Reproduction in Poultry, Egg formation, Structure, Incubation and Hatching

Dr ANANDA MANEGAR G
Professor & Head
Department of Animal Sciences
College of Agriculture, GKVK
UAS, Bengaluru-560065
 Male and Female reproductive structures
• Male reproductive structures include testes, vas deferens, cloaca and the rudimentary copulatory organ
• Birds are unique among animals as they reproduce through an egg which contains all the necessary components for the
commencement and maintenance of life process during embryonic development
• The hen actually does bulk of the reproductive work prior to the laying since the egg laid provides all
the nutrients necessary to create and maintain early life of the embryo
• The female reproductive system consist of Ovary and Oviduct
• At the time of early embryonic development, two ovaries and two oviducts exist. But the right set atrophies, leaving only
the left ovary and oviduct at hatching
 Process of Egg Formation
• The Yolk is not the true reproductive cell, but a source of food material from which the live cell (blastoderm)
and its resultant embryo partially receives its nutrients for growth
• When the female attains sexual maturity - mature ovum inside the graffian follicle grows rapidly and reaches
its full size in about 9 to 10 days due to the action of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) produced by the
anterior pituitary
• The Yolk weight also increases 7 days prior to ovulation due to the deposition of yolk material over the ovum
in concentric and alternate layers of white and yellow of which, white layer of yolk is deposited during the
night and the yellow layer during the day
• As the ovum increases in size, due to the deposition of yolk, the nucleus migrates from the centre of the ovum
to the periphery and lies underneath the vitelline membrane
• The nucleus of the infertile egg is called 'germ spot' and that of fertile egg 'germ disc'
• The anterior pituitary releases Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) that regulates the growth and maturity of
graffian follicle and Luteinising hormone (LH) that helps to release the ovum by rupture of graffian follicle
• The liberation of ovum from graffian follicle is called Ovulation
• Ovulation occurs normally 14 to 75 minutes after oviposition (act of laying)
 Process of Egg Formation
• Most of the albumen is formed in the magnum, so it is known as the albumen-secreting region of the oviduct.
Peristaltic movement of the magnum pushes the ovum to the isthmus
• Chalazae, the egg protein formed in the magnum, becomes visible only in the uterus and not before, probably
because of change in colloidal structure of albumen adjacent to the yolk and rotation of this albumen around
the yolk in the uterus.
• The inner and outer shell membranes of the egg are formed in the isthmus. Probably some amount of water is also
added to albumen in the isthmus.
• The uterus is responsible for the formation of egg shell and hence is also known as shell gland. Calcium required for
the formation of the egg shell is mobilized from the feed assimilated and long medullary bones.
• The tubular and unicellular glands present in uterus secrete a watery fluid which is added to the albumen through
the shell membranes.
• The shell pigments are formed in the uterus during the last 5 hours before the oviposition and brown colour of
egg shell is due to the pigment Porphyrin.
• The cuticle is laid on the outside of shell in the uterus and it represents the last of the concentric layers of egg
formation.
• The oviposition or laying of egg, is through the contraction of uterus.
