DIPLOMA IN QUANTITY SURVEYING (CFAP 114)

Semester 3

QSA 202
CONSTRUCTION
TECHNOLOGY III
Prepared by: Dr Hajah Norakmarwati Ishak
 STRUCTURES
People design and make structures for different
reasons. Many structures can help you to do one or
more of the things below:
O To contain or hold something, so that it is not all
over the place, and to keep it apart from other
things.
O To protect something, so that it is not damaged.
O To support something and hold it up.
O To span the space between two objects so that they
are connected.
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 1: Introduction to Building Structure
Definition

1) Any part of building that carries load in addition

to its own weight

2 ) A fabrication which for practical purposes does

not move in any appreciable manner under its
load

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1: Introduction to Building Structure
Basically Building Structure is divided into 3 types

Frame Solid / Mass / Shell/Surface

• Consists of framework Load bearing • Falls into 2 broad
which: category:
i) support all loads i) Elements made
acting on the building • Wall act as both the
from thin plate or solid
ii) resists all forces acting enclosing and supporting materials (eg. igloo
on the building elements
ii) Elements consists
• Suitable for: • Termed as “Load of flexible sheet
i) High or Low rise bearing wall” membrane suspended
building or stretched in tension
ii) Long or short span over supporting
building members (eg roof
iii) Low or high loading structure)
• Divided into 3:
•Skeleton/skeletal
•Plane frame 4
•Space frame
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Framed Structure
• Frames are structures made up of vertical and horizontal
elements. The vertical elements are referred to as columns,
and the horizontal members are referred to as beams.

• Frames can either be rigid or flexible. Frames are made up of

a beam and a column joined with a pin or a fixed connection.

• Frames can be expanded into two or three dimensions, and

the structure is indeterminate for stiff joint connections.

• The loading will cause the frame member to bend and deform;
the applied load and member qualities will determine the
magnitude of the deformation.

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SKELETAL FRAMES

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PLANE FRAMES

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SPACE FRAMES

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SPACE FRAMES

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 HEYDAR ALIYEV
CULTURAL CENTRE

ARCHITECT – ZAHA HADID 11

LOCATION - AZERBAIJAN
1. A space frame or space structure is a rigid, lightweight, truss-
like structure constructed from interlocking struts in
a geometric pattern.
2. Space frames can be used to span large areas with few
interior supports. Like the truss, a space frame is strong
because of the inherent rigidity of the triangle;
flexing loads (bending moments) are transmitted
as tension and compression loads along the length of each
strut.
3. Space frames are modular and made of highly industrialized
elements designed with a remarkable dimensional accuracy
and precise surface finish

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SOLID/MASS/LOAD BEARING
STRUCTURES

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 Solid/Mass/
Load bearing
structure

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• The structure’s weight is transferred to the walls in the
form of roofs and floors supported directly in a load-
bearing structure.

• The walls distribute the weight to the underlying soil via

wall footings that are adequate and cost-effective for two
to four stories.

• While this structure is used where hard strata are

available at shallow depths, the wall footings are placed
immediately on hardened levels.

• Load-bearing structures are now exclusively used for

temporary or minor structures.
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Some of its advantages include:
1. The load-bearing structure built is extremely sturdy and solid.
2. These constructions have excellent fire resistance.
3. Masonry units are available in various colours and textures,
allowing for unlimited creativity.
4. These constructions do not necessitate extensive planning.
5. They are visually pleasing.
6. Masonry construction tools and equipment are inexpensive.
Some of the disadvantages include:
1. During an earthquake, these constructions function poorly.
2. They use a huge amount of masonry units. Their building
requires greater labour.
3. This masonry construction is time-consuming.
4. It is unreliable due to the high cost of the total masonry units
utilized to build these structures.
5. This construction is heavier.
6. These constructions have very poor thermal insulating
qualities. 16
Shell Structure
Shell structure is a thin, curved shaped plate structure that
transmits the applied forces by compressive, tensile, and
shear stresses acting in the plane of the surface.

The shell structure is constructed of materials with a limited

depth compared to other dimensions; the surface structure can
be a tent or an inflated structure; in both circumstances, the
surface material acts as a membrane subjected to pure stress.

