencies need to be considered
to take into account all influences of changes. Nofen therefore uses effect chains. A
following actuator is responsible to execute the adaption of the factory. Finally, the
operation of the changed factory is again monitored by the indicators. This is where the
control loop is closed [19].
The described work uses the feedback control technique for continuous change pro-
cesses of complete factories. Thereby it is shown, that this technique works for adaption
processes of production entities. However, the approach is designed for complete facto-
ries. Azab applies the feedback control technique to the adaption of production facilities.
He assesses the reconfiguration of manufacturing systems more closely [20]. However,
the given approach is not directly transformable to the reconfiguration process of MMS.
Therefore, the following chapter discusses a possible way to apply the feedback control
technique to reconfigure a MMS.
4 Approach to Reconfigure MMS

Section 2 shows the specific options to reconfigure the production equipment of a MMS.
Section 3 introduces the feedback control technique as a way to adapt production entities
continuously. The following gives an overview of using this approach to reconfigure the
production equipment of MMS to increase and maintain efficiency. The approach is
limited to adapt to changes caused by the variation of the composition of production
programs, since this is expected to be the main reason to reconfigure a MMS during
operation. Accordingly, needed reconfiguration due to the introduction of complete new
products with different production processes into the MMS is out of scope. In that case,
a more profound approach with one of the existing initial planning methods mentioned
in Sect. 1 seems favourable.
The approach is divided into 1) indicators and measuring, 2) determination of
required reconfiguration and 3) the designing of reconfiguration (Fig. 2).
2) Determination of required
Guidelines by management
reconfiguration
(reference variable)
(controller)
3) Designing of
1) Measuring of indicators reconfiguration
(actuator)
Indicators Reconfiguration
Configuration of MMS
(controlled system)
Output values Input values
Fig. 2. Feedback control technique applied to reconfigure the production equipment of MMS
1) Definition of Indicators and Measurement of Those

First, losses of productivity, which are caused by the configuration of MMS need to
be identified. In general, losses of productivity can be detected by waste in the several
processes. Therefore, Ohno defined the seven waste classes which are overproduction,
storing, wrong processes, defects, movements, transportations, and waiting [21]. It can
be stated that the three first mentioned classes are not specific to the MMS, since these
classes are mainly influenced by the production planning and control as well as in
manufacturing and assembly planning. The other four can be seen as linked with the
configuration.
Defects, related to the system’s configuration, can be caused, among others, by
the distance between processes. For example, when in a gluing process the distance
between the dispensing of the glue bead and the final mounting of two parts is too far,
the glue can be already too dry which can influence the quality of the glued joint. Thus,
a reconfiguration through repositioning of the dispensing and mounting could avoid
defects. Another configuration-specific category is the movements of workers and parts.
A repositioning of stations inside a module, for example, can reduce waste. To reduce
the effort for transportation, depending on the product-specific assembly sequences,
a repositioning of modules can be useful. The waste class waiting indicates needed
capacity adaptions. It can be divided into waiting time related to orders and related to
resources. On the one hand, order-related waiting time can indicate a too low capacity
of a certain process inside the MMS. Accordingly, adding an additional resource with
that functionality into the system can decrease that waste. On the other hand, downtimes
of production resources due to missing orders can indicate an overcapacity of a certain
process. In case this process is represented by more than one resource, taking out one
of the resources could decrease the overcapacity. Furthermore, KPI, which are given by
the management, need to be captured.
Secondly, after defining the certain indicators and KPI the recording of those needs to
be specified. Therefore, order and production resource-related data need to be acquired.
Data sources can be ERP and MES as well as additional sensor systems, specialized in
monitoring assembly systems as described by Kärcher [22]. Thereby, a system-specific
so-called digital shadow can be implemented, providing the needed data for optimizing
the system via reconfiguration.
2) Determination of Required Reconfiguration

During this step, the indicators are analysed and the deviations of the measured to the
reference KPI need to be determined. Here, a very crucial point is to investigate the
extent of the wastes and deviations to the reference KPI to determine their importance.
Regarding the wastes, it needs to be decided between rarely and regularly occurring phe-
nomena. Subsequently, the option of reconfiguration can be derived which can consists
of one or a combination of the options summarized in Tables 1 and 2.
3) Designing of Reconfiguration
After the decision about the reconfiguration, it needs to be concretely designed. For
example, when elements are to be repositioned and additional elements should get
implemented, it has to be decided about the new locations. Since this should be done by
ensuring a production with minimum waste and a maximum adherence to the reference
KPI as well as keeping the effort for reconfiguration lower as the potential benefits,
this question can be seen as a multi-criterial optimization task. Optimization approaches
applied to production-related questions can be found in [23–25]. In addition, applying
machine learning techniques seem promising. After designing a new reconfiguration it
should be modelled in a material flow simulation to validate the effectiveness. When the
results of the simulation prove the advantageousness of the reconfiguration the respon-
sible workshop managers should finally assess it and create a reconfiguration schedule.
Finally, they can instruct the set-up staff to implement the changes physically in the
production system.
Here, the control as well as the optimization loop close and the operating system can
be monitored and optimized all over again in the following production period.
5 Conclusion and Outlook

This paper gives an overview of how to adapt a MMS to changing production programs.
Effective ways of reconfiguration are shown and the feedback control technique is intro-
duced as a meta model for adaption processes. Section 4 discusses the application of the
feedback control to detect the advantageousness, determine and design a reconfigura-

tion. However, to apply that approach to a MMS in reality it needs to be worked out in
detail. First of all, the indicators and the corresponding recording need to be developed.
Then, the controller part of the control loop needs to be designed. Furthermore, the
designing process of the concrete reconfiguration needs to be investigated. Here, a main
challenge is to choose the suitable optimization technique. Promising ones are found in
the field of operations research and in machine learning approaches. However, this paper
has structured the problem clearly. It can be seen as the basis to elaborate the problem
sequentially in further research with the objective to allow a continuous reconfiguration
of MMS to adapt to changing, diverse production programs.
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Betriebswirtschaftslehre. Handwörterbuch der Produktionswirtschaft, 2nd edn., pp. 899–900.
Schäffer-Poeschel, Stuttgart (1996)
15. REFA: Planung und Gestaltung komplexer Produktionssysteme, 2nd edn. Methodenlehre der
Betriebsorganisation. Hanser, München (1990)
16. Ashby, W.R.: Introduction to Cybernetics. Chapman & Hal, London and Becclesl (1961)
17. Ropohl, G.: Allgemeine Technologie. Eine Systemtheorie der Technik. KIT Scientific
Publishing, Karlsruhe (2009)
18. DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung e. V.: International Electrotechnical Vocabulary. Part 351:
Control Technology. Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin 01.040.35; 01.040.29; 35.240.50; 29.020
(DIN IEC 60050–351) (2013)
19. Nofen, D.: Regelkreisbasierte Wandlungsprozesse der modularen Fabrik. Berichte aus dem
IFA, 2006, vol. 1. PZH, Produktionstechn. Zentrum, Garbsen (2006)
20. Azab, A., ElMaraghy, H., Nyhuis, P., Pachow-Frauenhofer, J., Schmidt, M.: Mechanics of
change: a framework to reconfigure manufacturing systems. CIRP J. Manuf. Sci. Technol.
(2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirpj.2012.12.002
21. Ohno, T.: Das Toyota-Produktionssystem. Campus, New York (2005)
22. Kärcher, S., Bauernhansl, T. (eds.): Approach to generate optimized assembly sequences from
sensor data. In: 52nd CIRP Conference on Manufacturing Systems (2019)
23. Bogatzki, A.: Fabrikplanung. Verfahren zur Optimierung der Maschinenaufstellung. Disser-
tation, Univ., Wuppertal. Theorie und Forschung, vol. 534. Roderer, Regensburg (1998)
24. Kettner, H., Schmidt, J., Greim, H.-R. (eds.): Leitfaden der systematischen Fabrikplanung.
Mit zahlreichen Checklisten. Hanser, München (2010)
25. Krüger, T.: Entwicklung einer Gesamtmethodik zur Kombination von mathematischer
Anordnungsoptimierung und Materialflusssimulation für die Produktionslayoutplanung,
Universitätsbibliothek Der TU Clausthal (2019)
A User-friendly Planning Tool for
Assembly Sequence Optimization
Dominik Schopper(B) and Claudia Tonhäuser
University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany

[email protected]
https://www.ifb.uni-stuttgart.de/en/research/pi-group/
Abstract. Digitalization offers new opportunities to improve the qual-

ity of planning, adaptation and optimization of assembly processes. The
approach presented in this paper allows for the (re-)planning of the
assembly process with alternative assembly paths. Since usually mul-
tiple valid assembly sequences exist for one and the same product, an
automated assembly path analysis is realized for the identification of a
time-optimal sequence. The implementation is realized using a combi-
nation of Petri nets and graph-based design languages. This framework
allows an easy integration of the assembly planning process into the dig-
ital design process and the automatic evaluation of possible assembly
sequences.
1 Introduction and Fundamentals
Today, companies face the challenge of reducing assembly costs, which account
for 20–70% of the total manufacturing costs depending on the domain [1]. In the
manufacturing sector automation is demanding, since assembling geometrically
complex components is difficult. This paper describes a framework for the indi-
vidual planning and design of assembly processes in the form of a graph-based
design language. All possible assembly options are compared, evaluated and an
optimal solution is derived automatically. To provide the required input in the
form of a Petri net, a user-friendly GUI was implemented.
1.1 Graph-based Design Languages
Inspired by natural languages, graph-based design languages (GBDLs) make it

possible to digitally represent the whole design process in engineering in a new
way. GBDLs are essentially based on a set of vocabulary and rules that are
applied in a defined sequence [2,3]. The philosophical justification for the con-
nection between languages and engineering is derived in [4], stating that “a new

A User-friendly Planning Tool for Assembly Sequence Optimization 29
device or method is composed of the available components – the vocabulary – of a

domain. In this sense, a domain forms a language; and a new technological arti-
fact constructed from components of the domain is an utterance in the language
of the domain” [4]. The representation of the design in a GBDL is a graph that
expresses the topological arrangement of the vocabulary. The vocabulary itself is
a formal model (i.e. an ontology) of the domain in the form of a class diagram.
The available vocabulary is combined in rules. The rules can then be executed in
a defined order (in a production system) by the design compiler and is translated
into the design graph. From this central model, the domain-specific models can
automatically be transformed (i.e. design graph to CAD). Figure 1 illustrates the
information architecture and the role of the individual components.
Fig. 1. Information architecture of graph-based design languages [5]
The compilation of the vocabulary with an individual rule sequence to a

complete system model (i.e. a digital model of the assembly as will be shown
later in this paper) leads to a digital design method for a specific problem. For a
detailed description of the functionality of GBDLs, the reader is referred to [5].
1.2 Representation of Assembly Systems

According to the VDI Guideline 2860 “Assembly and Handling Technology” [6],
assembly is defined as the sum of all processes that serve to assemble geometri-
cally defined bodies. These include handling, controlling, joining, adjusting and
special operations. Figure 2 shows the classification scheme of these processes.
Each of these five main groups can be subdivided into sub-processes which in
turn split in subgroups (neglected for clarity). For the digital representation of
the assembly process in the presented framework, all aforementioned assembling
methods are modeled as vocabulary and serve as an ontology for the GBDL.
1.3 Petri Nets

A Petri net can be represented as a directed graph in which nodes called places
and transitions are connected by edges [10]. Places are drawn as circles and repre-
sent passive elements (e.g. presence of a component), while transitions are drawn
30
Assembling
Handling Controlling Joining Adjusting

Special Operations
(VDI 2860) (VDI 2860) (DIN 8593) (DIN 8580)
− Storing − Inspecting − Assembling − By forming − Marking − Covering

D. Schopper and C. Tonhäuser
− Quantity changing − Measuring − Filling − By processing amorphous materials − Heating − Honing

− Moving − By mechanical means − By seperating − Cooling − Unpacking
− Saving − By forming processing − By joining balancing parts − Cleaning − Oiling
− Controlling − By processing amorphous materials − By post-treatment − Deburring − Spaying
− By welding − Printing − Sealing
− By soldering or brazing
− By means of adhesive bonding
− By textile means
Fig. 2. Hierarchy of assembling [6]

as rectangles to model activities (e.g. manufacturing steps). The dynamic behav-

ior of the modeled system is represented by a transition firing which means that
an activity is executed. This firing can be triggered if the necessary preconditions
marked by so-called labels are met. In this manner Petri nets ensure a correct
dynamic behavior of the modeled system, since the existence or non-existence of
relevant labels controls the workflow. The modelling of manufacturing systems
is one of the oldest applications [7–9].
2 Implementation
For the implementation of the user-friendly planning tool for assembly sequence
optimization two elementary building blocks are combined in a framework: A
graphical user interface (GUI) for Petri net input definition and a core GBDL
for model execution and optimization. The core GBDL consists of a Unified
Modeling Language (UML) based representation of Petri nets and assembly
systems (see Sect. 1.2), an executable rule-based activity diagram for model-to-
model transformation into a design graph and lastly the optimization code.
2.1 Graphical User Interface

For the assembly sequence optimization within the presented framework, an ini-
tial input of the system in form of a Petri net has to be given. In GBDLs this
would normally require the formulation of graphical rules for model-to-model
transformation which in turn would be executed and generate the Petri net
model. Since the formulation of the rules requires a certain familiarity with
GBDLs, an easy-to-use GUI was implemented for this initial manual task. The
user is kept away from rule modeling and does not need to have any prior knowl-
edge about UML and GBDLs. The GUI is therefore not an essential part of the
framework, but is indeed crucial for the aforementioned user-friendliness.
The first step in the GUI is the specification of all given assembly processes,
resources and product parts. The assembly process definition is based on the
given assembly systems ontology (see Sect. 1.2) whereas the resources and prod-
uct parts can be entered in any specification standard. Company specific informa-
tion such as part number, operating costs per time, acquisition costs, resource
availability and further criteria can be defined and stored as well. If already
done, this step can be skipped and the specifications can be loaded into the
model instead. Based on this input in a next step user specific Petri nets can be
modeled including all dependencies in a specially provided modeling field. This
task is simply done by drag and drop activities. The defined Petri net is finally
saved in a separate file and can be loaded anytime for reuse or adaption. After
these steps have been performed the input is ready for use.
In the future, the GUI will be extended by an advanced selection menu to
define the optimization goal and the optimization method1 . After the execution
of the framework the found solution is given as output via the GUI.
1
In our example the assembly time is minimized and a simple depth first search is
implemented.
32 D. Schopper and C. Tonhäuser
2.2 Graph-based Design Language for Assembly Planning