• The hormones responsible for uterine contraction and oviposition are oxytocin and vasotocin released from the
posterior lobe of pituitary.
 Ovary and oviduct
Ovary
• At the time of embryonic development, two ovaries and two oviducts exist, but only the left ovary and
oviduct are functional at hatching, the right atrophies
• The left ovary is situated at dorsal part of abdominal cavity and the fore end of kidneys
• The ovary is responsible for the formation of Yolk only
Oviduct
• The oviduct is a long zig zag tube consisting of glandular and muscular parts . Oviduct extends from the
ovary to the cloaca. It has 5 distinct parts, viz. Infundibulum (9cm), Magnum (33cm), Isthmus (10cm),
Uterus (10-12cm) and Vagina (12cm)
• Infundibulum is the funnel-shaped, anterior portion of the oviduct, and measures about 9 cm in the
laying hens. The mature ovum immediately after release from the Graffian follicle, is engulfed by the
infundibulum, and remains there for about 15 minutes before moving to the magnum
• Magnum, about 33 cm in the laying hens is the largest portion and albumen-secreting region of the
oviduct. The ovum remains in the magnum for about 2 hrs and 54 min (3 hrs)
• The ovum stays in isthmus for about 1 hour and 14 minutes. Shell membranes are secreted and egg
gets its shape in this region
• Uterus, also known as shell gland, is a pouch-like structure and the ovum stays here for about 20 hours
and 40 minutes in the uterus
• Vagina is the terminal portion of the oviduct having a muscular sphincter at the utero-vaginal junction
which helps in expelling the egg during oviposition (oxytocin and vasotocin released from posteror lobe
of the pituitary )
 Structures of the Egg
• Four Major structures of the egg from outside to inside are
• Shell
• Shell membranes
• Albumen
• Yolk
Structures of the Egg
 Egg shell
• The egg shell consists of
• Cuticle
• Spongy or calcareous layer
• Mammillary layer or matrix and pores
• Pores are funnel shaped, distributed at right angles to the shell surface and form connecting passages
between the shell membrane and cuticle.
• Average number of pores varies from 8,000-10,000 per egg, distributed unevenly over the shell surface
with more number of pores at the Broad end than at the Narrow end.
 Shell Membrane
• The shell membrane consists of
• Air cell
• Outer shell membrane
• Inner shell membrane
• Air cell is situated in between the two membranes at the broad end
• Air cell - formed as a result of contraction of the egg contents, soon after oviposition, due to differences in the
temperatures exposed to by the egg prior to and after oviposition
• The outer shell membrane is attached firmly to the shell by numerous cones on the shell surface extending into the
membrane
• The inner shell membrane closely surrounds the albumen
 Albumin
• The albumen consists of 4 layers, namely
• Chalaziferous or inner thick white, which forms (3%)
• Inner thin albumen (17%)
• Outer thick firm or dense albumen (57%)
• Outer thin albumen (23%) of total albumen
• The Chalaziferous layer - very close to the Yolk immediately surrounding the vitelline membrane of the yolk - twists into
two chords on either sides of the yolk called chalazae, which are formed due to rotational movement of the egg in the
oviduct
• Functions of chalazae
• Chalazae - hold the yolk firmly in its central position and thus serves as an anchor for yolk
• Chalazae - contain a protein called lysozyme, which is possessing antimicrobial properties and helps to prevent the
microbial spoilage of the egg
• Ageing, improper storage and microbial spoilage makes thick albumen watery
 Yolk

