CHAPTER 1

THE QUAIL INDUSTRY

There was a time when raising quails was just for plain fun or some hobbyists’ delight.
The late 70’s saw the birth of quail farming as a commercial enterprise. This was the period
when peddlers started selling “itlog ng pugo” on the streets, and when buyers enjoyed eating
them in the buses or passenger jeepneys, in public places, or in restaurants as part of the regular
menu. Being a novelty item, the demand for quail eggs and meat is increasing. Today, quail
raising is considered as another addition to the expanding food production industry in the
Philippines.
Most quail products are sold to wholesalers or retailed by peddling them. Quail eggs and
meat have become part of the Filipino taste and culinary preparations. There is a traditional
belief that quail products are much more nutritious than chicken products. What started as a
hobby has developed into full scale business operation and later into an industry by itself. The
quail hobbyist becomes an efficient raiser, learning skills not only in management but also in
feeds and feeding, disease control and breeding. He likewise becomes an experienced consultant,
trainer and mentor to a new raiser. At present, many quail raisers are members of big
cooperatives which have been established to stabilize the quail industry and provide technical
assistance to producers. Marketing assistance is afforded through market linkages.
It Is interesting to note that quail products are also very popular in other countries. Quails
eggs are favorite food items in Japan, where they are packed in thin plastic cases or boxed like
chicken eggs and sold fresh in many food stores. They are also sold boiled and shelled, or
canned. Quail eggs are excellent hors d’oeuvres. They are also used to make mayonnaisse, cakes
and other food preparations. Scrambled quail eggs are mixed with whiskey and serve as a very
popular aphrodisiac in Thailand. In France, Italy, United States, Brazil, Chile and in countries of
Asia, quail meat is a very popular item. It is particularly delicious when charcoal broiled. One
company in Spain annually processes 20 million quails for meat (National Research Council,
1991).
Advantages of Quail Raising
Compared to raising of other poultry species, quail raising needs a small capital
investment and small space. Land is very expensive and few people have large tracts of lands to
house even a small scale livestock enterprise. Most people who live in the urban places have
limited areas to spare. Quail pens or cages can be housed under a house in the garage or in the
backyard It is not surprising, therefore that many enthusiasts have predicted that quail farming
will be as popular as raising of chickens.
1
 Raising quails offers other added advantages. Quails are so precocious that they can lay
eggs when hardly more than 6 weeks old it is said that about 20 quails are sufficient to supply an
average family with eggs the whole year-round. Quails could maintain higher productivity longer
than chickens. This could mean more income to the farmers. It requires small amounts of feed,
and therefore, it is quite inexpensive to maintain. They are very efficient in converting feeds to
eggs and meat, Quail raisers could save on the cost of replacement stocks, since new stocks are
usually obtained from the very first foundation stocks one has started and propagated. Quails are
quick growers and are very fast multipliers. The high demand for quail products will continue to
encourage farmers to raise quails as a hobby, a sideline, or as their main source of livelihood.
Quail raising is said to be the business venture of those with limited capital but who look
for high returns in a short period of time Some raisers claimed a 41-66% return on investment
(ROI) (Cambel 1986), which simply indicates a return of P41 to P66 profit for every P100
invested in the business. It was also reported that a quail enterprise may have a 6 month-payback
period (Soliven, 1987). This means that an operator could recover his investments during the first
6 months of laying period, then earn profits for the rest of the quails’ productive life. Quail layers
are raised by many for one biological laying year. Other raisers found them productive for one
and a half years.
The requirement for technical knowhow and skill in operating a quail project is rather
low. No complicated technology is needed in starting the enterprise. Fundamental principles and
basic skills in raising of chickens are sufficient to equip the beginners with the necessary
rudiments. These can even easily be taught by friends or neighbors already engaged in the
business.
There is a great potential for the quail industry. Competition within the business itself is
very minimal. The market for quail products is not yet saturated. The projected total demand is
several times higher than the total supply. In places where there are already quail raisers
operating, one can start the business without having to compete with them for market. While it is
true that the competition faced by quail raising within the whole food industry is relatively high
since it has to compete with the more popular and available food items (e.g. chips, candies,
baked and bakery goods), quail eggs are expected to offer an advantage. Quell meat, which is
also considered a novelty item, stands a good chance of competing with beef, pork and chicken.
Moreover, quail products have an open market in neighboring Asian countries like China and
Japan that import quality products in volumes.

Limitations
Like any other business enterprise, the quail industry is beset by some pressing problems
which could drive beginners out of business. Lack of marketing information is a big problem for
most quail raisers. Being part of a relatively small industry, they are burdened by the absence of

2
support systems for marketing. Some raisers found themselves with no option but to sell their
products to middlemen at a price that lowers their profit margins to the point of even losing.
When government institutions launched their programs of encouraging people to engage in this
business, they failed to provide marketing support.
Another major problem of the quail industry is the high prices of feeds. Feeds constitute
70-80% of the total operational cost in a quail enterprise. As one recent entrepreneurial study
(Sarmiento, 1995) revealed, some raisers had to close-shop because of the increasing prices of
feedstuff, particularly corn and fishmeal.
The quail raisers are not only at the mercy of the middlemen for their products, but also
of the suppliers of feeds and medical supplements. These suppliers do not give priority to the
quail industry because most raisers operate on a small scale. Moreover, quails require lesser
inputs than chickens, so only small quantities may be bought. This situation places the suppliers
at an advantageous position because they can increase prices of feeds and medications. Bigger
farms have the opportunity to offset this comparative advantage of suppliers and buyers by
adjusting to the economies of scale. This means that the bigger the operation is, the smaller the
unit cost of production. The system enables the farmers to mark a higher profit margin in
meeting the current market price of the product. For example, at production level of 5,000 layers
and above (Sarmiento, 1995), a quail raiser can buy feeds in large quantities, open credit lines
and obtain discounts. They could also answer the dermand of institutional buyers (i.e. hotels and
restaurants) for bigger volumes of the product. Small-scale operators can also resort to this
system by organizing themselves into a cooperative that can provide them the needed marketing
and credit assistance.

Quail Population
Statistics on the population and information on the number of farms raising quails in the
Philippines are very limited. Reports on its population number are fragmented. It is as if the
industry does not exist. This is very surprising because when one travels anywhere in the
country, chances of seeing quail products being sold are very high.
Some 4,053 heads from Zamboanga Stock Farm in Zamboanga City, 180 from Basilan
Breeding Center and 230 from a private Poultry Breeding Center in Zamboanga del Sur have
been reported in 1993. Quail raising in region XI (Davao, South Cotabato and Surigao del Sur),
is concentrated only in the city, with a total inventory of 13,000 heads and a corresponding
growth rate of 38% from 1988 to 1992. Rustia (1991) presented a list of the number of quails
maintained in different areas of the country in 1991 (Table 1). It can be generalized from these
reports that quail raising is scattered all over the country, but the greatest concentration of quail
population is in Bulacan. Indeed, Bulacan supplies the bulk of the quail meat and egg needs of

3
the markets in Metro Manila. The second highest population of quails is in Quezon province
where quail raising is becoming a very popular enterprise.

The Bureau of Agricultural Statistics reported an inventory of poultry species including

quail from 1980 to 1988 (Table 2). It is interesting to note that the number of quail population
decreased and increased erratically every other year. This can be attributed to the production
schedule of the birds Most quail farmers raise quails for one biological laying year after which
half of the layers are slaughtered and sold as quail meat. The rest of the birds are allowed to
produce the hatching eggs to replenish the population. Therefore, in the following year, the
resulting population may have been more than double that of the previous year. This cycle of
slaughtering and reproduction could have been practised until now However, many quail raisers
have already improved their stock replacement program to sustain and increase the population.

4
5
 No data on the total quail population yearly are available after 1988. However, in 1999,
the Bureau of Agricultural Statistics released information on quali populations from Regions III

6
and IV (Table 3a). It is clearly seen from these data that Bulacan still remains the seat of quail
farming in the country. It is closely followed by Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, Cavite, and Batangas.
There was a significant drop in quail populations from Quezon province which formerly ranked
second to Bulacan in terms of quail inventory. Linear projectioris show the relative increase in
population per year (Table 3b).
Demand and Supply
In the absence of information on the actual supply and utilization of quail eggs, a
feasibility picture could be drawn. It is assumed that 70% of the population presented in Table 3
are females and the laying efficiency is at 70%. The calculated supply of quail eggs in 1999 was
around 290,835,676. Likewise, if the demand is assumed to be 7.85 times that of supply, then the
demand was calculated to be 2,283,060,053 for that year.
Considering these figures, there is a 32.62 per capita consumption of quail eggs in 1999. Table 4
shows the demand, supply and demand-supply gap as projected.

7
8
Breeds to Raise
There are many breeds/strains of quail today but the most popular in the Philippines are the
following:
1. Japanese Seattle – with rust maroon feathers at the base of the head. The female has a
grey underside flecked with darker feathers, while the male has reddish feathers on the
breast.
2. Negro -characteristically black or greyish black in color.
3. Silver -white or cream in color.
For more detailed descriptions and discussions of quail breeds and strains, see Chapter 2.

9
 CHAPTER 2
EARLY HISTORY, DOMESTICATION AND
DEVELOPMENT OF QUAIL BREEDS AND STRAINS

The quail family is a very fascinating and popular family of birds. They are found all over
the world and most are small in size. Because of this, they have become a very popular backyard
species especially where space for aviaries is very limited. Hayes and Hayes (1987) gave a
complete listing of all the species that constitute the quail family where the Coturnix quail
belongs (Table 5).

Most of these species, with the exception of the Coturnix and Bowhite quails, are used
mainly as ornamental animals by aviculturists. Some are favorite hunting birds as quail shooting
became popular in Europe and the United States several decades ago. The other species are
raised as game birds for fighting. Many fanciers and hobbyists have also become interested in
raising these adaptable species as pets. Science teachers find them as excellent subjects for
classroom projects.
The Coturnix group consists of several species of quail found in Europe, Asia and Africa.
Some aviculturists call them the “Old World Quail”. Their main feature is their habit of
migration. They go thousands of miles in search for food or to escape the hazards of bad weather.

10
It is believed that this is the family of quail, well known in the Old Testament, which was fed to
the Children of Israel in the wilderness (Hayes, 1992).
The early history and domestication of Coturnix quail has been comprehensively
reviewed by Crawford (1990). The wild and domesticated quail belongs to the order Galliformes,
family Phasianidae, subfamily Phasianinae, and genus Coturnix. Within this genus, five species
are recognized. These are presented in Table 6.

Nota bene:

11
The C. japonica Temminck and Schlegel were given separate species status by the American
Ornithologists' Union in 1983 and were combined with the common quail (C. coturnix) in a
superspecies. They are distinguished as full species because of differences in vocalizations and
sympatric breeding in northern Mongolia. However, they do not hybridize readily and its
offspring are sterile or have low fertility.
The following earlier descriptions of species, terrain and habitat by Hayes and Hayes
(1987) fit the latest information on species distribution.
Eurasian quail. This is also known as the Common quail, breeds in Northern Europe to
Central Asia, southern to Mediterranean countries. Middle East, Southern Asia, east to
Burma and us to 9.000 feet in Tibet
Feeds and thrives from the southern breeding range south to Fepical Africa almost to the
eguntay be frorecipitation in early tronica within the breeding range may be from 1 to 4
inches in a month
Japanese quail. Breeds from Southern Siberia and Northern China to Korea and
Northern Japan, Found during winters mainly Chin Central China and Southern Japan to
Indochina, Burma and Assam. The spring rainfall is usually 1 to 5 inches per month
Black breasted quail. Also known as the Rain quail. Resident but locally migratory from
6,000 feet in the Southern Himalayas but in throughout the Indian subcontinent. The
rainfall in the breeding season ranges from 0.5 to 5 inches monthly to 15 inches or more
during the monsoon.
Harlequin quail. Predominantly a tropical to subtropical species although extending into
the lower temperate zone in South Africa. If there is precipitation, it breeds throughout
the year. An Arabian subspecies exists where there is no more than 4 inches of rain
annually.
Australian quail. Known as Pectoral quail. Mainly a lower temperate to subtropical
species. There is an annual rainfall of 10 to 40 inches within its range. Fall and winter
may be dry. Snow is absent to uncommon.
African quail. A nomadic African representative of Eurasian quail inhabiting the lower
temperate to tropical zones. Breeds throughout the year with the rains in the tropics and
normally in early summer in South Africa where rainfall is from 0.5 to 3 Inches per
month within its range.
Almost all modern or domesticated Coturnix japonica were developed from the wild
Japanese quail. Domestication began in the 11 th century in Japan, China or Korea. Development
of Coturnix coturnix may have occurred elsewhere, but this is not supported by any evidence. It
is not certain whether the stocks that developed from the common quail still exist.