As described in Sect. 1.1, the representation of a domain is realized via a class
diagram. The presented GBDL for assembly sequence optimization contains two
of them: One for the representation of the Petri net structure, the other for the
representation of the assembly system structure (see Sect. 1.2). Since Petri nets
can be formulated on a very high level of abstraction, only the two classes Place
and Transition are needed. The generation and processing of data is modeled
by an activity diagram. Figure 3 shows an overview of the framework.
Fig. 3. Framework for assembly sequence optimization
On the upper left side you can see the Petri net class diagram. It becomes
apparent that a Place is always a representation of a product entity which can be
a single component, a module (assembly of two or more components) or the final
product. For this purpose the attribute category can be set to COMPONENT,
MODULE or PRODUCT. The class Transition represents any assembly pro-
cess. The dependency between a transition and the given assembly systems class
diagram is enforced using predefined group and subgroup attributes. The val-
ues they can take are directly linked to the assembly systems ontology. The
Transition class also has a nextTransition association, which is used to build
up the search tree when using the depth first search.
On the right hand side of Fig. 3 the implemented activity diagram containing
the GUI call, the model transformation into a design graph and the optimization
algorithm is shown. The diamond-shaped symbol stands for a decision node that
ensures that the program will run without executing the following rules if the
GUI is closed without further instructions. The TransferData subprogram reads
all data from the GUI and performs the transformation. This is done by multiple
instantiations of the aforementioned classes and associations.
The result is a so called design graph, where each node represents an object
and each edge represents a link between two objects. The design graph is shown
in Fig. 3 on the left hand side of the bottom window. The Optimization subpro-
gram contains a simple depth first search optimization and creates a search tree
as can be seen on the right hand side of the lower window. This tree represents
all successful2 assembly sequences implied in the Petri net. At the same time
the optimization is done by evaluating and comparing measures of interest for
all sequences. The Optimization sub program can be extended easily.
In the future more efficient search methods can be integrated here. However
the possibilities go far beyond a simple search of the Petri net. The rule-based
structure makes it possible to delete, add or replace entire parts of the design
graph. Since the rules are able to automatically identify certain parts of the
graph, further heuristics can be implemented to restructure the graph and opti-
mize it in this way. The presented framework combines the following advantages:
– The framework is based on UML: The UML is the dominant language for
modeling software systems. It ensures a manageable and clear representation
of data through the integration of standardized hierarchical structures.
– The execution of the framework is rule based: The rule-based structure
enables a completely new type of optimization, since the given Petri net can
be completely restructured within an optimization heuristic.
– The model is represented as a graph: The graph representation allows the
application of all graph algorithms already existing in literature.
– The framework is implemented as GBDL: GBDLs can be formulated for any
domain. They are equally suited for the representation of the product to be
produced or the manufacturing resources. If further GBDLs are available for
these domains, the assembly planning can easily be linked to them.
– The framework enables the integration of a GUI: Users of the framework not
necessarily need to have knowledge about GBDLs. This is only required if the
framework shall be extended.
2.3 Workflow
Figure 4 provides an overview of the workflow of the whole framework. In the

first step, the assembly specific elements are defined as input by a user using
the GUI. These elements are then arranged into a Petri net (step 2). From
here the design language execution begins. The user-specific Petri net model is
automatically transformed into a design graph using an underlying GBDL (step
3). In step 4 the design graph is analyzed by a depth first search for optimization.
Synchronously to the generation of the search tree the search for the critical path
is executed. Note that any optimization algorithm could be used here instead.
2
In this context successful means that a product could be produced under the given
conditions.
Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
Sicilien gebracht. Der Corduan, der Saffian, das Chagrinleder und
die Juchten gaben ein vortreffliches Material für Bucheinbände ab.
Der Corduan (so nach der Stadt Cordova, von den Franzosen
Maroquin, von den Engländern Morocco genannt) ist ein narbiges
Ziegenleder, von dem sich der Saffian nur durch seine Glätte
unterscheidet. Der Chagrin (persisch Sagre) ist wie mit runden
Körnchen übersät, was durch Hineintreten von Samenkörnern
hervorgebracht wird. Juchten ist meist Rinds- oder Pferdeleder,
welches mit Laugen, Beizen und Farbstoffen behandelt und durch
Birkenöl geschmeidig gemacht wird.
Durch Verzierungen wurden die Lederflächen belebt, in der

ältesten Zeit sind diese gewöhnlich in das Leder eingeschnitten und
die vertieften Stellen mit Farbe ausgemalt. Der Grund wird öfters
punktiert oder mit kleinen eingetriebenen Verzierungen in Kreisform
ausgefüllt. Das feuchte Leder wurde auch mit dem Modellier-Eisen
plastisch bearbeitet und reiche Figurenbilder hergestellt. Manchmal
kam die Schrotmanier zur Anwendung. Von den mit Stanzen und
Rollen eingepressten Ornamenten wurde ein sehr freigebiger
Gebrauch gemacht. Die Ecken waren gewöhnlich mit, meist
durchbrochenen, Metallbeschlägen versehen. Spangen (Klausuren,
Schleissen), teils von Leder, teils von Metall, hielten die Deckel
zusammen. Die grossen Folianten waren ungemein schwer, ruhten
gewöhnlich auf Schrägpulten und waren oft in den Bibliotheken an
Ketten gelegt.
Den Übergang zur Renaissancezeit bilden

Die Einbände des
die Arbeiten, welche der ungarische König König Matthias
Matthias Corvinus in seiner ausgezeichneten Corvinus.
Bibliothek zu Ofen gesammelt hatte. Sämtliche
Bücher dieser Bibliothek, für welche jährlich 33000 Dukaten
verwendet wurden, wurden in Sammet oder Leder gebunden, mit
goldenen oder silbernen Spangen und mit dem Wappen des Königs
geschmückt. Dreissig Schreiber und Maler, darunter bedeutende
Künstler, waren regelmässig für die Bibliothek beschäftigt.
DIE LITTERARISCHE PRODUKTION[8]. Es Segensreicher

ist nicht die Aufgabe eines Handbuches der Einfluss der
Geschichte der Buchdruckerkunst, die Werke alle Buch-
druckerkunst.
aufzuzählen, welche den Pressen ihr Dasein
verdanken, noch weniger eine Kritik zu üben, aber es dürfte doch
geboten sein, in aller Kürze zu überblicken, in welcher Weise die
Presse und der Buchhandel sich bei der Verbreitung der
Erzeugnisse des Geistes in der ersten Zeit — der Periode der
Wiegendrucke (Inkunabeln) — beteiligten[9].
Musste auch die Presse in ihren Anfängen vielfach der

mystischen Schwärmerei, der pedantischen Scholastik und
spitzfindigen Dialektik sowie dem Aberglauben und der
Charlatanerie dienen, so dauerte es doch nicht lange, bis ihr
segensreicher Einfluss sich auf das ganze wissenschaftliche und
Kulturleben geltend machte. In allen Fächern entbrannte ein
Wettkampf der Gelehrten und Kunstverständigen, um durch die
Presse ihre Kenntnisse, Erfahrungen und Entdeckungen weiter zu
verbreiten, Irrtümer aufzuklären und die Fesseln des Wahnes zu
sprengen.
Als die segensreichste Wirkung der