• The yolk consists of

• Concentric layers of dark and light yolk material, due to differences in their chemical composition
• Latebra is the centre of the yolk, which is a small, nearly circular core of light coloured fluid, which does not
completely harden on boiling
• Nucleus of Pander is a cup-shaped structure, which is an extension of the neck of latebra, connecting the base of the
germinal disc
• In an infertile egg it is unicellular (ovum) and contains haploid number of chromosomes, called "Blastodisc". It is
circular in shape, with a diameter of about 3.5 mm and with vacuoles in it.
• Where as in a fertile egg, it is a multicellular structure having diploid number of chromosomes,
called "Blastoderm". It is oval in shape, with an average diameter of about 4.5 mm and with no vacuoles in it.
• "Vitelline membrane" is a semi-permeable elastic membrane, surrounding the yolk, separating the yolk material
from the albumen
Fertile and Infertile eggs
Egg nutritional composition
 Incubation and hatching

• Principles Of Incubation
• Five major functions are involved in the incubation and hatching of poultry eggs. They are:
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Ventilation (Oxygen and Carbon dioxide level and air velocity)
• Position of eggs
• Turning of eggs
 INCUBATION
Incubation is the act of bringing an egg to hatching. It refers to the process by
which certain oviparous ( egg laying) animals (birds) hatch their egg. It also refers to
the development of embryo within the egg under favorable environmental condition.
Incubating chicken eggs is a 21- days process and demands favorable conditions
of principal affecting factors like temperature, humidity etc.,
Incubation may be of two different types:
1. Natural Incubation
2. Artificial Incubation
 NATURAL INCUBATION
Incubation by setting a broody hen over eggs is called
. Incubation by natural incubation. In this method broody hens are made
to sit over hatching eggs to a longer period without feed
and water due to some hormonal changes.
* The full incubation period for an egg from laying to
hatching is 20-21 days.
* During this time , a hen sits on her eggs and maintains a
temperature required to ensure proper embryonic
development.
TERMS RELATED TO NATURAL INCUBATION
Brooding:
In poultry , the act of sitting on eggs to incubate them is
called Brooding.
Broodiness:
The action or behavioral tendency to sit on a clutch of eggs
to incubate them is called Broodiness.
Prolactin is a hormone that is mainly responsible for
broodiness in hen.
 The broody hen chosen for natural incubation should be large enough to cover and
thus keep more eggs warm, healthy and preferably vaccinated with a good brooding
and mothering record.
Incubation under a broody hen is the ideal way to hatch a small number of eggs .
A hen can successfully hatch 12-15 eggs depending on her size.
Signs of broodiness in hen:-
1. Clucking
2. Stays away from the rest of the flock
3. Ruffled feathers
4. Aggressive and Protective of nest.
5. Remains sitting on her eggs.
A hatchability of 80% (of eggs set ) from natural incubation is normal but a range
of 75-80% is considered satisfactory.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

1. No electricity 1.Hen sometimes breaks the eggs

2. Hen does all the work 2. Will occasionally quit and get off the
3. Some breeds hatch better under natural incubation than under nest
incubators. 3. Can only sit on small number of eggs
4. Good for hatching small number of chicks per year. 4. Disease transmission from hen to
5. High hatchability rate. chicks.
BREEDS THAT HAVE GOOD MOTHERING CHARACTER
ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION
Incubation independent of the hen i.e. by means of mechanical equipment
(incubator) is known as artificial incubation.

HISTORY
* Artificial incubation of poultry eggs is an ancient practice. In 400
B.C. Aristotle mentioned of Egyptians incubating the eggs
spontaneously in dung heaps.
* The Chinese developed artificial incubation technique as early as
246 B.C.
* These early incubation methods were often practiced on a large
scale, a single location perhaps having capacity of 36,000 eggs.
* Incubation can successfully occur artificially in machines that
provide the correct, controlled environment for the developing
chick. Such machines are known as incubators.
* The construction, use and patent of artificial incubators dates back
to 1844. The Smith incubator is the forerunner of today’s large
scale incubators used for hatching eggs.
INCUBATORS
Incubator is a device used for maintaining the eggs of birds and allows them to hatch. It
provides the optimum environmental conditions for successful hatching of eggs.

TYPES OF INCUBATORS

Based on air circulation Based on Size

1. Still air incubators 1. Cabinet or Mammoth incubator

2. Forced air incubators 2. Walk in incubator

Based on stages Based on heating source

1. Single stage incubator 1. Hot air incubator

2. Multi stage incubator 2. Hot water incubator

Based on Air Circulation:

Still Air Incubator:

* It is a simple type of box in which no fan is provided, mostly used in villages in
domestic level.
* Temperature is maintained by thermostat at around 102 degree F
* Small holes are made for air (ventilation).
* To maintain humidity water trays are used in the incubator and is maintained at
60-65% (80-90°wet bulb) during incubation and 70-75% (92-97°wet bulb) at
hatching time. It is very easy to overheat the eggs in still-air incubators and
difficult to maintain proper humidity