12
 Wetherbee (1961) as cited by Crawford (1990) gave descriptions of the birds of the genus
Coturnix. They are small, chubby, tailless. Cinnamon-colored, terrestriai galiiformes, of varying
features but adaptable in their biology Adult body weights of the wild type is 98 g for males and
102 g for females. They prefer to live in seeded pastures and meadows, from coastal plains to
elevations of 1,000 m above sea level. During the breeding season, the birds live in couples, but
during the cold months, they gather in large flocks. They feed on all types of food (omnivorous)
The wild C. japonica lays 7-12 eggs in each nest (Kawahara, 1967 as cited by Crawford, 1990).
The females sit on the eggs for hatching and brood the young. Incubation period iasts from 16-21
days.
From its place of origin, the Japanese quail migrated to different countries like Mongolia,
Manchuria, Korea, Honshu, Taiwan, Hainan and Eastern China. These birds were introduced to
the Hawaiian islands, North America and United States of America. The introductions to Lanai
and Maui Islands in 1921 may prove to be of genetic significance; if the species are domestic or
semidomestic, they may be a feral remnant of the stocks bred by the Japanese for song, which
were wiped out during the Second World War.
Thousands of C. coturnix from Sicily were released into Northeastern USA from 1877 to
1882 but were not established. The “Migratory Chinese Quail,” now believed to be C. japonica,
were imported in big numbers by restaurants on the US west coast between 1895 to 1904. In the
1950’s, large numbers of game-farm propagated quails were released in southeastern and
southcentral states.
Although these introductions were not very successful, some of them have survived and
become popular in laboratory colonies for research work, and in commercial farms for egg and
meat production (Crawford, 1990). The Coturnix japonica in the Philippines is claimed to have
been introduced from Hongkong in 1960 (Villegas, 1975). However, this is contestable because
as early as 1946, some ornithologists already described and listed the existence of bird specimens
belonging to the Asiatic Migratory quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) in some islands in Luzon
(Delacour and Mayr, 1946). See discussions on Philippine native quail.
Records of the domestication of the Japanese quail and the common quail are incomplete.
After a review of available literature, Crawford (1990) speculated that the Coturnix japonica
started to be domesticated in Japan in the 11 th century or they may have been introduced there as
domestic birds from China or Korea. The ancient Greeks and Romans also raised quails,
presumably the C. coturnix, for fighting rather than for food. The Americans propagated
Japanese quail for release as game birds (Wetherbee 1961) for egg and meat production and as
laboratory animals. Padgett and Ivey (1959) has a pioneer report on its use as a laboratory
animal.
In Japan, the birds were first kept and bred by the Samurai or warrior caste (Taka-
Tsukasa, 1935). The interest in improving the merits of the birds for eggs and meat production
started in 1910. Improved stocks were already established in Korea, China and Taiwan by the

13
time of Nippon imperial expansion. Like the information on the domestication of Japanese quail,
records of the development of the breeds or strains of quails are very limited. Names of
improved breeds or strains (Table 7) are known, but their origins and descriptions are
incomplete. The plumage color patterns in some strains of Japanese quail is shown in Figure 1.
The more popular breeds/strains that are commonly raised by the quail fanciers in the
Philippines include the Japanese Seattle (Fig. 2), Negro (Fig. 3) and Silver (Fig. 4). Other quail
raisers claimed that Tuxedo may not only be wholesome and dignified in features but can also
compare with the other popular breeds in terms of performance.
Although the American or Bobwhite quail and the Japanese quail are classified in the
same zoological family (Phasianidae), they are of different genera and species (Colinus
virginianus and Coturnix coturnix japonica, respectively), (Aboul-ela et al, 1992). They are also
of different geographical origins. The Japanese quail originated from Mongolia, Sakhalin islands
and Japan and the Bobwhite quail from North America. Bobwhites are characterized by beautiful
color patterns. This species is well known for its familiar “bobwhite” call. An interesting fact
about the male is that during spring and early summer, he makes the call “bob-bob-white” when
he does not have a mate, and drops the extra “bob” when he gets a partner (Hayes and Hayes,
1987). There are several subspecies of bobwhites known today, the more popular of which is the
Common Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus virginianus). This subspecies is very popular, evidenced
by the existence of a giant commercial industry which is supplying this quail in the American
market. It is also a very favorite specimen of breeders for color mutation and size manipulation.
Some breeders have already produced “jumbo bob” strains weighing 620-630 g. In addition to
the Common Bobwhite, there are incredibly 21 more subspecies existing in the United States
today. For a comprehensive description and places of distribution, the reader is referred to the
book of Hayes and Hayes (1987).

14
15
16
The Philippine native quail, which is commonly known as "pugo", is believed to be a
descendant of the common quail (Coturnix coturnix). It is small and has low egg production
potential. Early ornithologists listed several birds found in various islands of the Philippines and
called them quails. Some of these birds which are characterized by extreme variations in
plumage patterns and color, color and size of feet, shanks, bill, eyes and other physical attributes
do not necessarily belong to the Family Phasianidae or to the Genus Coturnix (Table 8). The four
reported major types belong to the Family Turnicidae from Order Turniciformes. The size is
small; the largest Philippine species is under 200 mm in length, the others much smaller. Birds of

17
this family can be recognized by the absence of a hind toe. They are usually found in grassy
plains. The flight is rapid but only of short duration. They make a nest on the ground beneath a
tuft of grass where the bird lays three to four spotted brown eggs (Hachisuka, 1931).

18
 All the discussions and data contained in this book, if not otherwise specified pertain to
the Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica).

General Characteristics of Quail

Quails are active, restless and excitable. A slight disturbance causes them to stampede
which adversely affects their egg production The more popular breeds nave reddisn brown
plumage with dark brown, white or grey mottlings. Others are characteristically black or white.
The bird is hardly the size of a man's fist. The body weight of females at sexual maturity varies
from 108.2 to 124.4 g, with an average of 115.0 g. The males are 10 g lighter than the females.
Because of this characteristic, it requires a small space and less feeds. Therefore, it is
inexpensive to maintain. Each layer consumes 16 to 24 g of feeds each day
The egg is of normal shape, wide at the base and pointed at the tip. It is mottled with deep
brown or black spots throughout the shell surface It weighs 9.03 g. Incubation period is from 16
to 18 days. Quail starts to lay eggs at 42 days old. Each layer is capable of producing 200 eggs a
year but younger females can produce 230 eggs per year. The productive life of quails is up to 2
years.
Other interesting facts about quail as compared to chicken are given in Table 9.

19
20
21
22
 CHAPTER 3

QUAIL BREEDING, INCUBATION

AND HATCHERY MANAGEMENT

Production of Replacement Stocks

Unlike in raising of modern layer chickens where a new batch of chicks should be bought
after one biological laying year, replacement stocks for quail farming can be obtained from the
very first foundation stocks one has started and propagated. Throughout the world, the
multiplication of quails still follows a system of pureline breeding. There are no specific strains
or crosses of strains bred for specific qualities fit for a particular purpose, i.e. meat strain or egg
strain. All quail breeds are still dual purpose. There are few breeders that have produced single
crosses. But they are n5ot 6 the triple cross or four-way cross strains of the modern chicken.
With the aid of selection and some breeding techniques, the quail raiser can produce a
new batch of layers from the flock he is keeping This is the current trend in quail farming. The
quail raiser becomes the breeder. The propagation of a good flock of quail, therefore, depends on
the manipulation of the breeder-raiser.
The serious objection to this system of production of replacement stocks is the possibility
of having inbreeding especially in small closed flock populations. It is possible that after some
generations of closed flock mating, the members of the population would be related to one
another. Though this relationship would vary. Many would be half-sibs, some would be cousins,
some would be less closely related to one another, and a few might be full sibs.
Early experiments of the author (Capitan, 1981) showed that five generations of random
mating in small closed populations of Japanese qualls led to significant inbreeding depressions.
The economic traits adversely affected were egg production, body weight, brooder and laye5r
aanhouse livability, hatchability an5d feed efficiency for egg production. It was found out that
for every 10% increase in inbreeding, there was a corresponding reduction of 3% in egg
production, 4.76% in hatchability, 1.7 gin five-week body weight, 2.3-3.1% in brooder house
livability and 7.9% in layer house livability. Likewise, there was an adverse effect of 0.3-0.5 in
feed efficiency for egg production for every 10% increment in inbreeding The inbreeding
experiments of Sittman et al. 1966) yielded several consequences. Maternal inbreeding caused a
decline in hatchability of eggs of about 3% for each 10% increase in inbreeding For inbreeding
pairs, fertility was also depressed by approximately 11%, about 4% of which was due to
complete male infertility.

23
 The ill effects of inbreeding can be attributed to two major factors First, if the traits
involved have a heterozygote advantage, the inheritance of the homozygous state wil reduce an
individual's fitness. Second, an increase in homozygosity wil also increase the likelihood of
expression homozygous which may be deleterious. These could be offset, however, by
introduction of new members of the population, (i.e. quails from other nearby farms) to minimize
the concentration of undesirable recessive genes which could result to inbreeding degenerations.
Moreover, proper Selection should be practised, coupled with linebreeding program if the flock
is superior in performance.

Selection of Breeders and Layers

In the absence of strict breeding practices for quails, individuals are selected based on
desired phenotypic traits. The healthy layers and male breeders should exhibit well-developed
body, good conformation, full feathers and bright and alert eyes. It is a common practice to select
early laying birds as breeders.
The right proportion of males and females in the flock is very important for good
hatchability. Studies in the Institute of Animal Science, College of Agriculture, UPLB show that
a ratio of 1 male to 4 females is optimum. There are many males in the flock when fernales have
bare backs or worn off feathers. An inadequate number of males causes fighting among the
females and results in poor hatchability of the eggs. Fertility increases when the males and
females are kept together at all times. Moreover, aggressive behavior is reduced (cannibalism
and pecking) if matings are established before birds reach sexual maturity. The average duration
of fertility after removal of males is slightly over 6 days (maximum of 11 days), and upon
reintroduction of the males, fertile eggs are produced on the third day (Sittmann and Abplanalp,
1965).

Sexing of Quails
Males can easily be distinguished from the females. The Japanese Seattle breed possesses
sex-influenced feathers that permit identification sax at 21 days of age or earlier (Yosraj, 1983).
The males have reddish color of the feathers in front of the neck and breast, while the females
are characterized by grey underside, flecked with darker feathers (Fig. 5). At 30 days of age or
older, males of other breeds can be recognized by their throaty hoarse cry, or gurgling staccato
whistles (Villegas, 1975). Females have a blackish or greyish vent and a sharp, high-pitched,
long, shrilling, melodious chirp.
It is interesting to know that the reproductive systern of quails has a distinctive feature,
the cloacal gland, which has neither been described in other species or subspecies, nor
systematically studied in this subspecies. This unique feature, present in both sexes of C.C.

24
japonica, is particularly noticeable in the male because if the individual is sexually active, the
gland swells, causing a large protrusion just posterior to the cloacal vent.
The cloacal protrusion of many male passerines, in breeding condition, appears similar in
relative size and external appearance, but its cause is very different. In passerines, this protrusion
is caused by the increased convolution of the sperm ducts. In the Japanese quail, there is no such
increase; rather, there is considerable growth of the glandular tissue lining the wall of the cloaca
just prior to the cloacal opening. Microscopically, the gland appears as columnar epithelial cells
lining a network of tubules or lumina. When the enlarged cloacal protrusion is gently
compressed, a white foam, having the appearance and consistency of a meringue, is expressed
from the cloaca. Therefore, in the coturnix, identification of the sex is also possible by observing
the development of the cloacal gland after the birds are 4 wks of age. This gland is located in the
dorsal wall of the cloaca and, as has been described earlier, becomes hypertrophic in the sexually
active males (Fig. 6).

