Internet Protocol (IP)

Dr. Arshad Ali

Associate Professor
NUCES, Lahore

Powerpoint Templates
Network Layer
Network layer is concerned with getting packets from the
source all the way to the destination (end-end to
transmission)
➢May require many hops at intermediate routers
(multiple hops),

➢ Its primary function is routing

➢ Network layer should provide either connection

oriented or connectionless service
Network Layer Protocol
Internet Protocol (IP)
IP ADDRESSES

An IP address uniquely and universally defines the

connection of a device (a computer or a router) to the
Internet

Types of IP addresses in active use

➢ IP version 4 (IPv4)
➢ IP version 6 (IPv6)
Types of IP ADDRESSES
IP version 4 (IPv4)
➢ Initially deployed on Jan 1, 1983
➢ Still most commonly used version
➢ A 32 bit address in length
➢ Expressed as four 8 bit Octets separated by a period
symbol (Dotted decimal notation)
➢ 192.2.3.50
➢ Its address space is 232 or 4,294,967,296
Types of IP ADDRESSES
IP version 6 (IPv6)
➢ Its deployment started in 1999

➢ 128 bit numbers

➢ conventionally expressed using hexadecimal strings

➢ 2001:0db8:582:ae33::29

➢ Apparently Address space is 2128

IPv4 Addresses (classful)
IPv4 classes in binary and dotted-decimal notation
The address space is divided into five classes:
A, B, C, D, and E
Finding the Class
IPv4 ADDRESSES
IP address is divided into two parts

➢Prefix defines the network (Network ID or Net ID):

➢like street address

➢Suffix (Host ID) defines the node (connection of a

device to the network):
➢Like house or building number

➢A host is a device that has a network interface card

(NIC) connected to a network
IPv4 ADDRESSES
➢ If a device has two network interfaces, it should be
considered two separate hosts
➢ Each host that is attached to a TCP/IP network must
have a unique IP address

86

90 133.120.75.8
94 129.102.12.7
MARIA AVE
129.102.0.0 133.120.0.0
131.107.0.0

129.102.16.2
131.107.3.27
 Netid and Hostid

➢Hostid: cannot be all 0s

➢If host portion is all 0s, represents a network address.
➢Hostid: cannot be all 1s
➢If host portion is all 1s, represents broadcast address.
Number of blocks and block size in classful IPv4 addressing
Class A Address
➢First bit: always 0. Remaining bits can be either 0s or 1s.

➢Range of first octet is 00000000 to 01111111

➢Network addresses cannot be all 0s (0.0.0.0 through

0.255.255.255): nodes attempting to use them will be
unable to communicate properly on the Internet

➢127 is reserved for loopback testing

➢126 valid Class A network IDs: 1.x.y.z to 126.x.y.z

Class A Address
Blocks in class B
Blocks in Class C
➢ Class D addresses (from 224.x.y.z to 239.x.y.z) are
used for multicasting
➢method of sending a single packet to multiple
hosts

➢ Class E addresses (from 240.x.y.z to 255.x.y.z)

➢experimental address range
➢Not used in actual networks
 Network Address
The first address is called the network address
▪ different from a netid and
▪ contains both netid and hostid
▪ with 0s for the hostid
➢It defines the organization network (to connect to the rest
of world)
➢The organization network is connected to the Internet
via a router.
➢The router has two addresses.
➢One belongs to the granted block;
➢the other belongs to the network that is at the other side
of the router.
Network Address
Examples: Network Address
➢ Question: Given the address 23.56.7.91, find the
network address.
➢ Answer: Replacing the host-id bytes (56.7.91) with 0s.
So, the network address is 23.0.0.0.

➢Question: Given the address 132.6.17.85, find the

network address
➢Answer: We can find the network address by replacing
the hostid bytes (17.85) with 0s.
Thus, the network address is 132.6.0.0.
Address Class Summary

Range of
Number Number of Hosts
Network IDs
of Networks per Network
(First Octet)

Class A 126 16,777,214 1 – 126

Class B 16,384 65,534 128 – 191

Class C 2,097,152 254 192 – 223

Assigning Host IDs

1 2 3

124.0.0.27 124.0.0.1 192.121.73. 131.107.0.27

2
Router Router

124.0.0.28 192.121.73. 131.107.0.1 131.107.0.28

1

124.x.y.z 192.121.73.z 131.107.0.z

124.0.0.29 131.107.0.29
Remember the following
Network address: If all the bits in the host part are "0",
that represents the network id
First usable IPv4 address: If all the bits in the host part
are "0" except the last bit
Last usable IPv4 address : If all the bits in the host part
are "1" except the last bit
Broadcast address: If all the bits in the host part are "1"