Disadvantages:
* Hatchability can be low.
* Hard to regulate temperature and humidity.
* Can have high number of deformities in chicks.
Forced Draft Incubator:
* In this type of incubator, air is forced with the help of a fan and the drafted air is
uniformly distributed.
* Temperature remains constant on each egg, for the control of temperature, heater
or thermostat is provided and even coil heating mechanism is used
* For maintenance of humidity, water piper and humidity pans are used. Fogging
modifier is provided which spray fog type air.
Hygrometer is used to measure humidity.
Based on size:

Mammoth / Cabinet incubator:

Mammoth means large in size and the mechanism of operation is force draft in which air
is forced by the help of fan. It is also called cabinet incubator since it has several definite
compartmentalization. It works on forced draft mechanism.
Walk - in incubator:
It is large in size that a man can walk in it . The capacity of walk-in incubator is 1
lakh - 5 lakh eggs. Temperature is set automatically and for ventilation large number of fans
are provided.
Based on Stages of Incubator

Single Stage Incubator:

A single stage incubator contain setter and hatcher in a single chamber. There is no separation
between setter and hatcher.

Multi Stage Incubator:

A multi-stage incubator contains setter and hatcher in separate chambers.

Single Stage Incubator Multi Stage Incubator

PRE- SETTING MANAGEMENT OF INCUBATORS :

Washing :
After each batch, after pulling out the hatch, the dust, dirt, feathers, down etc
should be removed completely and the trays should be removed and washed with
pressure water. Trays should be scrubbed and washed separately.
Disinfection :
After cleaning with plain water, the incubator and the spares should be cleaned
with any disinfectant solution and then with 4% washing soda solution.
Fumigation :
Sensitive spares like thermometer, humidity controls should be removed before
fumigation. The tray containing the fumigation mixture ( 20 gms KMn04 + 40ml
formalin = 1X concentration of formaldehyde gas which is sufficient for fumigating
100 Cu ft area) should be kept on the floor of the incubator. All the inlets and outlets
of the machine should be closed and the gas is trapped for 3-4 hours.
Test run:
Before actually setting the eggs in the incubator, the machine should be switched
on to check the working condition of the temperature, humidity, ventilation and
turning devices of the incubator.
POST-SETTING MANAGEMENT OF INCUBATORS :
After setting the eggs in the incubator, following points to be noted :
* Do not open the doors of the incubator frequently because it alters the conditions
within the incubator.
* Frequently check for the temperature, humidity levels in the incubator.
* Monitor the turning device and the flow of warm water in pipes.
* Shifting of egg from setter to hatcher on 18th day should be as quick as possible.
▪ INCUBATION REQUIREMENTS OR PRINCIPLES
These are the factors of major importance in incubating eggs artificially:

1. Temperature
2. Humidity
3. Ventilation
4. Position of eggs
5. Turning
 Incubation and hatching
• Temperature
Temperature is the most critical environmental concern during incubation because the developing embryo can only
withstand small fluctuations during the period.
• Embryo starts developing when the temperature exceeds the Physiological Zero.
• Physiological zero is the temperature below which embryonic growth is arrested and above which it is reinitiated.
• The physiological zero for chicken eggs is about 75oF (24oC).
• The optimum temperature for chicken egg in the setter (for first 18 days) ranges from 99.50 to 99.75 o F and in the hatcher
(last 3 days) is 98.50
• Humidity
Incubation humidity determines the rate of moisture loss from eggs during incubation.
• In general, the humidity is recorded as relative humidity by comparing the temperatures recorded by wet-bulb and dry-bulb
thermometers.
• Recommended incubation relative humidity for the first 18 days ranging between 55 and 60% (in setter) and for the last 3
days ranging between 65 and 75%.
• Higher humidity during hatching period is given to avoid dehydration of chicks.
 Incubation and hatching