The above methods are not satisfactory for experiments where one sex is preferred, and a
very early initiation of experimental procedure is desired. A saving in time and expense may be
achieved by sexing day-old birds.
Sexing by Cloacal Examination
Although day-old coturnix quail weighs less than 8 g and the diameter of the cloacal
opening is less than 3 mm, the accuracy of sexing quails by cloacal examination is comparable or
25
better than that reported for day-old chicks. The procedures, as described by Homma et al.
(1966), are as follows.
a. Handling of day-old coturnix. To facilitate sex determination, hold the head or neck
of the bird between the index and middle fingers of the left hand, with the head of the
baby quail down. The abdominal wall should be pressed gently with the thumb of the
left hand to evert the cloaca and to effect defecation. Clean the vent of urine and feces
with a piece of soft tissue paper. Manipulate the regions to be observed with the index
finger and the thumb of the right hand to obtain a clear view.
b. Morphological basis of sexing. The slightly everted cloacae of typical male and
female day-old quail is illustrated in Fig. 7. A heart-shaped fold or protuberance is
evident in the midventral area of cloaca in male; it is characterized by a deep median
fissure on its dorsal surface. In the female, the fold is usually flat and does not protrude
as in the male. In most females, this fold has a slight median fissure on its dorsal margin
(Fig. 7, c and d).
Moreover, both sexes have a small genital process located medially on the ventral
cloacal margin (Fig. 7, a). This structure is equivalent to the genital process of the
chicken, in which it serves as an important criterion for sexing.
In the experiments of Homma et al. (1966), they found that neither the shape nor the
color of the genital process was important in sexing quails. Only males with an exceptionally
large genital process can be distinguished accurately. Sexing based on protuberal morphology
was found to be accurate.
Some quail chicks with atypical genital structures could be encountered. These may come
in the form of small protuberances in the male, and a very swollen genital fold or a flat fold with
deep median fissure in the female. Sexing accuracy for atypical bird is rather low. The most
difficult atypical structure is the presence of male-like genital structures in the females.
Fortunately, birds with this type structure are very rare. Higher levels of accuracy requires
regular practice on the part of the sexor.

26
Artificial Insemination
Artificial insemination of quail is possible but necessitates considerable skill and practice.
It requires a great deal of labor for training the inseminators. Usually the fertility obtained is
rather low compared to natural matings, especially if the inseminators lack the necessary
experience.
Collection of semen appears to be a very big handicap. Due to the anatomical location of
the cloacal gland, it is very difficult to collect semen without the contamination of some of the
foamy secretion from this gland. While this secretion may not have any adverse effect on semen
quality, it makes the ejaculate difficult to handle. Semen contaminated with the foamy secretion

27
of the cloacal gland is also hard to subdivide into uniform samples for inseminating several
females from a single collection.
The detailed procedures, as described by Marks and Lepore (1965), are as follows:

A. Semen Collection. To collect the semen, the male is held in the right hand with its breast
in the palm of the hand and the tail pointed toward the forefinger. The foamy secretion is
forced from the cloacal gland by squeezing the gland with the thumb and the forefinger
of the left hand and is then discarded. The forefinger and adjacent finger of the left hand
are held firm against the emptied cloacal gland with pressure toward the back of the bird
instead of downward. The forefinger and adjacent finger of the right hand apply a gentle
massage to the abdomen followed by the application of firm pressure to the region just
below the vent with these two fingers. The viscous ejaculate which is extruded is
collected with a micropipette fitted with rubber tubing and a mouthpiece.
B. Insemination Proper. For insemination, the female is also held in the right hand with the
back in the palm of the hand and the vent toward the forefinger. With the forefinger and
adjacent finger at the right hand above and the same fingers of the left hand below, a
slight pressure is applied toward the head of the bird until she everts the oviduct. A
micropipette containing the desired dose of semen is then inserted approximately 1 cm
into the vagina, and the female is relaxed before semen deposition. Two workers can
collect the semen and inseminate approximately three birds in two minutes when the
birds have been conditioned.

C. Insemination Details
1. Semen dose – 0.02 ml per bird of undiluted semen.
2. Time of insemination one hour before the end of light period.
3. Insemination schedule two consecutive days, with a day interval prior to the 3 rd
insemination.

Production of Quail x Chicken Hybrids

It has been known for sometime now that quail can be crossed with chicken. There were
already several experiments done which were aimed at producing this interspecific hybrid. One
of the pioneering studies in this research was that of Arboleda in the mid 70’s at the Institute of
Animal Science (then Department of Animal Science), CA, UPLB. He was able to produce
interspecific hybrids by crossing a cockerel and a female quail, the offspring of such a cross is
called “chiquail”, and by crossing a male quail and a hen, the offspring being called “quicken”.

28
The crossbreeding was accomplished through artificial insemination. In all his attempts,
however, the hybrids produced were all sterile (Arboleda, 1999)
Fertile hybrids between a cockerel and a hen quail are now being produced at the
Department of Veterinary Sciences in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (National Research Council,
1991). The researchers in this institution were able to create a strain that produces eggs of good
quality and meat with flavor of both parents. The hybrid is intermediate in size between chicken
and quail, which is just convenient because it is about optimum for an individual helping. The
cockerels used through artificial insemination were the local Ayam Kampung, Bantam, Hybro,
and Golden Comet Hybrids, while the quails were the locally Inbred Japanese Quail (IJQ) and
imported meat strain quail (IMSQ). Their experiments showed that hybrids derived from the
IMSQ flocks grew faster and bigger than those from the IJQ cross. The best have been the Hybro
x IMSQ crosses, which weighed 475 g at 10 wks of age. The best of the IJQ group weighed 290
g during the same peroid. The researchers who developed the hybrid have named it ”yamyuh”.

Collection, Handling and Storage of Hatching Eggs

Eggs should be collected in the afternoon when most of the birds are expected to have
oviposited (see Chapter 6). More frequent collection is recommended if labor can be shared by
other members of the family, to minimize the exposure of the eggs to microorganisms, dirt and
predators. The eggs should be placed in open baskets or small improvised boxes with holes.
Dirty eggs should be cleaned with warm water (110-115°F) immediately after collection.
Cold water is not recommended because it will cause contraction of the egg contents, and dirt
and microorganisms may be drawn inside the eggs through the pores of the shell. Eggs with dirt
or fecal matters which are hard to remove should not be included in the eggs to be incubated.
Likewise, cracked, misshapen, soft-shelled, and abnormally large or too small eggs should not be
incubated. Their hatchability is usually poor and attainment of uniformity of quail chicks at hatch
is a problem.
Store hatching eggs in a cool place with temperature of 50-60°F and a relative humidity
of 70-75%. Do not keep them in a refrigerator because the humidity there is too low and the egg
contents will dry up. If specially designed egg trays could be made, it is preferable to store
hatching eggs with the large or butt end up. This will prevent the egg contents in creating
pressure against the air cell which may result to leakage of egg materials. Keep hatching eggs on
storage for not more than seven days.
Natural Incubation
Incubation is the process of subjecting eggs from a mated flock to proper conditions
outside the birds’ body for the embryo to develop into a quail chick. When a mother quail sits on
her eggs to provide the required conditions for them to develop and hatch, the process is called

29
natural incubation. The incubation period is 16-18 days for Japanese quails and 18-21 days for
American (Bobwhite) quails. Normally, native quails will hatch their own eggs, but the imported
breeds are not broody and will not incubate their eggs, hence, artificial incubation is necessary.

Artificial Incubation
Artificial incubation is a mimicry of natural incubation. The incubation factors provided
by the mother bird and the natural environment for embryo development are simulated in
artificial incubators. The principles involved are the same.
In the absence of specially designed incubators for quail eggs small table type, still air
incubators used in hatching chicken eggs can be used in hatching quail eggs. The grills of the
incubator trays should be adjusted or improvised to fit the size of quail eggs. Today, there are
different kinds of modern incubators available in the market which may differ in size, design,
kind of fuel used, method of heating the eggs, and some automation features. For practical use, a
small box type still air and electrically operated incubator can be employed (Fig. 8). A bigger
version of this kind of incubator (Fig. 9) may be used when more number of eggs is to be
hatched in one setting. If electric current interruption is oftentimes a problem in the area, a
similar type, but petroleum fueled incubator should be used.
In other countries, there are specially designed forced draft incubators for hatching quail
eggs, such as the one shown in Fig. 10. This, however, is probably more expensive and have to
be imported. Provided proper specifications are known, this can be locally designed and even
improved.
Assuming, there is excellent fertility of the eggs from the breeder flock, the success of incubation
will depend greatly on the following incubation factors:
1. Temperature. The chick embryo develops within very narrow limits of temperature. For
the type of incubator recommended above, this temperature range is between 99-101°F.

30
 Lower temperatures result to slow embryonic development while higher temperatures
cause abnormally faster development of chicks which is also not desirable.
2. Relative Humidity. Hatchability of eggs is affected by moisture conditions inside the
incubator. As eggs lose water during the incubation process, it is important to take note of
the relative humidity. For good hatches, a relative humidity of 80-85% should be
maintained. Very low humidity leads to drying up of the eggs, whereas, too high humidity
results to "drowning" or stickiness of the chicks produced. Table type incubators have
water pans, which when filled with water, are designed to provide the optimum humidity.
Low, rather than high humidity is more of a problem in a still air or table type incubator.
3. Ventilation. The chick embryo is a living organism and therefore, requires oxygen for its
development. A normal fertile egg has all the materials required for embryonic
development except air. The embryo gets oxygen for growth and development from the
air which passes through the pores of the eggshell. The carbon dioxide produced by the
embryo also passes through these openings. For both purposes, the incubator should be
well ventilated. This is achieved by having good air circulation in the hatchery area and
by proper adjustments of air inlets and outlets. The oxygen requirements of chick
embryos increase rapidly as they develop. Therefore, ventilation must be increased during
the later stages of incubation.
4. Turning of eggs. For normal embryonic development, eggs must be turned or shifted in
position regularly during incubation. Failure to do so results in mortality because the
embryos will stick to the shell membranes or the yolk adheres to the allantois. Quail eggs
should be turned manually at least four times a day at regular intervals up to15 th day of
incubation.

Candling of Eggs
Examination or evaluation of the development of embryos during incubation is called
candling, and the equipment used is called a candler. A candler for quail eggs can be made of a
small box with a circular hole of 2 cm in diameter on each side (Fig. 11). An electric bulb or a
small kerosene lamp can be used as source of light. Eggs are candled by holding them against the
hole of the lighted box. An improved version of the candler is shown in Fig. 12. More eggs are
examined with relative ease and at a shorter duration by simply switching on the equipment and
moving the lighted end to the eggs being incubated.

31
 The candling procedure, although simple, needs some practice for one to become
proficient. This is particularly true for quail eggs in which the shell is characterized by brown or
black spots all over giving a mottled appearance. It is always better to do candling in a dark room
to have a clearer view of embryonic development for each egg examined.
Quail eggs are candled on the 10th day of incubation. Infertile eggs will appear clear or
there is no sign of development. Fertile eggs with live embryos will show enlarged dark area
with shadows of proliferated blood vessels. When they are rotated against the light, the embryos
follow the movement of the egg but with a fraction of a second late, meaning the embryos float
inside the egg and they are not stuck on the shell membrane. Fertile eggs with dead embryos are
also characterized by dark area inside the eggs, but the embryos stick to the side of the shell.
Bigger air cells and the absence of any visible movements are other features of dead embryos.
After candling, only those eggs with live embryos should be returned to the incubator.
Fertile eggs with dead embryos will rot and may explode, thereby spewing contaminated
materials in the entire incubator area.
Pulling Out the Hatch
From the day of setting, quail eggs will start to hatch on the 16 th day (Fig. 13). Do not
remove the early hatchers from the incubator. Wait for the others that will hatch on the 17 th or
18th day. Quail chicks are pulled out from the incubator at the same time on the 19 th day. They
should be placed in a carton box with holes and lined with strips of paper, or in an improvised
box made up of ¼ inch wire mesh. Only the healthy ones should be selected. The lame, crippled
and obviously weak should be culled out.

