1) Define dimensional formula. Give uses of dimensional analysis.

Write down the limitations.

Solution
Verified by Toppr

Dimension formula tells about which fundamental quantities are

there in the physical quantity given.
It is represented in square brackets. For example length is denoted
as [L]
If we know the physical quantities on which are used in the formula,
dimensional analysis can be used to calculate the how the powers of
these quantities will vary. For example if we know that the velocity
depends upon length and time we can calculate the powers of the
base quantities.
[L1M0T−1]=[LaMbTc] now a,b,c can be calculated.
The very limitation of the dimensional analysis is if the given formula
carries the sum of two quantities and if only one of those quantities is
provided dimensional analysis can’t be used to verify if the formula is
correct or not.
s=ut
s=12at2
Both are dimensionally correct but the formula is not correct form of
equation of motion.

2) Convert the value of g :cgs to si system

The value of the gravitational constant in SI unit is G = 6.67 ×10−11 (Newton)

(m) (kg) G = 6.67 × 10 − 11 (N e w t o n) (m) (k g). Substituting this
conversion in the value of G in the SI system, G = 6.67 ×10−11 (105Dyne)
(102cm)2 (103g)2 G = 6.67 × 10 − 11 (10 5 D y n e) (10 2 c m) 2 (10 3 g) 2
3) Check the dimensional consistency Fs=1/2mv2 -1/2mu2
 4) What is Triangle Law of Vector Addition?
Triangle law of vector addition states that when two vectors are represented as two
sides of the triangle with the order of magnitude and direction, then the third side of
the triangle represents the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector.

5) What Is Banking of Roads?

Banking of roads is defined as the phenomenon in which the outer edges are raised
for the curved roads above the inner edge to provide the necessary centripetal force
to the vehicles so that they take a safe turn. Now, let us recall, what is centripetal
force? It is the force that pulls or pushes an object toward the center of a circle as it
travels, causing angular or circular motion. In the next few sections, let us discuss
the angle of banking and the terminologies used in the banking of roads.

Another terminology used is banked turn which is defined as the turn or change of
direction in which the vehicle inclines towards inside. The angle at which the vehicle
is inclined is defined as the bank angle. The inclination happens at the longitudinal
and horizontal axis.
Angle of Banking
Consider a vehicle of mass ‘m’ with moving speed ‘v’ on the banked road with radius
‘r’. Let ϴ be the angle of banking, with frictional force f acting between the road and
the tyres of the vehicle.

Total upwards force = Total downward force

NcosΘ =mg+fsinΘ

Where,

NcosΘ: one of the components of normal reaction along the verticle axis

mg: weight of the vehicle acting vertically downward

fsinΘ: one of the components of frictional force along the verticle axis

therefore, mg = NcosΘ – fsinΘ (eq.1)

mv2/r = NsinΘ +fcosΘ (eq.2)

Where,

NsinΘ: one of the components of normal reaction along the horizontal axis

fcosΘ: one of the components of frictional force along the horizontal axis

6) two bodies of equal masses moving with different velocities in

the same straight line undergoes elastic collision. show that
they exchange their velocities after collision?

which derivation should we mention elastic collision in one

dimension or elastic collision in two dimensions
Solution

Verified by Toppr
Let the body of mass m1 moving with velocity u1 moves with
velocity v2 after collision with the body of mass m2 which
was moving with velocity u2 and which after collision attains
a velocity v2.
∴v1(m1−m2)m1+m2u1+2m2m1+m2u2
And,
v2=2m1m1+m2u1−(m1+m2)m1+m2u2
When m1=m2=m
v1=02mu1+2m2mu2=u2
And
v2=2m2mu1−02mu2=u1
Thus, the bodies exchange speeds after collision.
7)

Derive an expression for the kinetic energy of a body of

mass M rotating uniformly about a given axis. Hence show that
rotational kinetic energy is
=12M×(LK)2
Solution

Verified by Toppr
Consider a rigid body rotating with a constant angular
velocity →ω about an axis passing through the point O.
As the body rotates, all the particles perform uniform circular
motion.
The linear speed of the particle with mass m1 is V1=r1ω.
Therefore, its kinetic energy is
E1=12m1V21=12m1r21ω2
Similarly, the kinetic energy of the particle with
mass m2 is E2=12m2V22=12m2r22ω2 and so on. The
rotational kinetic energy of the body is
Erot=E1+E2+....+EN
=12m1r22ω2+12m2r22ω2+...+12mNr2Nω2
=12[m1r21+m2r22+....+mNr2N]ω2
=12(N∑i=1mir2i)ω2
∴Erot=12Iω2
KE=12Iω2
L=Iω,ω=LI
KE=12I×(LI)2
=12IL2I2(∵I=MK2)
=12L2I
=12L2MK2
=12M[LK]2
8) Define moment of initira

Moment of inertia
The moment of inertia is the quantitative measurement of the total rotational inertia of the body.
The MOI is selected in line with the axis of rotation. The axis linked to the rotation may be
external or internal and may not be fixed.