Verbreitung der
Erfindung der Buchdruckerkunst ist die rasche heil. Schriften.
Durchführung der Reformation zu bezeichnen.
Die Presse bemächtigte sich sofort der heiligen Schriften, und wie
schon oben berichtet wurde waren nicht weniger als drei Ausgaben
der lateinischen Bibel die Hauptwerke des Erfinders und seiner
Geschäfts-Nachfolger. Zu diesen kamen die weiteren Bibel-
Ausgaben des Mentelin und des Eggesteyn in Strassburg, des
Günther Zainer und des Ant. Sorg in Augsburg, des Bernh. Richel in
Basel, des Ulrich Zell und des Nik. Götz in Köln, des Sweynheim und
Pannartz in Rom, des Sensenschmid und der Koberger in Nürnberg.
In Paris erschien die Bibel 1476, in Venedig 1475, in Neapel 1476;
deutsche Bibeln wurden verbreitet in Strassburg 1466, in Augsburg
1469, in Nürnberg 1471; Ausgaben in französischer, italienischer,
spanischer und holländischer Sprache gab es in den siebenziger
Jahren; plattdeutsche in Köln 1480, in Lübeck 1494; englische,
dänische, schwedische und polnische Bibeln folgten zu Anfang des
xvi. Jahrhunderts. Wie es die lateinisch gedruckte Bibel war, welche
Luther das Licht anzündete, so war es wieder die deutsch gedruckte
Bibel in Luthers unübertroffener Übersetzung, die im Verein mit
seinen eigenen Schriften und denen Philipp Melanchthons, Ullrich
Zwinglis, Joh. Calvins, John Knox' und anderer Reformatoren, unter
das Volk ein helles, nicht mehr zu verlöschendes Licht verbreiten.
Neben der Bibel wurden namentlich die

Die Kirchenväter
Kirchenväter in korrekten und schönen und Scholastiker.
Ausgaben gedruckt, als: Lactantius, Augustinus,
Eusebius, Nemesius, Clemens von Alexandrien u. a. War der Nutzen
dieser und ähnlicher Werke für die Wissenschaft auch kein
durchweg unzweifelhafter, so wurde durch sie doch manche
nützliche Kenntnis verbreitet. Selbst die Häupter der Scholastik
Thomas von Aquino, Michael Scotus, Albertus Magnus blieben nicht
ohne fruchtbringende Anregungen, nicht zu vergessen Roger Baco.
Gross waren die Fortschritte auf dem
Gebiete der klassischen Litteratur und der Die klassische
Philologie. Italien, dessen Boden am besten Litteratur.
vorgeebnet war, ging voran; es folgten in
ruhmwürdiger Weise namentlich Frankreich und die Niederlande.
Zuerst kamen die römischen Klassiker an die Reihe, dann die
griechischen in lateinischer Übersetzung, schliesslich die Ausgaben
in der griechischen Ursprache. Die ersten Förderungsmittel der
Linguistik waren die Donate, denen dann viele andere Grammatiken
folgten.
Die Zahl der Klassiker-Ausgaben und der Kommentare war eine

bedeutende. Den Anfang machte Cicero de officiis (1465 bei Fust
und Schöffer); bis zum Jahre 1500 erschienen verschiedene Werke
Ciceros zusammen in über 100 Ausgaben. Den Vorrang in dem
Klassikerdruck behauptete Venedig, dann folgten Rom, Florenz,
Mailand, Neapel, Bologna, Paris, Köln, Augsburg, Nürnberg, Ulm.
Die römischen Dichter erschienen fast alle in den ersten 25 Jahren
der Kunst, die griechischen in den letzten Dezennien des xv. und in
den ersten des xvi. Jahrhunderts. Der Lieblingsdichter war Virgil
(1469 bei Sweynheim), von welchem im Jahre 1500 schon siebenzig
Ausgaben existierten.
Unter den Philosophen und

Philosophen und
Naturforschern stand Aristoteles Naturforscher.
begreiflicherweise obenan. Seine Werke
erschienen, jedoch sehr entstellt, in lateinischer Übersetzung nach
syrischen oder arabischen Bearbeitungen; eine vollständige
lateinische Ausgabe nach dem Originale erblickte erst 1473 das
Licht durch Andreas de Asola in Venedig; die erste Original-Ausgabe
brachte Aldus Manutius (1495-1498) in 5 Bänden; Plato fand erst
später Anerkennung.
Auch die Historiker, Geographen und Mathematiker der

Alten wurden verbreitet. Bemerkenswert sind namentlich die
Ausgaben des Ptolomäus mit 27 grossen in Kupfer gestochenen
Karten von Arnold Buckink e Germania und des Euklid in der
prachtvollen Ausstattung durch Ratdolt (1482).
Dass die Typographie sich auch der neuen

Die Reise-
Erd- und Reisebeschreibung zuwendete, war beschreibung.
schon durch die einflussreichen Ereignisse der
Kreuzzüge und der grossen Entdeckungen gegeben. Die Kreuzzüge
hatten nicht nur die Streiter für die Kirche massenhaft in Bewegung
gesetzt, sondern auch manche friedliche und wissbegierige
Reiselustige, Minstrels und auch Abenteurer aller Art wurden nach
dem Orient gelockt. Dadurch entstanden nicht nur jene romantischen
Legenden von dem heiligen Lande, von den Heldenthaten und
Abenteuern der Ritter, sondern auch Beschreibungen von Reisen
und Erlebnissen auf letzteren. Öfters gingen auch Gesandtschaften
an die Herrscher Asiens. Berühmt geworden vor allen Reisenden in
Asien ist der Venetianer Marco Polo. Eine italienische Ausgabe
seiner Reisen ist erst aus dem Jahre 1496 bekannt; ob eine frühere
existierte, weiss man nicht, eine deutsche, nach einer lateinischen
Ausgabe veranstaltete Übertragung war schon 1477 vorhanden. Die
Reise Bernh. Breydenbachs fand grossen Anklang.
Eine noch grössere Bedeutung für die

Die Entdecker.
geographische Litteratur als die Kreuzzüge hatten
die grossen Entdeckungen von Christoph
Columbus, Amerigo Vespuzzi, Fernando Cortez in Amerika, sowie
von Vasco de Gama, Albuquerque in Afrika und Indien. Berichte über
diese Entdeckungen lieferten teils die Entdecker selbst, teils Andere.
Bedeutend für die Kosmographie und die Kartographie war Martin
Behaim aus Nürnberg (1436-1507).
Weniger anziehend waren die