32
Hatchery Management
The hatchery room should be located in a well-ventilated area. This is essential for the
incubator. A well drained concrete floor is conducive to cleanliness in the hatchery.
Hatchery waste should be disposed of properly. In other countries, infertile eggs, dead
embryos, culled chicks and egg shells from hatched chicks constitute valuable animal feed
material. They are given to swine raisers. The larger hatcheries sometimes find it profitable to
sell the infertiles and dead embryos as food for pets. In the Philippines, the infertile eggs, dead
embryos and cull chicks are processed and sold as human food delicacies.
The incubator should be fumigated between hatches. To fumigate 2.83 cubic meters (100
cubic feet) of incubator space, 40 ml of 40% solution of formalin and 20 g of potassium
permanganate (KMnO4) crystals musi be used. Potassium permanganate crystals must be placed
in an earthenware container or glass dish at the bottom of the incubator where the formalin
solution should be poured over. The doors and air vents of incubator must be closed for several
hours and then opened to let the fumes dissipate. To be more effective, fumigation of the
incubator should be done on a dry run operation, (i.e., the water pans are filled with water and
the temperature maintained at 99-101°F).

33
 CHAPTER 4

HOUSING AND FACILITIES

Usually, the biggest portion of initial investment in a poultry enterprise is on housing and
facilities. However, the housing requirements of quails are not as complicated or costly as that of
chickens and other poultry species. This cost could further be reduced and the performance of the
birds can be better if the following factors are properly considered.

1. Comfort of the birds. Temperature is the most important bioclimatic factor that affects
the birds’ comfort, although humidity, air speed, space and solar radiation contribute
considerably.
2. Floor space. Overcrowding encourages cannibalism and prevents the less aggressive
birds from getting access to feed and water. On the other hand, too much space allowance
per bird increases the housing cost. The optimum space allowances should, therefore, be
followed in constructing a quail house (Table 10).
3. Economy of construction. The most common and cheapest materials available in the
locality should be used in constructing the quail house and the needed facilities. These
include bamboo, lumber, cocolumber, galvanized iron sheet, old fish nets, lawanit, and
chicken wire or welded mesh wire.

34
Brooder House

The brooder house should be a closed compartment. The roofing or top portion
and the three sides could be made of lawanit boards, while the front side should have 1.27
cm (1/2 inch) mesh wire or chicken wire as walling material. A 0.64 cm (1/4 inch) mesh
wire is an excellent flooring for the brooder house. For frames, 2.54 cm x 2.54 cm (1 inch
x 1 inch) coco lumber or wood can be used while for support, 5.08 cm x 5.08 cm (2 inch
x 2 inch) lumbers are suitable. A brooder house with dimensions of 60.96 x 137.16 x
30.48 cm (2 x 4.5 x 1.0 ft) is adequate for 200 quail chicks.

A 50 watt incandescent bulb in the brooding compartment is needed to provide

the needed heat and guide the chicks to feeds and water. The bulb must be placed at a
little distance away from the middle of the brooder to allow room for the birds to stay
away from the heat source in case of over-heating.

The brooder house could be designed as a battery type with four or five divisions
(Fig. 14). A large number of birds could thus be raised in a very small space. A 7.62 or
10.16 cm (3 or 4 inch) space between divisions is sufficient to accommodate dropping
boards for collecting fecal matters.

Grower and Layer House

The grower and layer house has a little bigger floor space provisions than the
brooder (Fig. 15). A 121.92 x 243.84 x 30.48 cm (4 x 8 x 1 ft) dimension can comfortably
house 250-300 birds. The flooring and all the walls are to be made of 1.27 to 2.54 cm
(1/2 to 1 inch) mesh wire or chicken wire for good ventilation while the top or cover
could be of lawanit board to prevent the birds from flying. The quails have the tendency
to fly upwards if the top of the cage is made of wire, and this may cause head injuries.
The layer house could be constructed with slightly inclined flooring (Fig. 16) so that the
eggs will roll to the front or side of the house, making egg collection easier. If this is not
desired, simple “egg catchers” could be improvised to facilitate egg collection inside the
layer house.

The cages or houses for quails can be placed under a roof, an elevated house, or In
a garage. Birds should be protected from rats, cats, and snakes. Old fish nets could be
used to cover unnecessary openings where predators can enter.

35
Fixtures
1. Feeders
Shallow feeders measuring 91.44 cm (3 ft) long, 10.16 cm (4 inch) wide, and 5.08
cm (2 inches) in height should be used inside the quail house. These could be made of
wood or galvanized (GI) iron sheet. To prevent the birds from scratching out the feeds, a
1.27 cm (1/2 inch) mesh wire should be cut to fit the trough and this should be laid
directly on the feed (Fig. 17a).

36
 Alternatively, 2.54 cm (1 inch) mesh wire could be used to cover the trough to
prevent the quails from dusting themselves with feeds. This bad habit of quails usually
results to more number of quails getting blind before the growing stage.
2. Waterers
The jar types or gallon waterers are the most practical drinking equipment for
quails. Each waterer should hold approximately 3.79 liters (1 gallon) of water. Using
several small waterers is better than few large type ones. However, these jar waterers,
with their deep and wide edges, are not suitable for the baby quails because they may
drown themselves. These waterers could be improvised by covering the edges with 2.54
cm (1 inch) mesh wire or placing clean stones inside the groove (Fig. 17b).
3. Egg Catcher
An egg catcher (Fig. 17c) will facilitate collection of eggs in layer houses with
levelled flooring.
4. Bird Net
A net used for catching birds (Fig. 17d) is very important to avoid injury to the
birds. A good net will save lots of accidents in catching your birds. Get a net that is small
enough to go through the doors of the pen, but large and deep enough to easily catch the
birds. It should have a handle long enough to reach the back corner of the pen.
5. Miscellaneous
Other items that come in handy are cutting pliers (for wire), ordinary pliers,
scissors, hammer, nails, cut pieces of mesh wire or chicken wire, and small strips of wood
or bamboo for immediate repairs. The breeder-raiser should have a lot of necessary items
on hand.

37
Other Tips on Housing
1. Although the laying house should be as open as possible, curtains or windbreaks should
be provided. Empty feed bags, burlap sacks or framed “sawali” could be used to cover
the sides during typhoons and heavy rains.
2. The relation of the quail farm with the other portions of the dwelling house must be
considered. Hygienic condition should always be insured for the health of the family and
the birds.
3. The quail house should be located in an area with adequate ventilation, but not exposed to
direct solar radiation and strong winds.
4. Beauty must be considered in the quail project. Since quail farming is a novelty business,
curious visitors will always come to see the birds and will judge the project with beauty
as a principal item in their score sheet.

38
 CHAPTER 5

BROODING AND GROWING

Brooding Management
Brooding is the stage during the early period of raising baby quails. The quail chicks are
grown in brooders (described in the earlier chapter) and provided with essential requirements.
The young quail, like other young birds, is poikilothermic or cold blooded right after hatching Its
body temperature follows the changes or fluctuations in the environmental temperature. This is
because the young birds’ thermoregulatory center located in the brain is not yet developed during
the early life. The complete posthatch development of this center requires at least three weeks.
Additional heat during this age is, therefore, a very Important requirement of the quail chicks.
For the same reason, brooding usually lasts for three weeks.

The following are useful tips prior to and during the brooding period.
1. The brooding compartment should be cleaned and disinfected two to three days prior to
actual brooding operations. The heater should be switched on for at least half an hour
before the quail chicks arrive.
2. The brooder house must be enclosed with movable curtains to check draft.
3. About six layers of old newspapers should be laid on the entire floor of the brooding
compartment. This serves as feeder for six days. The top layer must be removed daily.
4. The feed for the birds should be spread over the newspaper and the waterers (described in
earlier chapter) must be placed away from the light bulb. The space under the bulb should
be left free for the birds to lie down or crowd together. The feeds must not be placed in
this area as the birds will lie down and blind themselves while under the heat of the bulb.
5. The baby quails must be placed in the brooder as soon as they are removed from the
incubator or once they arrive from the hatchery. Initially, the birds must be guided
because they will find a hard time getting to the feeds and water.
6. There should always be plenty of cool and fresh drinking water. Feeds must be replaced
as they are consumed. It will be better if the birds could drink and eat as soon as they are
housed. Vitamins, minerals and antibiotic supplements may be added to the drinking
water during the first three days.
7. The number of birds in the brooder must be adjusted as they grow older. This is to
provide more floor space for growing birds. When they are 15 days old, they must be
transferred to growing cages or reduced in number to fit the floor space allowance
recommended for their age. At this age, the birds are already fully feathered.

39
 8. Sanitation should be considered as a daily management activity. Proper disposal of
vaccine vials, dead birds and other wastes must be strictly observed.

The temperature in the brooder must be reduced gradually as the quails grow older.
Generally, quails do not need additional heat after four weeks. A thermometer is not necessary to
check if the temperature is right at any time during the brooding period. The behavior of the
birds in the brooder can be used as a guide to determine correct temperature in the brooder (Fig.
18). If the temperature is lower than what the birds require, they huddle against each other, or
they prefer to get crowded near the source of heat. If the temperature is above the optimum
requirement, the quail chicks move away from the heater, spread their wings and pant. There is a
draft when they wedge behind the source of heat. An even distribution of the birds around the
light bulb or in the entire brooding area indicates optimum temperature where they are
comfortable.
Necessary adjustments should be done to attain optimum brooder temperature, (i.e. raising or
lowering the electric bulb). This could also be achieved by increasing or decreasing the light
intensity.

Rearing Management
The males should be distinguished from the females as early as possible. One can use the
tips described in the earlier chapter to do this. Only optimum number of males (1 male: 4
females) in the flock must be retained. Extra males can be grown as broilers. The earlier this is
done, the better it is for the quail raiser because feeds can be saved and extra income can be
realized from the sale of broiler quails.

40
Fig. 18. Brooding temperature guide based on the behavior of the quail chicks. (a) The quail
chicks feel comfortable and are evenly distributed around the source of heat when the
temperature is right (b) There is a draft when the quail chicks wedge behind the source of
heat. (c) It is too hot when the quail chicks open their wings and move away from the source
of heat. (d) It is too cold when the quail chicks pile up under the source of heat.
At 30 days old, the reproductive organs of the quail pullets start to develop morphologically
and physiologically in preparation for reproduction (egg production). This is manifested by the
following signs of approaching sexual maturity.
1. Pelvic bones become wide apart and the abdomen becomes enlarged
2. Quail pullet becomes happy and friendly.
3. She instinctively looks for nest if she has a chance to move around.
4. Vent becomes enlarged, dilated and moist.
5. All of the above manifestations are confirmed by the laying of the first egg in the later
period of development Indeed, this is the surest sign of sexual maturity

In raising commercial layer chickens, too early sexual maturity of pels is not desired It often
leads to the production of too many small eggs, low egg brod tends to be and low persistency of
egg prany small Moreover, mortality tends to be higher In fact, several measures have become
standard operating procedures for delaying sexual maturity in chickens.
For growing and raising quails, this is not a common practice. On me contrary, the birds that
mature and lay eggs early are selected as breeders. The earliest average age at sexual maturity as
recorded in studies conducted by the author (Capitan, 1981) was 49 days. This is seven days

41
more than the 42 days reported by Wilson et al (1961) and 8.55 days more than the 40.44 days
reported by Chalil et al (1975). If quail pullets are grown in a house different from the layer
house, transferring them is given due consideration. Everything should be programmed so that
the layer houses are readied at the right time whether it is a first batch of pullets or a replacement
stock. Quail pullets are best transfered before they commence laying. This is approximately at
the age of 30-35 days. Handling them when they have started laying is dangerous. There will be
mortalities due to fear, mishandling or egg breakage inside the body of the mother quail.
Handling itself is a form of stress that can depress egg production.
In many cases, quail chicks are brooded and grown to maturity in the same house where they are
kept for laying. For this system of quail production, transferring is not a problem.

42
 CHAPTER 6

MANAGEMENT OF BREEDER, LAYER AND BROILER QUAILS

The profit margins in quail production depend on a lot of factors However, the most
important is management. Healthy foundation stocks high quality feeds, assured market outlets
and effective business approach will show litle retum to investments unless safeguarded by good
management. The management of the layers can be as specific as to what should be done from
day to day or as broad as a planned program for a year operation.

Daily Routine Activities in the Layer House

1. Feeding
The level of different nutrients required by quails dictates the type of feeds that should be
given. Protein requirement of quails is the most controversial subject of inquiry in poultry
nutrition research. Several studies though, suggest that laying quails need a higher level of
protein compared to laying chickens. This might be due to the heavier egg weight in relation to
body mass of quail. Egg weight as percentage of body weight is 7.0 for quail and only 3.2 for
chicken (Wilson et al, 1961). Many raisers feed their quails with broiler starter ration which
contains 22% crude protein. Details of quail nutrition principles and feeding schemes are
discussed in Chapter 7.