• 3. Ventilation
• Ventilation is important in incubators and hatchers because fresh oxygenated air is needed for the respiration
(oxygen intake and carbon dioxide given off) of developing embryos from egg setting until chick removal from the
incubator.
• The oxygen needs are small during the first few days compared to the latter stages of development.
• Generally the oxygen content of the air in the setter remains at about 21%.
• For every 1% drop in oxygen there is 5% reduction in hatchability.
• Carbon dioxide is a natural by-product of metabolic processes during embryonic development and is released
through the shell.
• The tolerance level of CO2 for the first 4 days in the setter is 0.3%.
• CO2 levels above 0.5% in the setter reduce hatchability and completely lethal at 5.0%.
• Since the normal Oxygen and CO2 concentrations present in air seem to represent an optimum gaseous
environment for incubating eggs, no special provision to control these gases is necessary other than to maintain
adequate circulation of fresh air at the proper temperature and humidity.
 Incubation and hatching
• 4. Position of eggs
Artificially incubating eggs should be held with their large ends up.
• It is natural for the head of the chick to develop in the large end of the egg near the air cell, and for the developing embryo to
orient itself so that the head is uppermost.
• When the eggs are incubated with the small end up, about 60% of the embryos will develop with the head near the small end.
• Thus, when the chick is ready to hatch, its beak cannot break into the air cell to initiate pulmonary respiration. Eggs positioned
horizontally will incubate and hatch normally as long as they are turned frequently.
• Under normal circumstances eggs are set with large end up for the first 18 days (in setter) and in horizontal position for the
last 3 days (in hatcher).
• 5. Turning of eggs
• Birds, including chickens and quail, turn their eggs during nest incubation.
• Nature provides nesting birds with the instinct of turning eggs during incubation.
• Similarly eggs to be turned at least 8 times a day.
• Turning of eggs during incubation prevents the developing embryo adhering to the extra-embryonic membranes and reduces
the possibility of embryo mortality.
• In large commercial incubators the eggs are turned automatically each hour i.e. 24 times a day. Most eggs are turned to a
position of 45 o from vertical, and then reversed in the opposite direction to 45 o from vertical.
• Rotation less than 45 o are not adequate to achieve high hatchability.
• Turning is not required in Hatcher.
 Incubator/Setter and Hatcher

Factors Setter/incubator Hatcher

Temperature 99.5 F -99.75 F 98.5 F
Relative humidity 55-60 % 65-70 %
Position Large end up horizontal
Turning Manual -8 times and in No turning
automatic 24 times
 Incubation requirements for different species of poultry
Incubation time - The incubation period varies for different species of birds. Generally, the larger the egg, longer
will be the incubation period.
•
Temperature (0C) RH (%)
Species Incubation period (Days)
Setter Hatcher Setter Hatcher
Chicken 21 37.7 37.2 55 75
Turkey 28 37.4 36.9 55 75
Duck 28 37.5 37.1 57 80
Muscovy duck 35-37 37.5 37.1 57 78
Geese 28-34 37.4 36.9 58 80
Pigeon 17 37.4 37.2 56 76
Quail 18 37.4 37.2 56 76
Bobwhite quail 23-24 37.4 37.2 56 76
Chukar partridge 23-24 37.4 37.2 56 76
Pheasants 23-28 37.6 37.2 57 76
Guinea fowl 28 37.6 37.2 57 76
Ostrich 42 36.0 35.6 30-35 40-45
Emu 52 36.0 35.4 40 50
Steps Involved In Commercial Hatchery Operations
 Hatchery Operations
• Securing hatching eggs
• Traying hatching eggs
• Fumigation
• Cold Storage
• Warm eggs prior to setting
• Loading of eggs
• Candling
• Transfer of eggs
• Pulling the hatch
• Grading
• Sexing
• Vaccination
• Chick delivery
• Washing and cleaning
• Disposal of waste
Incubator or setter Hatcher
Setter cum hatcher Egg setting tray
 Candler Hatching tray

Debeaker Vaccum egg lifter