INVESTIGATORY PROJECT ON CAPACITORS AND ITS

WORKING:

NAME: AKSHAYA.K
STD: XII-C
PROJECT NAME: CAPACITORS AND ITS WORKING
SCHOOL NAME: ADITYA VIDHYASHRAM
TEACHER’S NAME: HEMA.C
INTRODUCTION:
A capacitor is an electronic component used to
store electrical energy temporarily in an electric
field. It consists of two conductive plates separated
by an insulating material called a dielectric. When a
voltage difference is applied across the plates,
electric charge accumulates on them, creating an
electric field between the plates. Capacitors are
widely used in electronic circuits for various
purposes such as filtering, smoothing power supply
voltages, coupling signals between stages, and
storing energy in pulse circuits. They come in
various types and sizes, each suitable for different
applications based on factors like capacitance value,
voltage rating, and frequency response.
STRUCTURE OF CAPACITORS:
The internal structure of a capacitor consists of two
main components: conductive plates and a
dielectric material. These plates, typically made
from materials like aluminium, tantalum, or
ceramic, are placed parallel to each other with a
small gap in between. The dielectric material, which
could be paper, ceramic, plastic film, or oxide layers,
serves as an insulator between the plates. This
dielectric material determines the capacitor’s
capacitance and other electrical characteristics. The
conductive plates are connected to lead wires or
terminals that extend outside the capacitor,
allowing it to be integrated into electrical circuits.
The entire assembly is often enclosed in a protective
casing made of materials like plastic or epoxy resin
to safeguard it from physical damage and
environmental factors. This basic structure enables
capacitors to store and release electrical energy
efficiently, making them indispensable in various
applications across electronics, from filtering and
signal processing to energy storage and power
factor correction.
CHARGE STORED IN CAPACITORS:

The amount of charge Q a capacitor can store

depends on two major factors the voltage applied
and the capacitor’s physical characteristics, such as
its size. In below given figure each electric field line
starts on an individual positive and ends on a
negative one, so that there will more field lines if
there is more charge. The electric field strength is,
thus, directly proportional to Q.

The field is proportional to the charge: V ∝ Q

We know that V= Ed

So, V ∝ E

Hence, V ∝ Q

Removing sign of proportionality, we get Q= CV

Where C = Capacitance of the Parallel Plate
Capacitor.

The unit of capacitance is the farad (F), named after

Michael Faraday (1791-1867), an English scientist
who contributed to the fields of electromagnetism
and electrochemistry. Since capacitance is charge
per unit voltage, we see that a farad is a coulomb
per volt. A 1-farad capacitor would be able to store 1
coulomb with the application of only 1 volt. is, thus a
very large capacitance. Typical capacitors range
from fractions of a picofarad to millifarads.

1C/1V= F
SELF-CAPACITORS:

Self-capacitance property is related to the

capacitors especially to the isolated conductor to
raise its potential difference to one volt. Generally
normal conductors will have mutual capacitance.
This is also measured in the S.I unit i.e. Farads.
The Self-capacitance of a conducting sphere which
has the radius ‘R’ is given by

C= 4πε0R

Self-capacitance values of some standard devices

are given below.
For the top plate of a van de Graff generator
which is having radius of 20 cm self-capacitance is
22.24 pF.
For the planet EARTH self-capacitance is 710 µF.
CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF
CAPACITORS:

The charging and discharging of a capacitor are

fundamental processes in electronics. When
charging a capacitor, it begins with no voltage
across its plates and is connected to a voltage
source, typically through a resistor. Initially, current
flows rapidly as the capacitor behaves like a short
circuit, gradually accumulating charge and
increasing its voltage. The relationship between the
capacitor voltage, the source voltage, and time is
governed by an exponential function determined by
the RC time constant of the circuit.

In contrast, discharging occurs when a charged

capacitor is connected across a resistor or short-
circuited, allowing stored charge to flow through
the resistor. The capacitor’s voltage decreases
exponentially over time as it discharges, following a
similar exponential function dependent on the
initial voltage and the RC time constant.
Understanding these processes is crucial in
electronics for designing circuits such as filters,
timers, and energy storage systems where
capacitors play pivotal roles in storing and releasing
electrical energy efficiently.
ENERGY STORED IN CAPACITORS:
Energy is the amount of some work against the
electro-static field to charge the capacitor fully. In
the capacitor at initial stage of charging, the charge
Q transferred between the plates from one plate to
another plate. This charge either +Q or -Q is
interchanged between two plates of a capacitor.
After transformation of some charge an electric
field is formed between the plates, in that case we
need some extra work to charge the capacitor fully.
This extra work is called as the energy stored in a
capacitor, the energy is measured in the units of
Joules (J). Now we see the equations for energy and
work.
TYPES OF CAPACITORS:

Film Capacitor:
Film Capacitors comprising of a generally
expansive group of capacitors with the distinction
being in their dielectric properties.
Film Capacitors are available in almost any value
and voltages as high as 1500 volts.
They come in tolerance from 10% to 0.01%.
There are two types of film capacitors i.e. Radial
lead type & Axial lead type.
The electrodes of film capacitors may be
metalized aluminium or zinc.
They use polystyrene, polycarbonate or Teflon as
their dielectrics.
It can be used in AC voltage applications, and
they have much more stable electrical parameters.
Ceramic Capacitors:
Ceramic capacitors are used in high frequency
circuits such as audio to RF.
Ceramic Capacitors are the best choice for high
frequency compensation in audio circuits.
These capacitors are also called as disc
capacitors.
Ceramic capacitors are made by coating two sides
of a small porcelain or ceramic disc with silver and
are then stacked together to make a capacitor.
They come in values from a few Pico farads to 1
microfarad.
The voltage range is from a few volts up to many
thousands of volts.
Ceramics are inexpensive to manufacture and
they come with several di-electrics types.
Electrolytic Capacitor:
There are two types of electrolytic capacitor,
Tantalum and Aluminium.
It is most prevalently used capacitors which have
a wide tolerance capacity.
Electrolytic capacitors are available with working
voltages up to about 500V.
Tantalums capacitors have ordinarily better
exhibition, higher value.
The dielectric properties of tantalum oxide is
much superior to those of aluminium oxide.
It has an easier leakage current and better
capacitance strength which makes them suitable for
obstructing, decoupling, filtering applications.
The thickness of the aluminium oxide film and
heightened breakdown voltage gives the capacitor
exceptionally elevated capacitance values for their
size.
USE OF CAPACITORS:
Capacitors are devices which store electrical charge.
They are a basic component of electronics and have
a host of various applications. The most common
use for capacitors is energy storage. Additional uses
include power conditioning, signal coupling or
decoupling, electronic noise filtering, and remote
sensing. Because of its varied applications,
capacitors are used in a wide range of industries
and have become a vital part of everyday life.

∑ Capacitors for Energy Storage:

Capacitors have been used to store electrical energy
since the late 18th century. Benjamin Franklin was
the first to coin the phrase “battery” for a series of
capacitors in an energy store application. Individual
capacitors generally do not hold a great deal of
energy, providing only enough power for electronic
devices to use during temporary power outages or
when they need additional power. For example,
large capacitors are included in car audio systems to
provide extra power to amplifiers when needed.
 ∑ Capacitors for Power Conditioning:
One important application of capacitors is the
conditioning of power supplies. Capacitors allow AC
signals to pass but block DC signals when they are
charged. They can effectively split these two signal
types, cleaning the supply of power. This effect has
been exploited to separate or decouple different
parts of electrical circuits to reduce noise which
could lead to reduction of efficiency. Capacitors are
also used in utility substations to counteract
inductive loading introduced by transmission lines.

∑ Capacitors as Sensors:
Capacitors are used as sensors to measure a variety
of things, including air humidity, fuel levels and
mechanical strain. The capacitance of a device is
dependent on its structure. Changes in the
structure can be measured as a loss or gain of
capacitance. Two aspects of a capacitor are used in
sensing applications: the distance between parallel
plates and the material between them. The former
is used to detect mechanical changes such as
acceleration and pressure. Even minute changes in
the material between the plates can be enough to
alter the capacitance of the device, an effect
exploited when sensing air humidity.

∑ Capacitors for Signal Processing:

Capacitors have found increasingly advanced
applications in information technology. Dynamic
Random Access Memory (DRAM) devices use
capacitors to represent binary information as bits.
The device reads one value when the capacitor is
charged and another when discharged. Charge
Coupled Devices (CCDs) use capacitors in an
analogue form. Capacitors are also used in
conjunction with inductors to tune circuits to
particular frequencies, an effect exploited by radio
receivers, speakers and analog equalizers.
MAJOR DRAWBACK OF CAPACITORS:
Capacitors, while useful components in electrical
circuits, do have some drawbacks:

Limited Energy Storage: Capacitors can store

electrical energy, but compared to batteries, they
have much lower energy density. This means they
can store less total energy for a given size and
voltage rating.

Voltage Limitations: Capacitors have maximum

voltage ratings beyond which they can be damaged
or fail. Exceeding this voltage can cause breakdown
of the dielectric material or even physical damage to
the capacitor.

Leakage Current: All capacitors exhibit some

amount of leakage current, which can gradually
discharge the capacitor over time. This can be a
significant factor in applications where the
capacitor needs to retain charge over long periods.
 Temperature Sensitivity: The capacitance value of
a capacitor can change with temperature, which
may affect the performance of circuits relying on
precise capacitance values.

Frequency Dependence: Capacitors can behave

differently at different frequencies due to parasitic
effects such as inductance and resistance. This can
lead to deviations from ideal behaviour, impacting
circuit performance in high-frequency applications.

Size and Cost: Capacitors can take up physical

space in a circuit, especially when high capacitance
values are needed. Additionally, high-performance
capacitors can be relatively expensive compared to
other passive components like resistors.
CONCLUSION:
Capacitors are fundamental components in
electronic circuits, playing crucial roles such as
energy storage, signal filtering, and voltage
regulation. They are constructed with two
conductive plates separated by a dielectric material,
enabling the temporary storage of electrical energy
in an electric field. This project has explored their
internal structure, operational principles, and
various types, illustrating their wide-ranging
applications across industries. However, capacitors
do have inherent limitations. These include lower
energy density compared to batteries, maximum
voltage ratings, potential leakage currents, and
sensitivity to temperature variations and frequency
dependencies. Engineers and designers must
carefully consider these factors when selecting
capacitors to ensure optimal performance and
reliability in electronic systems. Despite these
challenges, ongoing advancements in capacitor
technology continue to address these limitations,
aiming to enhance efficiency and broaden their
utility in diverse and evolving technological
applications.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
ß https://knowledgecycle.in/capacitor-and-its-
working-investigatory-project-pdf-class-12/
ß https://www.scribd.com/document/392875865/
Capacitors-Investigatory-Project
ß https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/class-
12th-physics-project-file-capacitors-
2324/266316812
INDEX:

∑ INTRODUCTION
∑ STRUCTURE OF CAPACITORS
∑ CHARGE STORED IN CAPACITORS
∑ SELF CAPACITOR
∑ CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF
CAPACITORS
∑ ENERGY STORED IN CAPACITOR
∑ TYPES OF CAPACITORS
∑ USES OF CAPACITORS
∑ MAJOR DRAWBACK OF CAPACITORS
∑ CONCLUSION
∑ BIBLIOGRAPHY