The amount of feeds consumed by laying quails is influenced by the following factors:
a. Age, size and egg production rate of a particular layer. Mature, heavier and more egg
producing quails eat more feeds.
b. Energy level of the ration. High energy feeds result to low feed intake of laying quails.
The level of other nutrients in the diet should be adjusted if high energy ration is desired.
c. Environmental tome is high eats tend to eat less when Embient temperature is high and
eat more when it is cold. Again, the level of nutrients in the feed should be adjusted to fit
the expected increase or decrease in feed consumption.
d. Health condition of the flock. Healthy birds will obviously more feeds than those which
are sluggish and sick. eat
In general, mature laying quails consume as low as 16 g to as high 24 g (20 g average) in a
day. The birds should be fed at least tw times a day, distribution is morning and once in the
afternoon.ast two frequent feed distribution is desired by raisers who can afford to provide more

43
labor. Regardless of the frequency of giving the feeds, it must be assured that there are always
feeds in the feeder everytime, and feed wastage or spillage from beaking out or scratching is
prevented.
2.Provision of Drinking Water
Drinking water must be available to the birds at all times. Quail egg contains 70-75%
water (Novero, 1982). Like other species, quails dink more when the environmental temperature
is high. This is essential for efficient thermoregulation. Layers can take short period of starvation
(without feed) when water is available and still sustain an acceptable egg production rate.
However, water deprivation for a few hours, even when fed ad libitum, will certainly result in
depressed egg production.
3.Egg Collection
A laying quail is expected to produce one egg everyday under good feeding and
management. The reported average interval between consecutive ovipositions of quails is 24-25
hours (Wilson and Huang. 1962; Novero, 1982) irrespective of clutch length (Opel, 1966). The
quails, therefore, will pause or skip some days in egg production.
More than 80% of oviposition time in quails occur during the last seven hours of day
light when the birds are given 14 hours of day lighting (Opel, 1966), or in general, in the
afternoon (Wilson and Huang, 1962). In the study of Novero (1982), out of 717 oviposition
cases, 93% took place after 12:00 noon and 7% occurred earlier in the day (Fig. 19). The peak of
laying is at about 4:00 p.m. In chickens on the other hand, majority of hens lay their eggs
between 10:00 a.m. to 2 p.m., and the concentration of egg laying takes place before noon

(Coligado, 1975).
Some quail raisers practice egg collection once a day, that is, in the afternoon when majority
of the layers are expected to have dropped their eggs. It is recommended that eggs be collected
more frequently because of the following advantages:

44
 a. The eggs can be kept in the storage room where proper storage conditions can be
provided.
b. If the eggs are left longer in the cages, they become unnecessarily exposed to dirt,
microorganisms, high ambient temperature, predators, and other things that can injure
them.
Quail eggs should be collected in open baskets or improvised carton boxes with holes for
better air circulation.
Tips for the Production of High Grade Eggs
1. The laying cages, egg baskets, egg boxes, and egg roll out must be as clean as possible.
2. The eggs should be collected as frequently as possible.
3. Dirty eggs must be cleaned with warm water (110-115°F).
4. The eggs must be kept in cold storage preferably at 50-60°F and a relative humidity of
70-75%.
Lighting for the Layers
The relationship between photoperiod length and egg production of quails is still being
studied. In chickens and ducks, the positive effect of light on egg production is already
established. This is well pronounced in temperate countries where seasonal variations in day
length are very distinct. For countries which lie within 30° North and 30° South latitudes like the
Philippines, the variation in day length is not wide, (l.e. two hours). However, extra artificial
lighting can still be advantageous to obtain maximum egg production.
Lighting for laying quails can be extended up to 14 or 16 hours. This means an additional
artificial light of two to four hours. The additional lighting can be given in the evening or before
day break or can likewise be splitted partly at dusk and at dawn.
Effect of Light on Avian Reproduction
A. Female

45
 As the avian female approaches sexual maturity, she becomes responsive to photostimulation
(Fig. 20), and it is this change, for a greater part, that is responsible for sexual development. In

response to a changing pattern of photoperiod, the hypothalamus increases its output of

gonatropin-releasing hormones (RH) or releasing factors (RF). It is not clear whether there is
specific follicle stimulating hormone releasing factor (FSH-RF) as well as the luteinizing
hormone releasing factor (LH-RF). These hormones reach the anterior pituitary gland and
stimulate the release of gonadotropins FSH and LH. Both of these gonatropins act on the ovary
for the rapid growth and maturation of ovarian follicles and increased steroidogenesis, or
production of steroids, by the ovarian cells.
The ovarian steroids are estrogen, androgens and progesterone Estrogens cause the
breakdown of oviductal occluding plate, increase calcium absorption from the intestine, act on
the liver to produce the specific yolk lipoproteins, stimulate oviduct growth, cause the pubic
bones to spread and send a negative feedback on gonadotrophin release Progesterone is likewise
involved in calcium metabolism, behavior and oviduct growth and function. It has a positive
effect on gonadotropin output. Androgens play a part in oviduct growth and differentiation as
well as the development of secondary sexual characteristics.
When follicles mature, a daily cycle is initiated and superimposed on the general pattern of
the bird's endocrinology. Light plays a significant role because the start of the cycle seems to be

46
the transition from light to dark, which appears to trigger the specific release of LH for a short
period of time. LH release occurs about eight hours after transition from light to dark, and this is
reportedly evidenced by an increase in LH concentration in the blood, reaching a peak value of 3
to 4 ng/ml, a value 2 to 3x greater than the basal levels (Wilson and Sharp, 1973). Ovulation or
the release of the yolk from the ruptured follicle occurs about four hours later.
Therefore, the correlation of egg production and the ability to produce a large number of eggs
during the laying stage are associated with photostimulation. While extra light hours offer a
longer time for feeding and drinking, its primary action is the stimulation of the secretion or
gonadotropic hormones that activate the ovary and initiate ovulation. Ofe recommended lighting
program must then be followed. Providing light throughout the night is not advisable because it
is expensive and will also habituate the quails to constant light. This may result to light
refractoriness or may reduce the bird’s photosensitivity.

B.Male
Natural daylight or artificial light influences the production of semen in males by
stimulating the release of gonadotropic hormones from the anterior pituitary, i.e. FSH and LH
(known as interstitial cell stimulating hormone or ICSH in the male). FSH stimulates growth and
development of the seminiferous tubules, and spermatogenesis, while ICSH stimulates the
testicular interstitium (Leydig cells) to produce androgen.
In young males of most wild species, maxirnum growth and development of the testes are
stimulated by providing 12-14 hours of light drestes size and growth can be depressed and
delayed if the male birds are exposed to conditions of less than 12-14 hours of light, (e.g. eight
hours). Responses of male Japanese quails on the stimulating effects of different intensities and
wavelengths in terms of gonad size are variable.This has been studied by Oishi and Lauber
(1973a and b).
In an experiment conducted by Sachs (1967), it was observed that alterations in
photoperiod cause correlated changes in the testes, cloacal glands, cloacal foam, and
reproductive behavior of male Japanese quails (Fig. 21). The amount of foam and the sizes of the
cloacal protrusion, cells in the cloacal gland, and the testes all start to decrease during the 1 st
week, and with the possible exception of the gland cells, approach the lowest levels within three
to four weeks of transfer from long days (16L.8D) to short days (8L:16D).
The decline in reproductive condition is always accompanied by histologic changes in the
cloacal gland. As the testes’ tubules shrink and spermatogenesis stops, the cloacal gland’s
epithelial cells get shorter and the lumina shrink, causing the reduction in the cloacal gland and
its protrusion. The same changes are observed in the reverse order, and at about the same rate,
when the males get back to breeding condition after transfer from short to long days. Caponizing
or surgical removal of the testes has the same effects on the cloacal gland as does the transfer

47
from long days to short days. Moreover, the administration of androgen as replacement therapy
and the exposure of males to long photoperiod stimulate the cloacal gland.

The observations above show that the activity of the cloacal gland Is androgen-dependent,
Furthermore, they reveal that the cloacal protrusion is a reliable indicator of the male’s gonadal
response to changes in day length. The size of the protrusion correlates markedly not only with
testicular indexes of reproductive function but also with some behavioral manifestations like
copulation and crowing.

Culling

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 Sick, abnormal, defective, and unprofitable or unproductive birds adversely affect the
profitability of a quail project. These birds are called "non-paying boarders" because they
consume feeds but do not lay eggs or produce less eggs. Culling, or the removal of non-
productive layers, should be done continuously. The obviously sick, abnormal and defective
birds are not difficult to recognize. Blindness, lameness, injuries, and serious illnesses can easily
be detected. Identifying the layers which looked apparently healthy, but are not productive, is
difficult at first. The following (Table 11) can be used as a guide to distinguish a productive layer
from a non-productive layer.

The appearance of the vent of an actively laying and a poor or non-laying quail is shown
in (Fig. 22). It can be noted that the large, moist, dilated and oval-shaped features of the vent

49
mean that the egg passes through this opening very often as compared to the small, round and
contracted characteristics of the vent of a non-laying or poor laying bird.
The birds must be caught and handled gently during culling to minimize stress, and avoid
fear and excitement of the other members of the flock. Improper handling may lead to breakage
of eggs inside the reproductive tract of the quail hen. Culling should be done in the late afternoon
when majority of the birds have already laid their eggs.
At any stage of the production cycle, the quails that are obviously sick, lame and non-
productive should be disposed. Only healthy birds with good potentials should be retained.

Forced Molting of Quail Hens

The avian species change their sets of feathers soon after hatching until they attain sexual
maturity. Such set of feathers, which the quails possessed at 50 days old, is supposedly carried on
until about one year of egg production. The shedding of these feathers is called molting. Annual
molt is the shedding off of feathers after about one year of production. The onset of molting
period and the length of time when the quail hen undergoes molting influence egg production
rate. In general, the birds do not lay eggs when they are molting.
In raising mallard ducks and commercial layer chickens, forced molting is sometimes
resorted to if the old birds are intended to be kept for a second year of production. The methods
used to induce molt include feed and water deprivation, light restriction, feeding of compounds
like zinc oxide and progesterone, and feeding diets low in calcium or sodium Artificial cessation
of egg laying is aimed to lengthen the total egg laying period in an economically justifiable way.
The total flock stops production at the same time and resumes lay again simultaneously. Laying
for a second production year must resume after a resting period and at a slightly lower level
compared to the first year, but with better egg quality in most cases.
Forced molting of old quail hens cannot be recommended yet. Based on a lone
documented study (Ali, 1992), forced molting of quail hens did not improve hen day egg
production, feed efficiency and egg quality. The old quail layers did not respond in exactly the
same manner as previously observed in studies done on chickens and ducks when subjected to
similar forced molting regimen. It is suggested that more experiments should be conducted so
that a reliable recommendation may be stated on the subject of forced molting of quail hens.

Production of Broiler Quails

In growing replacement stocks for quail production, it is a common practice to raise both
sexes together from day old until such time when males can be distinguished from females. Of

50
course, not all males are retained for breeding. When the sexes can already be identified (see
Chapter 3), the extra males are separated and later sold as broilers.
The male quails can be fed with the same feeds given to breeders and layers, i.e. broiler
starter ration (21-22% CP) or with formulations containing not less than 21 % CP.
There are limited studies on the rate of growth of quails from day old up to various ages.
Those that will be cited in the following discussions have particular bearing on broiler quail
production, as the information relate to body weight, feed consumption, feed efficiency and
dressing percentage.
From a body weight of 6.2 g at hatch, the male Japanese quail attains 105 g while the
female weighs 115 g at sexual maturity (Wilson et al, 1961). Full body weight is registered at
110 and 130 g for male and female, respectively. Aller (1985) recorded a range of 47-56 g for the
male Coturnix at 25 days old. Rate of growth is rapid up to 36 days (87.3-100.7 g), after which it
tends to slow down (Fig. 23). At 45 days, quail weighs 98.8-114.6 g. Chavez (1980) reported a
range of 89-109 g body weight at 42 days old.

Values for average cumulative body weight, consumption, feed efficiency and feed cost
per unit weight gain from 21 to 45 days are presented in Table 12.