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 Reserved, Private addresses
Private address block:
Class A: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 [16777216] (Private use
networks)
Class B: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 [1048576]
Class C: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 [65536]

Reserved:
Class A: 0.0.0.0 to 0.255.255.255 & 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 (LB)
Administered by RIRs: Examples
128.0.0.0 to 128.0.255.255 & 191.255.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
192.0.0.0 to 192.0.0.255 ---------196.-.-.-, 198.-.-.-
 What is Subnet Mask?
IPv4 address has two components, the network part and the
host part.

The purpose of subnet mask is to identify which part is the

network part and which part is the host part.

Subnet mask: A 32 bit number where

▪ all the bits of the network part are shown as 1 and
▪ all the bits of the host part are represented as 0.

For example, for a Class C Network, 192.168.10.0, the

subnet mask is 255.255.255.0
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 Subnet and Sub-netting
➢A logical, visible subdivision of an IP network is called
subnet or subnetwork:
➢It is created by dividing the host identifier

➢Sub-netting is the practice of dividing a network into two

or more networks

➢Sub-netting is done by taking the bits from host part and

adding it to the network part

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Subnet and Sub-netting

In sub-netting, a class A or class B or class C

block is divided into several subnets
▪ each subnet with larger prefix length than the
original network).
➢For example, divide the class A into four
subnets, (take two bits from host id part in order to
obtain subnets).
➢then each subnet will have prefix length as 10

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 Class C – 1 bit sub-netting
Consider class C network 192.168.10.0 (subnet mask is 255.255.255.0)
❖ If we include one bit from the host part to the network part, the
subnet mask changes into 255.255.255.128 (for 1 bit sub-netting)
❖ The single bit can have two values in last octet, either 0 or 1
❖ 11000000.10101000.00001010.0 | 0000000
11111111.11111111.11111111.1 | 0000000
❖ So the network 192.168.10.0 is divided into two networks with a
single bit sub-netting,
❖ each network has 128 total addresses of which 126 are usable
❖ two are used in each subnet to represent the network address and
broadcast address.
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 Class C – 1 bit sub-netting
SN No. Description Binaries Decimal

1 Network 11000000.10101000.00001010.00000000 192.168.10.0

Address
First usable 11000000.10101000.00001010.00000001 192.168.10.1
address
Last usable 11000000.10101000.00001010.01111110 192.168.10.126
address
Broadcast 11000000.10101000.00001010.01111111 192.168.10.127
Address
2 Network 11000000.10101000.00001010.10000000 192.168.10.128
Address
First usable 11000000.10101000.00001010.10000001 192.168.10.129
address
Last usable 11000000.10101000.00001010.11111110 192.168.10.254
address
Broadcast 11000000.10101000.00001010.11111111 192.168.10.255
Address
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 Class C – 2 bit sub-netting
SN No. Description Binaries Decimal
1 NA 11000000.10101000.00001010.00000000 192.168.10.0
1st 11000000.10101000.00001010.00000001 192.168.10.1
Last 11000000.10101000.00001010.00111110 192.168.10.62
BA 11000000.10101000.00001010.00111111 192.168.10.63
2 NA 11000000.10101000.00001010.01000000 192.168.10.64
1st 11000000.10101000.00001010.01000001 192.168.10.65
Last 11000000.10101000.00001010.01111110 192.168.10.126
BA 11000000.10101000.00001010.01111111 192.168.10.127
3 NA 11000000.10101000.00001010.10000000 192.168.10.128
1st 11000000.10101000.00001010.10000001 192.168.10.129
Last 11000000.10101000.00001010.10111110 192.168.10.190
BA 11000000.10101000.00001010.10111111 192.168.10.191
4 NA 11000000.10101000.00001010.11000000 192.168.10.192
1st 11000000.10101000.00001010.11000001 192.168.10.193
Last 11000000.10101000.00001010.11111110 192.168.10.254
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 Class C – 3 bit sub-netting
SN No. Description Binaries Decimal
1 NA 11000000.10101000.00001010.00000000 192.168.10.0
1st 11000000.10101000.00001010.00000001 192.168.10.1
Last 11000000.10101000.00001010.00011110 192.168.10.30
BA 11000000.10101000.00001010.00011111 192.168.10.31
2 NA 11000000.10101000.00001010.00100000 192.168.10.32
1st 11000000.10101000.00001010.00100001 192.168.10.33
Last 11000000.10101000.00001010.00111110 192.168.10.62
BA 11000000.10101000.00001010.00111111 192.168.10.63
…………….
8 NA 11000000.10101000.00001010.11100000 192.168.10.224
1st 11000000.10101000.00001010.11100001 192.168.10.225
Last 11000000.10101000.00001010.11111110 192.168.10.254
BA 11000000.10101000.00001010.11111111 192.168.10.255