When the body’s mass obstructs the change in linear motion, it measures inertia in linear motion.
When the moment of inertia obstructs the change in the rotational motion, it is termed as the
measure of inertia in rotational motion.

9) State and explain the law of conservation of angular

momentum.
Law of conservation of angular momentum states that in the
absence of an external torque, the total angular momentum is
conserved or the total angular momentum of an isolated
system remains constant both in magnitude and direction.

10) What Is Acceleration Due to Gravity?

Acceleration due to gravity is the acceleration gained by an object due
to gravitational force. Its SI unit is m/s2. It has both magnitude and direction; hence,
it’s a vector quantity. Acceleration due to gravity is represented by g. The standard
value of g on the surface of the earth at sea level is 9.8 m/s2.

G1 = g (1 – 2h/R)
The Variation of g with height is expressed by the formula g1 = g (1 – 2h/R), where
h<

11) what is the escape velocity .obtain an expression for ve on earth .why is it that
there is no atm on the moon

Escape velocity, in astronomy and space exploration,

the velocity needed for a body to escape from
a gravitational centre of attraction without undergoing any
further acceleration. The escape velocity vesc is expressed
asvesc = Square root of√2GM/r,where G is the gravitational
constant, M is the mass of the attracting mass, and r is the
distance from the centre of that mass. Escape velocity decreases
with altitude and is equal to the square root of 2 (or about 1.414)
times the velocity necessary to maintain a circular orbit at the
same altitude. At Earth’s surface, if atmospheric resistance could
be disregarded, escape velocity would be about 11.2 km (6.96
miles) per second. The velocity of escape from the less
massive Moon is about 2.4 km (1.5 miles) per second at its
surface. A planet or moon cannot long retain an atmosphere if its
escape velocity is low enough to be near the average velocity of
the gas molecules making up the atmosphere. Inside the event
horizon of a black hole, the escape velocity exceeds the speed of
light, so not even rays of light can escape into space.
 11) Hooke’s Law Statement
When a material behaves elastically and exhibits a linear relationship between stress
and strain, it is called linearly elastic material. In this case, stress is directly
proportional to strain.

OR

We can say that “for small deformation, stress is directly proportional to strain.”

Therefore, in simple terms, Hooke’s law states that the strain in a solid is
proportional to the applied stress within the elastic limit of that solid.

Hooke’s Law Equation in Terms of Stress and Strain

According to this law, within the elastic limit, stress is proportional to the strain. Thus,
the Hooke’s law equation can be expressed in terms of stress and strain:

Stress α strain or stress/strain = constant = E

Stress = Young’s modulus of elasticity × strain

σ=Eε

Where,

σ is the stress

E is the modulus of elasticity, also known as Young’s modulus of elasticity

ε is the strain

In SI units, the spring constant k, and each element of the tensor κ, is measured
using units such as newtons per meter (N/m) or kilograms per second squared
(kg/s2).

For continuous media, each element is therefore measured in units of pressure,

namely pascals (Pa, or N/m2, or kg/(m·s2). The elements of the strain tensor ε are
also expressed in units of pressure.

12) Angle of Contact Definition

“The angle of contact, also known as the contact angle, is the angle formed at the
interface between a liquid and a solid surface. It is the angle between the tangent
line at the point of contact and the solid surface, as measured through the liquid
phase.”

Characteristics of Angle of Contact

The angle of contact is a crucial parameter that governs the wetting behavior of a
liquid on a solid surface. It influences adhesion, surface tension, and capillary
phenomena, with wetting angles less than 90 degrees indicating good wetting,
angles greater than 90 degrees indicating poor wetting, and angles between 0 and
90 degrees representing partial wetting. Understanding and controlling the angle of
contact is essential in various scientific and practical applications involving liquids
and solid surfaces.Below is a table summarizing the characteristics of the angle of
contact for different wetting behaviors:

Wetting Angle of Characteristics

Behavior Contact
Wetting Less than The liquid spreads over the solid surface, forming a relatively flat
90° contact area. It indicates good adhesion and surface wetting.
Non-Wetting Greater than The liquid forms a droplet on the solid surface, not spreading
90° effectively. It shows poor adhesion and surface repelling.
Partial Between 0° The liquid wets the solid surface to some extent but not
Wetting and 90° completely. It exhibits a combination of wetting and non-wetting
characteristics.

13) What is Bernoulli’s Principle?