51
 These data, including the results of other local studies (Chavez, 1980; Aller, 1985),
suggest that quails for meat purposes should be marketed not later than 36 days of age. Raising
them beyond this age will increase the feed cost because of progressive increase in feed intake.
Moreover, the rate of growth tends to slow down and the gain in weight decreases from 36 days
onwards.
The meat recovery after slaughter at 45 days is slightly lower for quails than for chickens
(Table 13). Percentages of gizzard and heart are a bit higher for the quails, while that of the liver
is the same for both species.

52
 CHAPTER 7
NUTRITION OF QUAIL

Digestion in Quail
The digestive system of quail is made up of organs concerned with. feed ingestion, (b)
storage, (c) digestion, and (d) excretion of waste (3) products.
It consists of the alimentary tract and its accessory organs: salivary glands, liver and
pancreas. The alimentary tract is further subdivided into: mouth, gullet or esophagus, crop,
glandular stomach, gizzard, small intestine, ceca, large intestine, cloaca and anus.
Mouth. Compared to the mouth of other farm animals, that of the quail lacks teeth, cheek
and lips. These parts are replaced by horny mandibles forming the beak which is used for picking
up feeds and tearing them apart.
Tongue. Shaped like the barb of an arrow with the point directed forward. This barbed-
like projection serves the purpose of forcing the feed towards the gullet when it moves from
anterior to posterior position. Numerous mucous glands are present in the mouth that provide
saliva for moistening the feed and making swallowing easier.
Gullet and crop. Gullet is a tube that connects the mouth to the glandular stomach. It
measures 1.5 to 2.0 cm (0.6 to 0.8 inch) long in mature quails. Mucous glands are present. It is
distinguished from the trachea by the absence of cartilage rings and by its enormous
expansibility. At the point prior to its entrance into the body, the gullet is enlarged to form a
pouch called the crop. The crop serves as a temporary compartment where feeds coming from
the mouth are softened by the further action of saliva and secretions from the crop wall.
Glandular stomach or proventriculus. Portion of the digestive tract that connects the
gullet to the gizzard. It is much shorter than the gullet but has a thicker wall. Acid gastric juice is
secreted by its glandular cells and mixed with feeds coming from the gullet.
Gizzard. An oval-shaped organ that joins the glandular stomach and the duodenal loop of
the small intestine. It has two openings on the upper side, one serving as entrance of feeds from
the glandular stomach and the other as exit for feeds to the small intestine. The walls of the
gizzard consist of two pairs of large, red, powerful muscles covered internally by a thick horny
epithelium. The gizzard exhibits regular and rhythmic contractions at an average rate of two to
three per minute. The chief function of the gizzard is to grind or crush coarse feed particles and
break down the cellulose walls of cereal grains. This is done by the vigorous, rhythmic
contraction of its muscles which operate as a grinding mechanism, thus compensating for the
absence of teeth. In addition to the grinding function, the gizzard also mixes the crushed feed

53
with the acidic gastric juice, partly digests the protein, and dissolves the mineral component of
the feeds.
Small intestine. A long coiled tube which, when stretched, measures more than 15 cm
(six inches) in adult quail. The first section forms the duodenal loop. Enveloped by the loop is
the pancreas. Digestive juices are secreted by the pancreas which are poured into the duodenal
loop for digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
Alkaline bile coming from the gall bladder through the bile duct is also poured into this
section. Bile neutralizes the acidic feeds coming from the gizzard and creates an alkaline
condition favorable for the action of digestive enzymes. The walls of the small intestine secrete
the intestinal juices which complete the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Besides its
digestive function, the small intestine also acts as an organ of absorption, taking in the soluble
nutrients and organic salts into the blood circulation. The presence of innumerable minute
projections called villi in the lining of the small intestine increases the absorption surface of the
small intestine several times. The undigested feeds are passed on the large intestine.
Ceca. Two blind pouches situated at the juncture of the small and large intestines and
extending forward from their point of origin. They are usually filled with soft, partly undigested
feeds. It is believed that digestion of crude fiber takes place to some extent in the ceca. Evidence
shows that, to a limited extent, water absorption also occurs in this section of the digestive tract.
Like the appendix in humans, however, the ceca may be removed without impairing the health of
the bird.
Large intestine, cloaca, and anus. Large intestine is the terminal portion of the digestive
tract. It has about twice the diameterthe small intestine but is only 1.0 to 1.3 cm (0.4 to 0.5 inch)
long. It serves as receptable for fecal matter prior to excretion into the cloaca.
The cloaca is a chamber common to the digestive and genito-urinary passages. The anus
or vent is the external opening of the cloaca. Fecal matter has to pass through these sections on
the way out of the body of the bird.
Organs associated with the alimentary canal. Liver is a bilobed organ, brown in color,
which secretes the bile. The bile functions in the digestion of fat. Bile is stored in the gall
bladder and is emptied through the bile ducts into the distal end of the duodenum. The pancreas
is a long flesh-colored organ lying in the loop of the duodenum. It secretes the pancreatic juice
which contains the enzymes that act upon the proteins. carbohydrates and fats.
Process of Digestion
The actions of enzymes constitute the most important part of digestion. The digestive
juices are fluids excreted from the walls of the digestive tract

54
 Saliva. Not an important digestive juice for the quail because it is secreted in very small
quantities. It contains ptyalin (salivary amylase) which converts some of the starch to maltose.
The saliva also helps moisten the feeds.
Gastric juice. Composed of water, hydrocholoric acid, and the enzyme, pepsin. It is acid
in reaction and functions mainly in the breaking down of proteins.

Intestinal juices. Comprise water, bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice. The bile
emulsifies and helps digest fat. The pancreatic juice contains the enzyme trypsin, acting on
proteins; amylase, acting on starch; and lipase, acting on fat. The intestinal juice contains trypsin
which breaks down proteins; and invertase which acts on sugars.
Digestion of Nutrients
Carbohydrates. Must be converted to simple sugars before they can be absorbed by the
animal body. The ptyalin of saliva and amylopsin of pancreatic juice act upon starch changing it
to dextrin and then to maltose. The invertases of the intestinal juice act on maltose and similar
sugars, changing them to simple or glucose-like sugars.
Fiber is digested only to a small extent in poultry. The digestion of fiber is thought to be
accomplished through bacterial fermentation which takes place chiefly in the ceca.
Proteins. Should be converted to amino acids before they can be absorbed by the animal
body. In this process, a number of cleavage products are produced. Primary protein derivatives,
which are insoluble, are mostly metaproteins and coagulated proteins. The secondary protein
derivatives are soluble and composed chiefly of proteoses, peptones, and peptides.
The enzyme of the gastric juice, pepsin, acts on the proteins, changing them to
metaproteins, proteoses, peptones and peptides. The trypsin of the pancreatic juice acts in the
same way as the gastric juice, except that peptones and peptides are further hydrolyzed to amino
acids. The digestion of proteins is completed by the trypsin of the intestinal juice, which converts
the proteoses, peptones and peptides to amino acids.
Fats. Must be converted to fatty acids and glycerol in order to be absorbed by the body.
The bile, which contains alkaline salt, saponifies, emulsifies and dissolves the fats and fatty
acids. The lipase of the pancreatic juice can then convert the fat to fatty acids and glycerol.
The digestion of feeds, as it passes through the digestive tract, is summarized in Table 14.

Essential Nutrients
Energy. Furnished principally by carbohydrates and fats. Sugars and starches are the
forms of carbohydrates which are readily digested by the bird. Crude fiber, the relatively

55
indigestible group of carbohydrates, is not well digested by quails. Carbohydrates are used by the
body as source of energy. Any excess may be stored in the body as fat. The yolk of the egg is
derived from carbohydrates in the feed.
Fats have the same function as carbohydrates in that they serve as source of energy of the
body and of fat in the body and egg yolk. Fal however, is the most concentrated form of energy
in feeds. A unit of fat contains 2.25 times as much energy as a unit of sugar or starch.

56
 In poultry, carbohydrates are fed as the principal source of energy rather than fat. This is
because carbohydrates are usually cheaper and very easily digested, absorbed and transformed
into fats. Feeds, which contain large amounts of fat, are likely to become rancid in hot weather.
Small amounts, however, are desirable since they are carriers of fat soluble vitamins and aid in
their absorption.
Protein. Primary constituent of nails and skin, as well as soft tissues which include the
organs and muscles.
Since protein is being continually used by the animal either to build growth and
reproduction. A fairly regular intake of protein is required. If protein is inadequate In the new
tissues, as in diet, there is a quick reduction or cessation of growth or loss of weight Ultimately,
it would lead to a withdrawal of protein from certain less vital tissues to maintain the function of
the more vital tissues as long as possible. In poultry feeding, protein quality is very important;
and that means the amino acid content. The necessary amino acids must be poultry have no
“fermentation vat” in make and remake amino acids.
Minerals. Frequently referred to as “ash”. These are the most Important constituents of
bones, and brey found in small quantities in all organs, tissues and fluids of the bird’s body.
These chemical elements and required for proper metabolic function. The amounts required vary
greate requi large amounts of calcium required for bone and egg shells to infinitesimal amounts
of selenium required for unknown functions related to the maintenance of the integrity of the
blood vessel walls.
Vitamins. Required in very small amounts as organic catalyst of metabolic reactions.
One or more vitamins are required in almost every chemical reaction within the living cell.
Chemically, the vitamins include a variety of compounds. However, they are usually classified as
fat soluble and water soluble vitamins. Unlike the other classes of nutrients, which are
comparatively stable chemical compounds, many vitamins are more or less unstable. They are
destroyed by exposure to air, heat, light, enzymes, acids and alkalis. Because of their instability,
care must always be taken to ensure an adequate supply of vitamins in poultry rations.
Water. A nutrient of utmost importance to the body. It comprises 55 to 75 percent of the
weight of the body and more than 65 percent of the whole egg; softens and hydrolyzes feedstuff
for digestion; an important constituent of the blood and lymph, serves as carrier of digested food
and waste products; controls body temperature by evaporation through the air sacs and lungs;
and is a main constituent of mucus which acts as lubricant for the joints and muscles.
Besides being an important structural component, water is a necessary agent in
practically all body processes, which are chemical reactions between substances in the liquid
medium of which water is the principal constituent. The fowl’s body is continually losing
moisturethrough the expired air fond the excretions. Laying birds lose additional moisture
through the formation of eggs. Therefore, water must be provided continuousponding increasing

57
external temperature, the needs for waterafter through the lungs increased to compensate for the
needs loss of water through the lungs. Evaporation of water through the lungs is the means of
temperature regulation since birds have no sweat glands. This is probably the explanation for the
commonly observed fact that they are less able to withstand high temperatures than most
common mammals.

Nutrient Requirements of Quail

Energy. The bird consumes feeds largely to satisfy their need for energy. Energy for
poultry is generally expressed as "metabolizable energy" (ME) in kilocalories (kcal) per pound or
kilogram. ME is gross energy minus fecal and urinary energy.
Proper energy level is important. Too much or too little can make a difference in the
performance of the bird. For example-layer feed with a high energy content are more apt to result
in the development of fatty livers and lowered egg production. Choline, vitamin E and inositol
also seem to be involved in these conditions, but excessive energy levels should be avoided On
the other hand, low energy levels are likely to result in lowered production be it meat or eggs.
Protein. Its amount and quality are very important factors in poultry feeding The quality
of protein is gauged by the balance of amino acids.
Various kinds of poultry require different levels of proteins. The amino acid requirements
likewise vary according to the kind of poultry to be fed.
In poultry feed formulation, the first item given emphasis is protein requirement. Energy,
vitamins and minerals are then adjusted by modification, ingredient proportion, and addition in
synthetic forms.
Vitamins. Usually supplied in the diet in excess of the base minimum requirements.
Minerals. Studies have shown that in addition to carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and
sulphur, which are the major elements comprising the body, man and animal require at least 12
inorganic elements for proper nutrition.