Die Chroniken.
Erscheinungen auf dem Gebiete der
Geschichte. Die Annalen und Chroniken waren
meist trockene kritiklose Aufzählungen von Daten, oder mehr oder
weniger dichterisch ausgeschmückte Erzählungen von den
Heldenthaten der Ritter. Durch ihre reiche Illustrierung
epochemachend war die Schedelsche Chronik.
Unter den Werken der Jurisprudenz waren

Die juristische
namentlich die Institutiones juris Justiniani, zuerst Litteratur.
von Schöffer 1468 gedruckt, welche in
zahlreichen Ausgaben verbreitet wurden.
Die Werke auf dem Gebiete der gesamten

Die Naturwissen-
Naturwissenschaften und der Heilkunde schaften und die
blieben zumeist ohne grossen Wert. Den Anfang Heilkunde.
machte auch hier der Druck der Schriften der
alten römischen, griechischen und arabischen Ärzte, namentlich des
sogenannten Fürsten der Ärzte, Avicenna, von dessen Schriften
bereits vor 1500 mehr als 25 Ausgaben im Druck erschienen waren.
Bedeutende wissenschaftliche Ausbeute geben sie nicht. Leerer
Dogmatismus, Alchemismus und Astrologismus hemmten die freie
Forschung. Die grossen geographischen Entdeckungen sollten
jedoch auch nicht ohne wohlthätigen Einfluss auf die
Naturwissenschaft und ihre Litteratur bleiben, man lernte neue
Pflanzen, neue Heilmittel und leider auch neue Krankheiten kennen.
Es entstanden hierdurch die zahlreichen mit Illustrationen
geschmückten Kräuterbücher und Gärten der Gesundheit.
Italien hatte, wie oben schon erwähnt wurde,

Die Poesie.
noch vor der Erfindung der Buchdruckerkunst
seine grossen Dichter: Dante Alighieri,
Boccaccio und Petrarca hervorgebracht. Dantes Divina commedia
wurde zum erstenmale 1472 in Foligno gedruckt; seine
gesammelten Gedichte 1500. Boccaccios Decamerone erschien
schon 1470 und dann in sehr vielen Ausgaben, unter welchen die
berühmte Valdarfersche (1471). Die erste Gesamtausgabe des
Boccaccio datiert aus dem Jahre 1490. Petrarcas Sonetti e trionfi
wurden 1471 durch den Druck veröffentlicht.
An die Meisterwerke der Poesie Italiens reichen die

dichterischen Erzeugnisse der anderen Länder nicht heran. Mit
wenigen Ausnahmen bewegen sich diese in der breiten, epischen
Romantik des Rittertums, in den Heldenliedern, in den lyrisch-
elegischen Gesängen der Troubadours und Minnesänger, in den,
teils scherzhaften, teils ernsten Volksliedern oder in langweiligen
didaktischen Gedichten. Unter den humoristischen und satirischen
Schriften macht namentlich Sebastian Brants Narrenschiff mit seinen
Illustrationen Epoche.
Der BUCHHANDEL. Mit den steigenden

Trennung der
Bedürfnissen der Lesewelt und der Verbreitung Buchdruckerei
der Pressen selbst nach kleineren Städten vom Buchhandel.
musste die Vereinigung des Schriftgiessers,
Buchdruckers, Verlegers und Händlers in einer Person von selbst
fallen und die einzelnen Geschäftszweige lösten sich nach und nach
vom Stamme ab. Zuerst musste der Buchdrucker-Verleger bei der
Schwierigkeit des Betriebs Persönlichkeiten suchen, die seine
Fabrikate an das Publikum verhandelten. So nahmen schon Peter
Schöffer den Conrad Henliff; Joh. Mentel den Adolf Rusch als
Bevollmächtigte und Teilnehmer an, welche weite Reisen machten,
um die Bücher an den Mann zu bringen, wozu sie sich auch der
Kaufleute bedienten, die Bücher zugleich mit anderen Waren
führten. Neben dem kaufmännisch organisierten Vertrieb fand auch
das Kolportieren, das Webern, statt. Schon im xv. Jahrhundert
fanden sich bedeutende Buchhändler. Niederlagen wurden an den
Knotenpunkten des Verkehrs errichtet, und gegen Ende des
Jahrhunderts war der Buchhandel in Venedig, Lyon, Frankfurt am
Main schon von grosser Bedeutung. Auch Köln war, wenn als
Verlagsplatz auch unter dem drückenden Einfluss der geistlichen
Bevormundung stehend, ein wichtiger Ort namentlich für die
Vermittelung des Absatzes nach den reichen Niederlanden, wo die
Buchhändler der angesehenen St. Lucas-Gilde angehörten, und
nach England, wo indes der Buchhandel sich nur langsam
entwickelte, da es keine Bücher in Tausch anzubieten hatte. Um
bedeutende Werke erscheinen lassen zu können, wurde öfters zur
Association unter Buchdruckern und Buchhändlern geschritten. Man
teilte dann gewöhnlich die Auflagen.
Als die Bedeutung der neuen Kunst den

Die Zensur.
geistlichen und weltlichen Behörden klar
geworden war, fand sich, als unwillkommener
Gast, baldigst die Zensur ein, schon in den sechziger Jahren in
Köln, später in Mainz. Die Formel in Köln lautete: admissum ac
approbatum ab alma universitate Coloniensi. Ob jedoch vom Beginn
ab die Einholung der Approbation ein Zwang war, oder ob diese
mehr als eine Empfehlung nachgesucht wurde, ist nicht ganz klar.
Gegen das Ende des xv. Jahrh. findet man jedoch in allen deutschen
Erzdiözesen eine wirkliche geistliche Zensur eingeführt.
[1] Unter den eingangs erwähnten Werken enthalten namentlich