Bernoulli’s principle states that

The total mechanical energy of the moving fluid comprising the gravitational potential
energy of elevation, the energy associated with the fluid pressure and the kinetic
energy of the fluid motion, remains constant.
Bernoulli’s principle can be derived from the principle of conservation of energy.

Bernoulli’s Principle Formula

Bernoulli’s equation formula is a relation between pressure, kinetic energy, and

gravitational potential energy of a fluid in a container.

Where p is the pressure exerted by the fluid, v is the velocity of the fluid, ρ is the
density of the fluid and h is the height of the container.

Bernoulli’s equation gives great insight into the balance between pressure, velocity
and elevation.

Bernoulli’s Equation Derivation

Consider a pipe with varying diameter and height through which an incompressible
fluid is flowing. The relationship between the areas of cross-sections A, the flow
speed v, height from the ground y, and pressure p at two different points 1 and 2 are
given in the figure below.
Assumptions:

 The density of the incompressible fluid remains constant at both points.

 The energy of the fluid is conserved as there are no viscous forces in the fluid.

Therefore, the work done on the fluid is given as:

dW = F1dx1 – F2dx2

dW = p1A1dx1 – p2A2dx2

dW = p1dv – p2dv = (p1 – p2)dv

14)Explain 3 modes of transfer of heat from 1 to other form

CONDECTION CONVECTION AND RADIATION

Any matter which is made up of atoms and molecules has the ability to transfer heat. The
atoms are in different types of motion at any time. The motion of molecules and atoms is
responsible for heat or thermal energy and every matter has this thermal energy. The more the
motion of molecules, more will be the heat energy. However, talking about heat transfer, it is
nothing but the process of transfer of heat from a high-temperature body to a low temperature
one.

15) State 1st law of thermodynamics

The First Law of Thermodynamics states that heat is a form of energy, and
thermodynamic processes are therefore subject to the principle of conservation of
energy. This means that heat energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can,
however, be transferred from one location to another and converted to and from
other forms of energy.

16) What are the limitations of the first law of

thermodynamics?

Solution

Step1: First law of thermodynamics:

1. According to the first law of thermodynamics, the energy of the

universe always remains constant.
 2. It can be transferred between the system and the surroundings, but
it cannot be generated or destroyed.
3. The law is primarily concerned with changes in energy states as a
result of work and heat transmission. It redefines the concept of
energy conservation.
4. The equation for the first law of thermodynamics is given as follows

1. According to the law, when a system goes through a

thermodynamic process, it always maintains a specific energy
balance. The first law, on the other hand, fails to account for the
feasibility of the process or change of state.
2. It does not mention the direction of heat flow.
3. It says nothing about whether the process is spontaneous or not.
4. The process cannot be reversed. In practice, heat does not
completely transform to work.

What Is the Second Law of Thermodynamics?

The second law of thermodynamics states that

any spontaneously occurring process will always lead to an escalation in

the entropy (S) of the universe. In simple words, the law explains that an isolated
system’s entropy will never decrease over time.
Nonetheless, in some cases, where the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium or
going through a reversible process, the total entropy of a system and its
surroundings remains constant. The second law is also known as the Law of
Increased Entropy.

The second law clearly explains that it is impossible to convert heat energy to mechanical energy
with 100 per cent efficiency. For example, if we look at the piston in an engine, the gas is heated
to increase its pressure and drive the piston. However, even as the piston moves, there is always
some leftover heat in the gas that cannot be used for carrying out any other work. Heat is
wasted, and it has to be discarded. In this case, it is done by transferring it to a heat sink or in the
case of a car engine, waste heat is discarded by exhausting the used fuel and air mixture to the
atmosphere. Additionally, heat generated from friction that is generally unusable should also be
removed from the system.

17) The Second Law of Thermodynamics Equation

Mathematically, the second law of thermodynamics is represented as

ΔSuniv > 0

Where ΔSuniv is the change in the entropy of the universe.

Entropy is a measure of the randomness of the system, or it is the measure of
energy or chaos within an isolated system. It can be considered a quantitative index
that describes the quality of energy.

Meanwhile, there are a few factors that cause an increase in the entropy of the
closed system. Firstly, in a closed system, while the mass remains constant, there is
an exchange of heat with the surroundings. This change in the heat content creates
a disturbance in the system, thereby increasing the entropy of the system.

Secondly, internal changes may occur in the movements of the molecules of the
system. This leads to disturbances which further cause irreversibilities inside the
system resulting in the increment of its entropy.

18)Compare isothermal and adiabatic process

The difference between isothermal and adiabatic processes has to be

comprehended to understand their industrial applications. Both these processes are
more frequently discussed in thermodynamics. Both these processes are entirely
opposite to each other.

Difference between Isothermal and Adiabatic process

The major difference between these two types of processes is that in the adiabatic
process, there is no transfer of heat towards or from the liquid. On the other hand, in
the isothermal process, there is a transfer of heat to the surroundings to make the
overall temperature constant.