Feedstuff for Quail Ration

The most commonly used feed ingredients for quail rations are he following:
1.Energy feeds
Corn and its by-products
Rice and its by-products

58
 Cane molasses
Fat and oil
Root crop
2.Protein feeds
Soybean oil meal
Peanut oil meal
Fish meal
Shrimp meal
Copra meal
Ipil-ipil leaf meal
Meat and bone meal
Blood meal
Feather meal
Cowpea bean meal
3.Macromineral supplements
Tricalcium phosphate
Dicalcium phosphate
Bone meal
Oyster shell
Limestone
Salt
4.Vitamins and micromineral supplements
5.Amino acid supplements
6.Feed additives
Antibiotic
Antioxidant
Antimold

59
 Probiotic

Feed Formulation
Feed formulation is mixing of different feed ingredients in a proportion that ason
provides birds the proper amounts of the needed nutrients at a reasonable cost.
Many factors such as quality and economy of the rations are important considerations.
The quality of the ration is indicated by the growth or reproductive performance of the birds. The
ration should be Inexpensive, but not to the extent of sacrificing the quality needed in a good
ration. It is also important to remember that the ration should be compounded or calculated in
accordance with availability of the feedstuffs in the locality.
A balanced ration can be formulated after knowing the requirements of the particular
group of poultry and the available feedstuffs.
The nutrient requirements of quail are still the most debated topic in poultry nutrition
research. Table 15 presents the protein and energy requirements of quail as suggested by various
authors. The values given may not be the actual requirements; rather, they are the level in which
the researchers found the optimum or maximum performance of quails in terms of growth, egg
production and feed efficiency.
In the United Kingdom, however, there are some published nutrient requirements for
Japanese quail (Table 16). These include requirements for metabolizable energy, protein,
individual amino acids, minerals and vitamins.

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 CHAPTER 8

DISEASE PREVENTION AND CONTROL

Quails are more resistant to diseases than do chickens and other avian Species. Diseases
commonly affecting chickens have not been observed in quails. Indeed, only very few have been
reported in Commercial farms. However, losses from these few reported cases can be serious if
not properly attended to. The biggest loss is due to outright death, bringing down the farmer’s
profit. Morbid effects such as decreased egg production, depressed rate of growth, delayed
maturity, low fertility and poor hatchability are, likewise, important sources of loss.
Losses from diseases could be minimized through prevention. In fact, it is the most
economical and ideal method which could be achieved by proper management, adequate and
appropriate feeding and housing, strict sanitation and preventive and effective medication.

Useful Guides in Preventing Quail Diseases and Pests

1. Stocks must be bought from reliable sources or hatcheries.
2. Only healthy and vigorous birds should be raised. Sick birds must be culled immediately
and disposed properly.
3. Quails must be fed with balanced rations. Malnourished birds have weak body condition
and are prone to diseases.
4. Cool, fresh, and clean drinking water must be provided at all times. Waterers should be
cleaned at least once a day. Unclean water is detrimental to the birds’ health and can
adversely affect their performance.
5. Only birds of the same age must be kept in the cage and provided with the same
medication.
6. Feeders should be clean and dry at all times. Wet feeders provide a good environment for
the growth of yeasts, harmful bacteria, and molds which are sources of mycotoxins.
7. Clean surroundings must be observed. The quail house should be located in a well
drained area.
8. Housing must be well ventilated. Overstocking the birds in the cage must be avoided.
9. Activities that can cause stress to the birds and lower their production should be
minimized.
10. Dead quails must be burned or buried as soon as possible to avoid flies from breeding on
the decomposing matter
11. The area should be free from stray animals, scavengers and wild birds. They serve as
carriers of diseases and are nuisance to the general comfort of the flock.

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 12. Birds should be dewarned every three months if pooled samples of droppings are positive
for worm eggs. Dewormers recommended for chickens must be used and the dosage
adjusted for younger birds.
13. External parasites like lice and mites should be controlled Nearby stagnant pools and
damp areas must be drained to deprive blood sucking insects of breeding and hiding
places
14. The quail house must be provided with adequate light which stimulates feeding and egg
production.
Diseases of Quail
1. Infectious coryza (colds). An acute or chronic disease characterized by swelling of
the face and watties, as well as watery discharge from the nose or eyes. This disease
affects birds of all ages.

Cause and transmission. Caused by a bacterium, Haemophilus gallinarum. The

common mode of transmission is through direct contact with infected birds, contaminated
feeds, water or air borne dust. This is aggravated by sudden change in temperature and
unsanitary housing conditions.

Symptoms. Common manifestations are sneezing, swollen sinuses below the eyes;
watery discharge from the eyes and nostrils which later becomes sticky, thick and
odorous; difficult breathing; decreased feed intake and egg production.

Prevention. Vaccination of healthy birds; prevention of overcrowding; antibiotic therapy-

erythromycin in feed or drinking water for three to four days; strict sanitation and
disinfection.

2. Pneumonia. A fungal disease with high morbidity and mortality in young birds,
affecting the respiratory system.
Cause and transmission. Aspergillus fumigatus, which causes this disease, is air borne
and common in hatcheries and brooder houses. The common mode of transmission is
through moldy feeds, contaminated drinking water, and inhalation of fungal spores.

Symptoms. Lung infection characterized by numerous nodules in lung tissues. Loss of

appetite, sleepiness, gasping, and sometimes convulsion and death characterize this
disease Sneezing, coughing, and other respiratory signs are absent in chronic cases. There
are no other signs except for semi-blindness and high mortality.

Prevention. Moldy feeds must be removed by thoroughly cleaning the feeders and
waterers, and disinfecting them

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 3.Mycotoxicosis (Aflatoxicosis). A disease ingestion of aflatoxins.

Cause and transmission. Aflatoxins produced by the fungi Aspergillus flavus and
Aspergillus parasiticus cause this disease. The most common mode of transmission is
through moldy feed, corn, rice, and other cereals.

Symptoms. Most common manifestations are loss of appetite, depression, stunting and
death.

Prevention. Moldy feeds must be removed by thoroughly cleaning the feeders.

Management of Manure
Manure management should not be overlooked in any poultry enterprise, whether it is
turkey, chicken or quail operation. Proper handling and disposal of manure affect the
profitability of the project and the safety of the environment. The following are useful
tips in manure management.

1. Manure must be kept dry to minimize odor and prevent multiplication of flies.
Moreover, well dried droppings as fertilizer command a better price. Frequent
removal of manure is recommended to prevent it from piling up and to get rid of
fly eggs or larvae.
2. Poultry manure is usually bought as fertilizer for fish ponds and crop farms.
Contamination of manure with other materials or chemicals that might harm the
fish and plants, and later the people who will eat them, must be avoided.
3. The quail houses must be free of manure as often as possible for effective control
of pest and diseases and better manure management.
4. Use of insecticides on the manure pile should be avoided These chemicals will
harm those who use manure as fertilizer

Fly Control
An effective fly control program is a must in a quail project Flies are carriers of diseases
and spread internal parasites. Thus, they are coth nuisance and hazards to general health.
Practical and economical means of controlling flies are necessary. Strict sanitation
program in combination with the use of effective insecticides are the best recommended
approach for fly control. The manufacturer’s instruction on the use of insecticides must be
followed strictly

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Rat Control
Among the many predators that inflict damages in a poultry enterprise, the rats are
considered the most dreadful. In fact, quails are most prone to their attack. Rats kill and eat the
birds; eat and destroy the feed; damage the feed bag, waterer and feeder; destroy the eggs;
transmit and spread diseases; damage the quail house; and start fires. They are generally a public
nuisance.
There should be an effective rat control and eradication program in the area. The possible and
practical means of control include prebaiting and poisoning, trapping, and use of trained cats.
The surroundings must be clean. Unnecessary materials like pile of wood, empty bottles and
cans, old carton boxes and other things that can serve as hiding and breeding places for rats
should be removed. If possible, the entire quail house and the feed bodega must be secured with
old fish nets.

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 CHAPTER 9

PROCESSING, UTILIZATION AND

MARKETING OF QUAIL PRODUCTS
Quail eggs and meat are good sources of protein food to meet the increasing nutritional
requirements of the growing human population Like the meat of turkey, duck or chicken quail
meat is very appealing but with a peculiar taste and characteristic of being fine-textured It is high
in protein and low in fat. Quails have a meat yield of 67-70% The giblets gizzard liver and heart
comprise 2.44 2.27. and 100%, respectively, of the total liveweight. The eggs are used in a
number of culinary preparations.
Steps in Dressing Quails
The procedures followed in dressing quails are the same as those for chickens. Quails for
slaughter should not be fed within six hours prior to bleeding to free the crop and intestines of
feed materials. They should have access to drinking water, however, to wash out the feed
particies from the digestive tract.
1. Bleed the birds thoroughly by cutting the jugular vein. Quails
that are bled properly yield better carcass that have longer keeping quality.
2 Scald the birds by dipping them in hot water (43-49 °C) for 30-60 seconds.
3. Remove feathers immediately after scalding Plucking of feathers should be done rapidly for
easy cleaning of the bird.
4. To clean the carcass of hair-like feathers or pin feathers, pass it over a low flame. Do not
expose the carcass too long over the flame because it gives an oily appearance to the skin.
5. Cut the head just behind the jaw, and the shanks at the hockjoint. Remove the oil glands
located at the base of the tail.
6. Make a slit on the neck large enough to pull out the trachea and the esophagus. Then, slit the
skin around the vent. Make an incision on the abdominal cavity to permit removal of the internal
organs.
7 Separate the liver. Remove the gallbladder carefully. Remove the contents of the gizzard. Clean
the heart and spleen.

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8.Clean the carcass and the giblets thoroughly. Pack the carcass in plastics by the dozen or by
weight (1 kg). Pack the giblets separately as they have a short keeping quality.
9. Keep the carcass and giblets in proper storage conditions. A freezer with a temperature of 5 to
-20°C will serve the purpose.

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 Procedure:

1. Wash the dressed quail thoroughly and drain.

2. Rub the birds with salt to taste. Evenly sprinkle chili powder on the surface of the
meat. The amount of powder depends on the desired degree of spiciness.
3. Marinate the meat in the orange juice for 30 minutes.
4. Roast over hot charcoal. Spread a little amount of marinade on the surface of the meat
from time to time while roasting.
5. Serve hot with your favorite salad.

Selling of Quail Eggs

Quail eggs are the main product of the industry. They are sold fresh to wholesalers, or
retailed already cooked. Clean the eggs free of dirt and droppings and boil them for 10-15
minutes. Let them cool and place them in plastic bag with 4 to 5 pieces. As such, they can be
peddled in streets, buses, jeepneys, movie houses, flea markets. Supermarkets, dating areas and
other public places. Some retailers pack nine or ten eggs together in a plastic bag with a small
packet of salt.
Commercial and medium scale producers that supply eggs to institutional buyers pack
them in quail egg carton boxes by 24’s or 100’s

Other Uses of Quail Eggs

Quail eggs can be used in making native delicacies like “okoy” and “leche flan”. Boiled
quail eggs, after peeling the shells, are preferred ingredients in a number of food preparations,
e.g. pancit guisado, chopsuey, noodle soup, spaghetti, macaroni soup, salad, etc. They can also be
processed into balut, salted or pickled eggs. Bakers use quail eggs in their products as décor or
flavor enhancer.
In Thailand, scrambled quail eggs are mixed with whiskey and served as a very popular
aphrodisiac.

Making Balut Quail Egg

Quail eggs can also be made into balut. Simply follow the procedures for artificial
incubation discussed in Chapter 3. Candling is done on the 10 th day of incubation. Infertile eggs

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and fertile eggs with dead embryos are separated and can be sold as “penoy”. Fertile eggs with
live embryos are sold as balut. These products should be boiled for 15-20 minutes before selling
them to consumers.

Making Salted Quail Egg

The most practical method of making salted quail eggs is by the use of brine solution.
Use of sticky clay or termite hill with salt is not advisable as the quail eggs have thinner shells,
and will easily break during cleaning.

Procedures in making salted quail egg:

1. Select eggs without cracks.
2. Wash the eggs with soap and water.
3. Prepare a brine solution of 4 cups water and 1.5 cups salt. Put and stir the solution in a
big glass jar. This solution is adequate for 5 to 6 dozens of quail eggs.
4. Immerse the eggs for 10-12 days into the brine solution.
5. After the curing period, boil the eggs under low flame for 15 to 20 minutes.
6. If red color is desired for the finished product, dip the eggs right after cooking in a red
dye solution.

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7. Cool the eggs after cooking and then sell as salted eggs.