die von W. Blades und Th. de Vinne Beachtenswertes über die
ältere Technik.
[2] Eigentliche Beschreibung aller Stände auf Erden etc. Frankfurt
a. M. 1568. Mit Stichen von Amann und Versen von Hans
Sachssen.
[3] Der Verlagsbuchhändler und Redacteur H. Klemm in Dresden,
der mit grossen Kosten in einer verhältnismässig sehr kurzen Zeit
eine bedeutende Anzahl typographischer Seltenheiten sammelte,
hat auch die in einem Keller des früheren Hofes „Zum Jungen“ in
Mainz aufgefundenen Bruchstücke einer Schraubenpresse
erworben, von welchen einerseits (vergl. K. Klein, Über
Gutenberg und das im ersten Druckhause aufgefundene
Fragment der ersten Druckerpresse. Mit 2 Abbd. Mainz 1851)
angenommen wird, dass sie der „ersten“, noch aus Strassburg
stammenden Presse Gutenbergs angehörten, was andererseits
angezweifelt wird, und zwar namentlich auf Grund der Inschrift J.
MCDXLI G., die in den erhaltenen Oberbalken eingeschnitten ist,
indem man sowohl an der Jahreszahl und der ungewohnten Art
diese zu schreiben (CD statt CCCC) als auch an den römischen
Buchstaben J. G. Anstoss nimmt. Herr Klemm hat die Presse
nach seinen Annahmen vervollständigen lassen. Wie nahe er,
namentlich in Betreff des, aus vier Stücken sinnreich konstruierten
Rahmens, der sich leicht für verschiedene Formate einrichten
lässt, der Wirklichkeit gekommen, ist ja nicht zu entscheiden.
Nach H. Klemms Konjektur ist mit den „vier Stücken“, um deren
Auseinandernahme (vergl. S. 25) man bei Dritzehns Tod so sehr
besorgt war, ein solcher Rahmen gemeint.
[4] De la Lande, Art de faire le Papier. 2. Ed. Paris 1820. — De
la Lande, Art de faire le parchemin. Paris 1762. (Beide Werke
auch deutsch.) — G. Peignot, Essai sur l'hist. du parchemin et
du velin. Paris 1812. — J. D. F. Sotzmann, Über ältere
Papierfabrikation. Leipzig 1846 (Serapeum). — Über
Papierzeichen vergl. die in der Einführung erwähnten Werke von
Sotheby und Weigel sowie Ames, Typogr. Antiquities, ferner: G.
Fischer, Versuch die Papierzeichen als Kennzeichen etc.
anzuwenden. Nürnberg 1804; La Serna Santander, Les livres
impr. dans le XV Siècle. Brüssel 1803 (Suppl. zu der
Beschreibung der Bibliothek des Verfassers). Über Papierzeichen
in Italien: Esame sui principii della etc. typogr. Lucca 1797.
[5] Mit dem tierischen Pergament ist nicht zu verwechseln das
Pergamentpapier (vegetabilische Pergament), das in der neueren
Zeit eine ziemlich grosse Verwendung findet.
[6] D. E. Beyschlag, Beiträge zur Kunstgesch. von Nördlingen.
Heft IV u. V. Nördlingen 1798-1801.
[7] Rich. Steche, Zur Geschichte des Bucheinbandes. (Archiv z.
G. d. Buchh. I.) Leipzig 1878. — G. Peignot, Essai etc. sur la
reliure des livres. Dijon 1834. — J. Cundall, On bookbinding
ancient and modern. London 1880. — Monuments inédits ou peu
connus, faisant partie du Cabinet du G. Libri. London 1864. — M.
Michel, La relieure française depuis l'invention de l'impr. Paris
1880.
[8] Von den vielen bibliographischen Werken, welche die früheren
Erzeugnisse der Presse verzeichnen und zumteil näher
beschreiben, nennen wir nur einige wenige der hervorragendsten
und vollständigsten, da kaum anzunehmen ist, dass viele der dem
Buchdruckfach angehörenden Leser dieses Handbuches in
solchen Werken Belehrung suchen werden, und andere, dem
Litteraten- und Buchhändlerberufe sich widmende, die betreffende
Litteratur kennen:
Mich. Maittaire, Annales typographici ab artis inventæ origine ad

Annum MD. (Die bis zum Jahr 1500 erschienenen Werke
bezeichnet man im engeren Sinn als Wiegendrucke, Inkunabeln.)
Tom. I des ganzen Werkes. Haag 1719, vervollständigt durch die
Ed. nova (als Tom. IV). Amsterdam 1733. — Georg Wolfg.
Panzer, Ann. typ. ab etc. ad annum MDCXXXVI. 11 Bände.
Nürnberg 1793-1803. — Ludw. Hain, Repertorium Bibliogr. ab
etc. usque ad annum MD. Stuttgart 1826-1838. — J. Ch. Brunet,
Manuel du libraire et de l'amateur de Livres. 5. Aufl. 6 vols. Paris
1860 u. flg. — J. G. Th. Grässe, Trésor de livres rares et
précieux. Dresden 1859 u. flg. Des näheren verweisen wir auf Dr.
Julius Petzholdt, Bibliotheca Bibliographica, Kritisches
Verzeichnis der das Gesamtgebiet der Bibliographie betreffenden
Litteratur des In- und Auslandes. 938 S. gr. 8. Der Umfang
beweist schon den enormen Reichtum dieser Litteratur.
[9] Ch. F. Harless, Die Litteratur der ersten hundert Jahre nach
der Erfindung der Typographie. Leipzig 1840. — A. Kirchhoff,
Die Handschriftenhändler des Mittelalters. 2. Ausg. Leipzig 1853.
— A. Kirchhoff, Beiträge zur Gesch. des deutschen Buchh. 2
Bde. Leipzig 1851-1853; weitere Beiträge 1855. — Dr. F.
Sachse, Die Anfänge der Büchercensur in Deutschland. Leipzig
1869.
[←]
ZWEITES BUCH.
GLANZPERIODE UND VERFALL
DER
BUCHDRUCKERKUNST
1500—1750.
EINFÜHRUNG IN DAS ZWEITE BUCH. [←]
IR haben in dem vorstehenden gesehen, wie

überraschend schnell die Verbreitung der
Buchdruckerkunst durch alle Länder Europas sich vollzog,
auch die Verhältnisse und Gründe kennen gelernt, welche
zu diesen ausserordentlichen Erfolgen beitrugen. Wir treten jetzt an
die zweite, die schönste, Periode der Typographie heran, in welcher
sie ihren Weltgang vollendete und in Europa zur hohen Blüte
gelangte.
Gelehrte von Ansehen wenden sich, teils direkt als praktische

Ausüber, teils indirekt als fördernde Herausgeber, Redaktoren und
Korrektoren, der Buchdruckerei zu, als dem vollendetsten Mittel,
Aufklärung überallhin zu verbreiten. Sie schaffen durch dieselbe
zahlreiche Ausgaben der Klassiker und andere Werke, deren
äussere Ausstattung mit dem inneren Wert harmoniert. Eine Anzahl
von Familien, die man als den Adel der Buchdrucker bezeichnen
kann, erwirbt durch treffliche Arbeiten Ruhm und bewahrt diesen
durch lange Reihen von Jahren. Gebildete Herrscher, in Deutschland
voran der Kaiser Maximilian i. und die sächsischen Fürsten, in
Frankreich Franz i. und fast alle seine Nachfolger, verschmähen es
nicht der Typographie und den mit ihr verwandten Gewerben ihre
persönliche Aufmerksamkeit zu schenken.
Die Buchdruckerkunst ist in den Dienst der Wissenschaft

getreten, sie ist ihr aber mehr eine sorgsame Genossin denn eine
rastlos für alles schaffende Magd.
Die schönsten Früchte der ersten Hälfte des xvi. Jahrhunderts

reifen jedoch erst durch die enge Vereinigung der Xylographie mit
der Typographie. Bedeutende Künstler, die zum Teil nur durch die
Holzschnitte ihren Ruf haben, welche, wenn nicht von ihnen selbst,
so doch unter ihrer Leitung ausgeführt wurden, widmen sich mit
Vorliebe der Illustration. So entstehen sowohl viele, heute noch
mustergiltige ganze Werke, als zahllose Einzelblätter.
Diese Hinneigung zum Holzschnitt war nicht dem Zufall oder nur
der Bequemlichkeit, für ihn zu zeichnen, zuzuschreiben, sondern sie
lag in den Verhältnissen tiefer begründet. Es konnte nicht anders
sein, als dass die Maler der Reformationszeit, welche Zeugen der
Segnungen der Erfindung Gutenbergs waren, die populärste Kunst,
die Xylographie, deren Erzeugnisse so leicht und so weit durch die
Druckerpresse verbreitet werden konnten, freudig begrüssen und
begierig eine Gelegenheit ergreifen würden, durch welche auch sie
berufen waren, an dem grossen Werke der Reformation thätig
mitzuwirken.
So wurde das Zeitalter der Reformation, wie die Gegenwart,

zugleich ein Zeitalter der Illustration und die glückliche Verbindung
von Bild und Wort hat denn auch gar viel zur schnellen Verbreitung
der Bildung durch alle Schichten beigetragen. Die Geschichte der
illustrierenden Künste, speziell der Xylographie, ist deshalb nicht von
der Geschichte der Typographie dieser Periode zu trennen.
Bei den in der Gegenwart mächtig sich kundgebenden ernsten