Difference between Isothermal and Adiabatic process

Isothermal Adiabatic

Transfer of heat occurs. No transfer of heat occurs.

The pressure is more at a given volume. The pressure is less at a given volume.

The temperature remains constant. The temperature changes due to internal system variations.

Heat can be added or released to the system There is no addition of heat, nor is heat released because
just to keep the same temperature. maintaining constant temperature doesn’t matter here.

The transformation is slow. The transformation is fast.

 19)State and prove law of equipartition of energy

Law of equipartition of energy: Statement

According to the law of equipartition of energy, for any dynamic system in thermal
equilibrium, the total energy for the system is equally divided among the degree of
freedom.

The kinetic energy of a single molecule along the x-axis, the y-axis, and the z-axis is
given as

, along the x-axis

, along the y-axis
, along the z-axis

When the gas is at thermal equilibrium, the average kinetic energy is denoted as

,along the x-axis

, along the y-axis
, along the z-axis

According to the kinetic theory of gases, the average kinetic energy of a molecule is
given by,

where Vrms is the root-mean-square velocity of the molecules, Kb is the Boltzmann

constant and T is the temperature of the gas.

The mono-atomic gas has three degrees of freedom, so the average kinetic energy
per degree of freedom is given by

If a molecule is free to move in space, it needs three coordinates to specify its

location, thus, it possesses three translational degrees of freedom. Similarly, if it is
constrained to move in a plane, it possesses two translational degrees of freedom
and if it is a straight line, it possesses one translational degree of freedom. In the
case of a triatomic molecule, the degree of freedom is 6. And the kinetic energy of
the per molecule of the gas is given as,

Molecules of a mono-atomic gas like argon and helium have only one translational
degree of freedom. The kinetic energy per molecule of the gas is given by

The diatomic gases such as O2 and N2 which

have three translational degrees of freedom can rotate only about their center of
mass. Since, they have only two independent axes of rotation, as the third rotation is
negligible, due to its 2-D structure. Thus, only two rotational degrees of freedom are
considered. The molecule thus has two rotational degrees of freedom, each of which
contributes a term to the total energy consisting of transnational energy t and
rotational energy.

What is Mean Free Path?

A gas molecule’s mean free path λ is its average path length between collisions.
Mathematically the mean free path can be represented as follows:

Let’s look at the motion of a gas molecule inside an ideal gas; a typical molecule
inside an ideal gas will abruptly change its direction and speed as it collides
elastically with other molecules of the same gas. Though between the collisions, the
molecule will move in a straight line at some constant speed, this is applicable for all
the molecules in the gas.

It is difficult to measure or describe this random motion of gas molecules thus, we

attempt to measure its mean free path λ.
As its name says, λ is the average distance travelled by any molecule between
collisions, we expect λ to vary inversely with N/V, which is the number of molecules
per unit volume or the density of molecules because if there are more molecules,
more are the chances of them colliding with each other hence reducing the mean
free path, and also λ would be inversely proportional to the diameter d of the
molecules, because if the molecules were point masses, then they would never
collide with each other, thus larger the molecule smaller the mean free path. It
should be proportional to π times the diameter square and not the diameter itself
because we consider the circular cross-section and not the diameter itself.
Click on the links provided below to read more about the speed of the gas

Derivation of Mean Free Path

We will derive the equation using the following assumptions, let’s assume that the
molecule is spherical, and the collision occurs when one molecule hits the other.
Only the molecule we are going to study will be in motion, and the rest molecules will
be stationary.

Let’s consider our single-molecule to have a diameter of d and all the other
molecules to be points this does not change our criteria for collision. As our single-
molecule moves through the gas, it sweeps out a short cylinder of cross-section area
π d2 between successive collisions. For a small-time t, it will move a distance of vt
where v is the velocity of the molecule, now if we sweep this cylinder, we will get a
volume of π d2*vt, so the number of point molecules inside this volume will give us
the number of collisions the molecule might have.

Since N/V is the number of molecules per unit volume, the number of molecules in
the cylinder will be N/V multiplied by the volume of the cylinder, i.e. πd 2vt, and the
mean free path can be derived as follows,

We have approximated the equation because we have assumed that all the particles
are stationary with respect to the particle we are studying. In fact, all the molecules
are moving relative to each other, we have cancelled two velocities in the above
equation, but actually, the v in the numerator is the average velocity and v In the
denominator is relative velocity hence they both differ from each other with a factor √
2. Therefore, the final equation would be,

The mean free path at sea level is 0.1 micrometres.

Mean Free Path Factors

Following are the mean free path factors:

 Density
 Radius of molecule
 Number of molecules
 Temperature, pressure, etc