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Marketing
The market for quail products has an elastic demand (Sarmiento. 1995). This type of
demand is true for all luxury items that consumers purchase when they have extra money to
spend. Quail products are not regular items in the kitchen menu, and are needed as decorations in
soups and viands, and also as snacks during school days. Quail eggs are in great demand in the
months of April, May and June, a period for holidays and weddings. These created the
seasonality of demand for quail product.
Prices of quail eggs and meat vary depending on quality, cost of production, and length of
marketing channel. Because these products are homogenous and characterized by having an
elastic demand, their prices cannot easily be dictated by middlemen and usually have uniform
level in the same market area. For example, based on an entrepreneurial study by Sarmiento
(1995), quail eggs were sold at P0.55 in supermarkets at Metro Manila. Their farm gate prices in
Bulacan, which were often dictated by middlemen, ranged from P0.35 to P0.45. Culled birds
were sold P3.00 per head in Bulacan, and P9.00 each in Laguna.

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 Today, quail eggs fetch around P0.75 to P1.00 in most stores and supermarkets in Metro
Manila. Their farm gate prices now range from p 0.55 to P0.62. Culled quail layers cost an
average of P8.00 in the market at present.
The marketing channel for quail eggs is presented in (Fig. 24). Seventy five percent
(75%) of the total production goes to wholesalers and the rest to retailers (3%), institutional
buyers (7%), processors (5%), and directly to consumers (10%). The flow of products from the
processor to the wholesaler, to the retailers and to the end users is within the general market flow.
This marketing strategy seems to be the most convenient for the quail raisers because of the
nature of the product. Quail eggs are perishable items, and wholesaling is a better choice for easy
disposal of volumes of eggs so as to avoid wastes and losses. The normal shelflife of eggs is one
week at room temperature and two to three weeks at cold storage (4-5°C, 70-75% RH). The eggs
should not be stored in a refrigerator where the relative humidity (RH) is not adjusted. Cold
storage of eggs requires an RH of not lower than 70%; otherwise, the eggs will dry up.
For quail meat, about 90% goes directly to the institutional buyers restaurants,
beerhouses, and other food outlets (Fig. 25), while the remainder goes to the wholesaler (5%)
and direct consumers (5%). The culled birds are usually slaughtered and processed by the
producers before they are delivered to the buyers who make their orders in advance.

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 CHAPTER 10
QUAIL AS A LABORATORY ANIMAL

The use of quail as a laboratory animal began in the late 50’s with the work of some
researchers at Auburn University and University of California in the United States (Padgett and
Ivey, 1959; Wilson et al., 1959). They presented the value of coturnix as a biomedical research
species. This interest in quail as a laboratory specimen rapidly spread throughout the United
States, Great Britain and then in Japan and other Asian countries.
Interest in quail as a laboratory animal has been in the colleges and universities, research
institutions and private laboratories. The coturnix has been used extensively in evaluating the
toxicology of pesticide and insecticide, and for studying new synthetic steroids and other
compounds for their ability to suppress ovulation and other reproductive activities. They are
widely utilized in experiments in embryology, endocrinology. Genetics, gerontology, nutrition,
physiology and pharmacology. They are also employed in the studies of germ-free environment,
animal behaviour and even in cancer research.
As a laboratory animal, quail has a number of advantages: it is small, has a short
generation interval (Fig. 26), a high rate of egg production and is highly resistant to diseases. It
responds favorably after surgery, more photosensitive and has a higher metabolic rate. Its
physiological aging is more rapid and the lifespan is shorter. The only serious drawback is its
susceptibility to inbreeding depression which has precluded the establishment of many inbred
lines.

Size Range and Lifespan

The size range of quails depends on the breed. A growth curve of body weights from a
closed flock population is shown in Fig. 27. Body weights of males and females are similar until
they approach sexual maturity, when females become heavier on account of the increased size of
the ovary and oviduct and the heavier liver and intestines (Wilson et al.. 1961) Male quails range
from 100 to 130 g as compared to 120 to 160 g for females Although quail can live for lengthy
periods (one male for 289 weeks), Woodard and Abplanalp (1971), as cited by Cooper (1987),
reported the lifespan of females to be much shorter than that for males, 50% of females having
died at 54 weeks old. They also reported that ageing females lost weight while males gained
weight.

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Behavior
Some breeds tend to be extremely flighty and excitable. Thus, extra care should be taken
to avoid situations where such behavior may be exhibited. A gentle and calm approach by
caretakers is recommended, as this will reduce the problem.
In small breeding units where quails are housed with 1 male: 3 females, aggression can
be a problem as the females severely damage the male by pecking at the base of the skull and
sometimes virtually causing decapitation

Facilities
The facilities and equipment should be designed and operated to afford maximum control
of the environment, optimal comfort and welfare for the birds, and minimal opportunity for the
transmission of disease- causing organisms and parasites. Service areas should be designed and
located to preclude cross-overs from clean to contaminated spaces. The physical facilities shall
be designed and constructed to prevent the possibility of clean material and equipment coming
into contact with soiled and contaminated material. Ideally, the equipment should regulate
temperature, humidity, ventilation, light and even noise
As described and detailed in the previous chapters, the brooder facilities, grower-layer
houses, separate layer houses, incubators, egg candlers, feeders, and waterers also apply to quail
populations intended for laboratory use. In addition, there are pieces of equipment described
below which may probably be necessary for research purposes.
Egg-holding equipment. For successful storage of eggs prior to incubation, appropriate
conditions are required. Eggs held for incubation should be kept in a cool, clean, dust-free room
at a temperature of 14°C (55°F) and 70% relative humidity. Periodic changing and disinfection
of the egg room is encouraged. Eggs should be stored with air cell up. If the eggs are to be kept
more than seven days, daily turning is recommended.
Pedigree baskets. When it is necessary that the birds are to be identified by dam, sire, pen and
treatment for example, the eggs can be placed in pedigree baskets during the 14 th day of
incubation and allowed there to hatch Pedigree baskets made of wire, which may be individual or
a long one with adjustable partitions, are more satisfactory than disposable cardboard boxes.
They are commercially available or can be fabricated. These containers should provide for
adequate air circulation.
Beak trimmers. Beak trimming, or shortening of one or both beaks, is done to reduce injurious
pecking that may eventually lead to cannibalism. The most preferred beak trimmer is an
electrically operated one that quickly removes a predetermined portion of beak and heat-seals the
Resulting exposed surface. It is better that this instrument is operated by a foot pedal. Quails may

81
be beak-trimmed at any age, although it is very difficult to do the operation earlier than two
weeks old because of their small size.
Transport crates or cages. Special crates or cages may be fabricated for satisfactory holding or
transporting of the birds. Separate cages should be used in transporting young and adult quails.
Newly hatched coturnix can be placed in chick boxes, but the ventilation holes in the sides of the
box must be closed to prevent escape of the birds.
Cage-washing equipment. Washing is important to remove any dirt, parasites and
microorganisms that may have stucked on or contaminated the cages. The equipment should
ensure a continuous supply of hot water at about 82°C (180°F) throughout the washing and
rinsing cycles. It should include a clear-water prerinse. Periodic evaluation of equipment
efficiency is necessary. After all the particles are washed with a detergent solution, there should
be at least one rinse supplied directly by the hot water line (not recirculated water).

Removal of Eggshell Color

The quail eggs vary in shell color although most are mottled, making it difficult to detect
cracks in the shell when they are candled prior to incubation. In white-shell strains, this is not a
problem. In other strains, removal of some of the color can be done as follows (National
Research Council, 1969):
1. Soak the eggs in a warm detergent or quaternary ammonium solution at 30-35°C (85-
95°F) for five minutes.
2. Rub the eggs with cheese cloth until most of the color is removed.
3. Allow the eggs to dry.

Disinfection of Eggs
For germ-free or gnobiotic experiments quail eggs can be disinfected in the following
manner (National Research Council, 1969):
1. Prepare a solution of bichloride of mercury (2 g per 100 ml of water).
2. Dip the eggs in the solution at room temperature. They should be dipped immediately
after removal from the egg storage room. Place them in nylon netting. Dipping must be
done carefully to prevent breaking the eggs. Use surgical gloves when handling eggs and
when removing the birds at hatching, since residue may remain on the eggshells
3. 3Allow the eggs to dry before incubating.

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Laboratory Procedures
The husbandry practices, incubation procedures and disease prevention measures
described in the previous chapters also apply to laboratory quails. There are additional
procedures, however, that must be followed in the collection of pertinent data from quails used as
laboratory specimens.
Restraint. Techniques for restraining and handling of birds described in most poultry books also
hold true for quails. However, certain manipulations may differ because of the great disparity in
size. Restraint of individual coturnix is generally done by manual handling. Care should be taken
to avoid injury to the small bird. Coturnix must be handled like other poultry species of
comparable weight. A bird catcher or bird net described earlier in a previous chapter will prove
satisfactory. Hauling of quails from batteries or individual cages should be done in a very calm
manner so as not to excite then. The whole bird, not one of the legs or wings, must be grasped to
prevent injury. Once captured, the bird must be handled firmly with wings against its body to
prevent struggling. Bird boxes must be used for prolonged transport or holding outside the cages
(National Research Council, 1969).
For laboratory procedures that require complete restraining (e.g. bleeding or
inoculations), surgical adhesive tape can be used to immobilize the wings and body to a small
flat surface like a board or table.
Collection of blood samples. Blood specimens are often needed for various purposes. While
cardiac puncture allows about 5 to 7 ml blood to be withdrawn, the birds must be sacrificed
afterwards. This will require lots of quail to be maintained, and this technique itself does not
allow repeated samplings from the same bird which may be necessary in some experiments.
Wing vein is a good site where small amounts of blood may be collected. The coturnix should be
restrained by placing it on its back with the wing extended and pressed downward to expose the
ventral surface of the wing. After the area is wiped with alcohol and dried, the vein can be
pricked and blood collected in a pipette as it comes over the wing surface. Occasionally,
subcutaneous hematomas develop with this method of blood collection. The same procedure can
be used to draw blood directly into a syringe, using a 23-gauge needle inserted into the ven in the
direction of the axilla (Burrus and Graves, 1959er

Arora (1979), as cited by Cooper (1987), studied the suitability of collecting blood
samples and conducting intravenous injections from several sites She used a tuberculin syringe
with needles of varying sizes on unanesthetized birds. A 0.5 mm gauge, 15.62 mm needle was
used for withdrawing blood from the jugular vein: 0.46 mm gauge, 12.5 mm needle for blood
from the brachial vein; and a 0.7mm gauge, 25 mm needle for cardiac puncture. This procedure
could be done by one person by using a restraining board. For repeated collections or injections,
as well as ease of sampling, the author found the jugular vein to be the most suitable site.

83
Anesthesia. The most satisfactor, anesthetic reported is metomidate which was administered
intramuscularly into the thigh with a dose rate of 20 mg/kg body weight with anesthesia being
induced in 5 minutes and lasting for 30 minutes (Ichilick and Austin, 1978 as cited by Cooper.
1987). Quail may also be readily anesthetized by intravenous injection of sodium pentobarbital
or sodium armytal (National Research Council. 1969). Ivey and Howes (1967) reported that a
dosage of 0.3 ml sodium pentobarbital (nembutal, 60mg/ml) provides approximately half an hour
of anesthesia. The birds should be restrained properly during the administration of intravenous
anesthesia. Sudden movements of birds held in unnatural position may cause dislocation of the
needle from the very thin walled veins, or they may even result to rupture of veins Because of
this problem, the use of a combination of pentobarbital sodium, chloral hydrate, and magnesium
sulfate has been suggested (Gandel, 1956). The solution is given intramuscularly into the breast
area. Sick or senile birds or even those as light as 30 g can safely be anesthetized in 5-15 minutes
for periods up to 1 hr.

Less than surgical anesthesia, some depolarizing muscle relaxants, can be used for
immobilization. When used intravenously, this drug does not produce analgesia. Thus, it is
administered together with analgesics (Lumb. 1953). At high doses, this agent eventually
paralyses the respiratory muscles; therefore, oxygen or equipment for artificial respiration should
be ready (National Research Council, 1969). Inhalation administration of volatile agents has not
been considered a safe and controlled procedure because of avian air sac systems that aliow
dangerous concentrations of anesthetic. However, with the use of halothane and nitrous oxide,
Klide (1968) reported successful inhalation anesthesia. These drugs are administered through
halothane vaporizers and provide a more controlled scheme (Lumb, 1963).

Intubation. Liquids are readily administered per os through direct intubation of the crop using a
bulbous tipped 100 mm 1.2 mm gauge hypodermic needle (Ichilick and Austin, 1978 as cited by
Cooper, 1987).
Biological Data
Available biological data on quails, which were obtained by various investigators, are presented
in Table 21. Data on space requirements for the husbandry of laboratory quails are shown in
Table 22.

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