It can also be formed of reinforced concrete and can take the

form of a folded plate, cylinder, or other shapes. With a bit of
bending, this structure will withstand load through tension and
compression. Shell structures are primarily three types
•Concrete shell structures,
•Lattice or Grid shell structures,
•Membrane structures. 17
•https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Shell_roof
SURFACE / SHELL STRUCTURE – flexible sheet membrane

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Surface/Shell structure – solid material 19
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 10 MINUTES QUIZ
a) Fundamentally building structures are categorised into
3 types; frame, solid and surface structures. State five
(5) advantages of a reinforced concrete frame structure
over a solid and surface structures.
O (5 marks)

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 2: Skeletal RC Frame
O A series of rectangular frame place at right angles
to one another so that the loads are transmitted
from member to member until they are
transferred through the foundations to the
subsoil.

O Skeletal frame can be economically constructed

of concrete or steel or a combination of the two
O SKELETAL RC FRAME STRUCTURE

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 2: Skeletal RC Frame
Advantages of skeletal framed structure over solid
structure :

O More floor space

O Flexibility in building plan and building operation

O Reduction of dead load

O Suitable for low and high rise buildings

Task 1 : Find 5 other advantages for next class

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 2: Skeletal RC Frame
1.
COLUMNS
Functions of skeletal frame members: 2.
MAIN/PRIMARY BEAMS
Plan diagram i. Edge beams
ii. Tie /intermediate beam
3. SECONDARY BEAMS
4. FLOOR & ROOF SLAB
5. WALL (non-load bearing)
6. STAIRS
COLUMNS

SECONDARY BEAMS

TIE BEAMS

EDGE BEAMS

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 2: Skeletal RC Frame
Functions of skeletal frame members:

Main beams
• Span between column & transfers dead & live
(imposed) load placed upon them to columns
Edge beams
• Act as tie beam but spanning between external column
Tie beams
•Internal beams spanning between column at right
angles to the main beams and have same functions as
main beam
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 2: Skeletal RC Frame
Functions of skeletal frame members:
Secondary beams
• Span between main beams & transfers their loading to
main beams
• Primary function is to reduce spans of the floor or roof
being supported by the frame
•Can be located internally or externally

Columns
• Vertical member which carry the loads transferred by
beams to the foundations
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 2: Skeletal RC Frame
Functions of skeletal frame members:
Floors
• May or may not be an integral part of the frame. They
provide the platform on which equipment can be placed
on which people can circulate
• Besides transmitting these live loads to the supporting
members, they also be required to provide a specific fire
resistance, together with a degree of sound and thermal
insulation
Flat Roof
•Similar to floor but its main function is to provide a
weather resistant covering the upper most floor
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 2: Skeletal RC Frame
Functions of skeletal frame members:

Walls (non-load bearing)

• The envelope/enclosing of a structure which provides
the resistance to the weather, entry of daylight, natural
ventilation, fire resistance, thermal and sound insulation

Stairs
• As means of going to a different floor levels

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 2: Skeletal RC Frame
Functional requirements of skeletal frame:

1. Strength
• Can be achieved by the use of appropriate materials

2. Stability
• Can be achieved by suitable design forms with due to
the manner in which the structure as a whole and its part
behave under load

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 2: Skeletal RC Frame
Functional requirements of skeletal frame:

3. Fire resistance
• Essential in order that its structural integrity may be
maintained in the event of fire at least to the following
extent:
• for the period enough to permit occupants to
escape from the building
• for the full period of total burn out

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UokY_YFS3JM

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 3: Choice of Material

Materials commonly used for frame structure are:

CONCRETE
STEEL

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 3: Choice of Material
Factors that influence the choice between concrete and steel:
• Availability of materials
• Availability of labours (depends on material)
• Reasonable cost: based on demand and supply
• Speed of construction
• Possibility of standardizing the sizes of structural members
• Flexibility in design and construction
• Maximum reuse of formwork
• Size and nature of site: For storage of materials and
weather conditions
•Fire resistance required 34
 10 MINUTES QUIZ
O a) In spite of the fact that concrete is a material that
is strong especially in resisting compressive loads,
reinforcement bars are still required to be embedded in
concrete. State five (5) reasons on why reinforcements
are required in concrete.
O (5 marks)

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Student Learning Time
1. Read page 461 – 467 of
CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY, Fourth
Edition, Chudley & Greeno.

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