Bestrebungen, die zur Zeit der Renaissance bestandene innige
Verbindung der Kunst mit dem Gewerbe wieder herzustellen, musste
sich notwendigerweise auch die Aufmerksamkeit aller strebenden
Jünger Gutenbergs den goldenen Tagen der Druckkunst zuwenden.
Ehrt man auch die vorangegangenen Anfänge der druckenden

Künste als die ältesten ehrwürdigen Denkmale, verfolgt man auch
mit lebhafter Teilnahme die allmählichen Fortschritte der Kunst bis
zum Beginn des xvi. Jahrhunderts, so kann doch nur ein einseitiges
Schwärmen für die Vergangenheit in diesen Leistungen — mit
wenigen Ausnahmen — nachahmungswürdige Vorbilder erblicken.
Anders verhält es sich jedoch mit den Werken derjenigen

Periode, vor welcher wir jetzt stehen. Hier haben wir es nicht mehr
mit nur historisch interessantem oder relativ gutem zu thun, sondern
mit Erzeugnissen der besten Schriftschneider, Buchdrucker und
Holzschneider und mit meisterlichen Schöpfungen noch heute nicht
übertroffener Künstler. Die Werke der Renaissancezeit bilden einen
Born, aus dem man immer und immer schöpfen kann, ohne dass ein
Versiegen bemerkbar wäre.
Deshalb kann auch ein Zurückgreifen der Schriftschneider auf

die besten Schriften des späteren Mittelalters oder ein Hervorholen
der, lange Zeit in den Kunstsammlungen und Bibliotheken für das
grosse Publikum begraben gewesenen Ornament- oder sonstigen
Illustrations-Schätze nicht als ein Rückschritt zu etwas „veraltetem“
bezeichnet werden. Nach den Ausschreitungen über die Grenzen
des Schönen, des Zweckmässigen und der wirklichen Fortschritte
hinaus, an welche die neuere Zeit ebenso reich ist wie an wirklichen
Verbesserungen, trat das Bedürfnis ein, die ruhigen, einfachen und
doch kräftigen Formen der Glanzperiode wieder aufzusuchen, und
was die Illustration betrifft, so kehren Künstler ersten Ranges mit
Befriedigung zu der edlen einfachen Weise eines Dürer oder Holbein
zurück.
Damit sei aber nicht behauptet, dass in dieser Richtung nicht

das rechte Mass vielfach überschritten werde und dass nicht
sklavische Nachahmungssucht auf Irrwege geführt habe, aber im
grossen und ganzen bleibt es doch wahr, dass der denkende
Schriftgiesser, der illustrierende Künstler und der Typograph in der
Renaissancezeit die reichste Anregung und schönste Ermunterung
für ein gedeihliches Schaffen auf ihren Gebieten suchen können und
finden werden.
Darum bedarf es auch nicht der Entschuldigung, wenn wir bei

dieser bevorzugten Zeit und den hervorragenden Persönlichkeiten
derselben mit Vorliebe etwas länger verweilen; mussten doch gar zu
bald fast in allen Ländern die Folgen der kirchlichen und politischen
Spaltungen sich kund geben und der helle Glanz dem mehr oder
weniger tiefen Dunkel des Verfalls weichen.
Leider sollte dieser Rückfall auf das empfindlichste das

Heimatland der Erfindung treffen. Der Bauernkrieg, die langen
inneren religiösen Kämpfe, vor allem der unselige dreissigjährige
Krieg und die verwüstenden Züge der Franzosen schlugen der
geistigen Entwickelung Deutschlands und seinem nationalen
Wohlstande tiefe Wunden, die nur langsam vernarben konnten. Erst
zu Ende der vorliegenden Periode zeigten sich der aufgehende
Stern des preussischen Staates und die Anfänge der neueren
nationalen Litteratur als Vorboten des Fortschrittes auf dem Gebiete
der politischen und geistigen Machtstellung Deutschlands.
Je höher der Gipfel war, den Kunst und Bildung in Italien

erreicht hatten, um so tiefer war der Fall, der auch hier eintrat. Zu
gleicher Zeit seufzte Spanien unter dem Joche der Jesuiten und den
Greueln der, den physischen und geistigen Tod verbreitenden
Inquisition.
Frankreich musste unter politischen und Religionskämpfen

bluten, erreichte jedoch trotzdem in dieser Periode unter der
glanzvollen Regierung Ludwigs xiv. sein höchstes äusseres
Ansehen und seinen litterarischen Zenith. Infolgedessen sinkt die
Typographie hier auch nicht so schnell und erst zu einer Zeit, wo wir
bereits von einem beginnenden Wiederaufblühen in anderen
Ländern, namentlich in England, zu berichten haben.
Hier war eine Regierungsumwälzung der anderen gefolgt und

die Presse hatte in schweren Fesseln gelegen, bis gegen den
Schluss der Periode die Freiheit für immer einen festen Boden
gewann, auf dem dann auch die Buchdruckerkunst sich eben so
mächtig wie schnell entfaltete.
Im skandinavischen Norden wüteten die verwandten Stämme

gegen einander und Schweden verzehrte ausserdem seine Kräfte in
dem dreissigjährigen Krieg und in den Kämpfen mit Russland. Die
Türken überschwemmten Ungarn und Österreich. Schwere und
weitverbreitete Seuchen glichen in ihren Folgen den Kriegen.
Somit war ein grosser Teil des zweiten und des dritten
Jahrhunderts der Buchdruckerkunst eine, dieser sehr ungünstige
Zeit, in der sie nothwendigerweise leiden musste, und erst das vierte
Jahrhundert sollte sie zum neuen Glanz wieder erstehen sehen.
Werke, welche ein Gesamtbild dieser interessanten Periode der

typographischen und xylographischen Thätigkeit geben, oder auch
nur die Geschichte der einzelnen Hauptländer in ihrer Totalität
schildern, besitzen wir nicht. Dagegen giebt es eine stattliche Reihe
erschöpfender Schilderungen der Wirksamkeit hervorragender
Familien oder einzelner Persönlichkeiten, welche den Kern dieser
Zeit bilden. Was die Meister der Typographie betrifft, so befindet sich
das Ausland in einer besseren Lage als Deutschland, welches nicht
einmal ein biographisch-kritisches Werk über die Familie Breitkopf
aufzuweisen hat. Es sind namentlich die Franzosen, die sich durch
solche Arbeiten Verdienste erworben haben.
Dahingegen bietet Deutschland vorzügliche Werke über seine

grossen Künstler, die auch für die Illustration thätig gewesen sind.
Solche Quellen des In- und Auslandes werden an den betreffenden
Stellen angeführt, hier sei nur der bereits eingangs erwähnten
allgemeinen Schilderungen Jackson, Chattos und Firmin Didots
gedacht, sowie des, von Dr. Rob. Dohme herausgegebenen
Kollektiv-Werkes: „Kunst und Künstler des Mittelalters und der
Neuzeit“. 5 Bde. (Leipzig 1875-1881), das kritische Würdigungen
und biographische Skizzen fast aller der Kleinmeister, die für die
Illustration so Bedeutendes geschaffen haben, enthält.
Einen grossen Vorteil bieten die Kunstverfahren der Neuzeit:

Photographie, Lichtdruck, Photolithographie und Zink-Hochätzung,
durch die Möglichkeit, mittels derselben eine Anzahl von Werken aus
der Renaissancezeit, die auf Grund ihrer Seltenheit und ihrer hohen
Preise nur einem kleinen Kreis zugänglich waren, in getreuen
Nachbildungen allgemein zu verbreiten; denn Werke, die wie R.
Weigels wertvolles „Holzschnitte berühmter Meister“ (Leipzig 1857),
vorzügliche Nachbildungen in Xylographie bringen, sind nur bei
grosser Opferwilligkeit des Verlegers möglich.
Unter den Kollektivwerken, welche durch die oben erwähnten

Verfahren eine reiche Auswahl des für den Typographen zu Studium
und Nacheiferung Geeigneten bringen, sind namentlich die von G.
Hirth in München und Leipzig herausgegebenen: „Der
Formenschatz der Renaissance 1500-1600“ und „Die
Bücherornamentik der Renaissance“ erwähnenswert.
Die Schriften der deutschen Fachgenossen aus älterer Zeit

geben in Bezug weder auf äussere noch innere Verhältnisse der
Buchdruckereien eine nennenswerte Ausbeute. Zu erwähnen sind:
J. H. G. Ernesti, „Die wol-eingerichtete Buchdruckerey“,

(Nürnberg 1721). Mit vielen deutschen, lateinischen und
orientalischen Schriften.
Chr. Fr. Gessner, „Die so nöthig als nützliche

Buchdruckerkunst und Schriftgiesserey“. 4 Teile. (Leipzig 1740-
1745). Ein reichhaltiges, fleissig zusammengetragenes Buch mit
vielen Illustrationen technischer und geschichtlicher Natur.
Ch. G. Täubel, „Theoretisch praktisches Wörterbuch der

Buchdruckerkunst und Schriftgiesserei“ (Wien 1805).
Höher stehen folgende Werke des Auslandes.
M. D. Fertel, La science pratique de l'imprimerie. Avec des fig.

2 Bde. (St. Omer 1723).
P. S. Fournier, Le Jeune, Manuel typographique. 2 Bände
(Paris 1764). Das auf vier Bände berechnete Werk wurde durch den
Tod des Verfassers unterbrochen.
Joseph Moxon, Mechanick Exercises; or the doctrine of Handy-

works, applied to the art of printing (London 1677-1696). Das Buch
ist sehr selten und Schreiber dieses nicht zurhand gewesen.
John Johnson, Typographia or the Printers Instructor. 2 Bde.

(London 1824), und Thomas Curson Hansard, Typographia
(London 1825), erschienen fast gleichzeitig und beide Verfasser
waren tüchtige Typographen.
C. H. Timperley, Encyclopaedia of literary and typographical

anecdote (London 1842) ist als eine vorsorglich gefüllte
Vorratskammer zu betrachten. Die unzähligen Artikel sind nach den
Jahreszahlen, aus allen Ländern untereinander, gereiht.
Ein sehr schätzbares Werk aus allerneuester Zeit ist:
E. C. Bigmore and C. W. H. Wyman, A Bibliography of printing

with notes and illustrations. I. Band. A-L (London 1880). Das Buch
enthält nicht nur eine reiche, wir möchten fast sagen überreiche,
typographische Bibliographie aller Länder von der ältesten Zeit bis
auf heute, sondern auch eine Menge von schätzbaren historischen
Notizen und Illustrationen. Die Fortsetzung des Werkes erscheint
vorerst in der von C. Wyman herausgegebenen vortrefflichen
Fachzeitschrift: Printing times and Lithographer.
Die bereits in dem i. Buch erwähnten Spezialgeschichten

einzelner Druckorte werden in dem ii. Buch nicht wiederholt.

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Sustainable Production and Applications of Waterborne

Application of Polymer Materials in Pavement Design Wei

Electrolytic Production of Al Si Alloys Theory and

Advances in Production Management Systems Artificial

Autonomous Vehicles and the Law How Each Field is

Technology for Business: Application of the Advances in

Electrolytic Production of Al Si Alloys Theory and

Nanomaterials: Application in Biofuels and Bioenergy

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/16199

ISSN 2524-7247 ISSN 2524-7255 (electronic)

Responsible Editor: Dr. Alexander Grün

Clemens Ackermann, Philipp Weißgraeber, and Frieder Heieck

Stuttgart Conference on Automotive Production: Advances

Stuttgart Philipp Weißgraeber

Part A New Approaches for Efﬁcient Production

Method for Data-Driven Assembly Sequence Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Part B Smart Production Systems and Data Services

On Automation Along the Automotive Wire Harness Value Chain . . . . 178

Part C Advances in Manufacturing Processes and Materials

A New Concept for Producing High Strength Aluminum

Part D New Concepts for Autonomous, Collaborative Intralogistics

Industrial Indoor Localization: Improvement of Logistics Processes

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495

Amon Göppert1(B) , Esben Schukat1 , Peter Burggräf1,2 , and Robert H. Schmitt1

Paul-Bonatz-Straße 9-11, 57076 Siegen, Germany

Abstract. The ongoing transition towards electro-mobility requires an increased

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE,

3 A Framework for Agile Hybrid Assembly Systems

Fig. 1. Benefits of matrix and line configuration combined in hybrid assembly

4 Use Case Development

Urs Leberle(B) and Yannick-Léon Weigelt

Robert Bosch GmbH, Robert-Bosch-Campus 1, 71272 Renningen, Germany

Abstract. An increasingly uncertain market environment, high product variety

1 Introduction and Motivation

2 State of the Art

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE,

Previous research to determine and evaluate the economic efficiency of adaptable

Input Black Box Output

Additional Equipment cost

Fig. 1. Description model for highly adaptable production systems

concept of the CESA3R system, consisting of mechatronic objects with standardized

CESA³R Screwing + Bonding 120.000 € 21.385 € 540 € 96 76 30 60

Screwing + Bonding 260.000 € 30.662 € 10.621 € 70.600 € 1.328 € 48 31 30 60

800 500.000 FLMS

600 400.000 Product C

5 Discussion and Evaluation

6 Summary and Outlook

Michael Trierweiler1,2(B) and Thomas Bauernhansl1,2

University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany

Abstract. Since the introduction of the assembly line in production around

1 Introduction and Motivation

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE,

2 Changeability of Matrix Manufacturing Systems

Producon Level Changeability Class

Table 1. Options of changes on system level of a MMS, based on [13]

Need for adaptions