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 Class B – 1 bit sub-netting
Consider class B network 172.16.0.0 (subnet mask is 255.255.0.0)
❖ If we include one bit from the host part to the network part, the
subnet mask changes into 255.255.128.0 (with 1 bit sub-netting)
❖ The single bit can have two values in last octet, either 0 or 1
❖ 10101100.00010000.0 | 0000000.00000000
11111111.11111111.1 | 0000000.00000000
❖ So the network 172.16.0.0 is divided into two networks with single
bit sub-netting,
❖ each network has 32768 total addresses of which 32766 are
usable, two are used in each subnet to represent the network
address and broadcast address.

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 Class B – 1 bit sub-netting
SN No. Description Binaries Decimal

1 Network
10101100.00010000.00000000.00000000 172.16.0.0
Address

First address 10101100.00010000.00000000.00000001 172.16.0.1

Last address 10101100.00010000.01111111.11111110 172.16.127.254

Broadcast
10101100.00010000.01111111.11111111 172.16.127.255
Address
2 Network
10101100.00010000.10000000.00000000 172.16.128.0
Address

First address 10101100.00010000.10000000.00000001 172.16.128.1

Last address 10101100.00010000.11111111.11111110 172.16.255.254

Broadcast
10101100.00010000.11111111.11111111 172.16.255.255
Address
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 Class B – 2 bit sub-netting
SN No. Description Binaries Decimal
1 NA 10101100.00010000.00000000.00000000 172.16.0.0
1st 10101100.00010000.00000000.00000001 172.16.0.1
Last 10101100.00010000.00111111.11111110 172.16.63.254
BA 10101100.00010000.00111111.11111111 172.16.63.255
2 NA 10101100.00010000.01000000.00000000 172.16.64.0
1st 10101100.00010000.01000000.00000001 172.16.64.1
Last 10101100.00010000.01111111.11111110 172.16.127.254
BA 10101100.00010000.01111111.11111111 172.16.127.255
3 NA 10101100.00010000.10000000.00000000 172.16.128.0
1st 10101100.00010000.10000000.00000001 172.16.128.1
Last 10101100.00010000.10111111.11111110 172.16.191.254
BA 10101100.00010000.10111111.11111111 172.16.191.255
4 NA 10101100.00010000.11000000.00000000 172.16.192.0
1st 10101100.00010000.11000000.00000001 172.16.192.1
Last 10101100.00010000.11111111.11111110 172.16.192.254
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Example: Route 193.205.102.36
 Classless Addressing

➢ Classless addressing
➢ uses a variable number of bits for the network and host
portions of the address (variable-length blocks)

➢ treats the IP address as a 32 bit stream of ones and

zeroes,

➢ where the boundary between network and host

portions can fall anywhere between bit 0 and bit 31.

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 Classless Addressing
➢ Classless addressing
➢ How to find the prefix length if an address is given?
➢ As prefix length is not inherent in the address
➢ Need to separately give the length of the prefix
➢ So, Prefix length is added to the address, separated by a
slash
Format of classless address
The notation is informally referred to as slash notation
and formally as classless inter-domain routing or CIDR

38
Table Prefix lengths

Classful addressing is a special case of classless addressing

 Example 1: What is the first address in the block if
one of the addresses is 167.199.170.82/27?

Solution: The prefix length is 27, which means that we

must keep the first 27 bits as is and change the remaining
bits (5) to 0s. The following shows the process:

Address in binary: 10100111 11000111 10101010 01010010

Keep the left 27 bits: 10100111 11000111 10101010 01000000
Result in CIDR notation: 167.199.170.64/27

40
Example 2: What is the first address in the block if one
of the addresses is 140.120.84.24/20? Number of
addresses, first and last useable IPs in block? Broadcast
address?
Answer: The first address is 140.120.80.0/20

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Example 4: find the first and last address in the block
if one of the addresses is 140.120.84.24/20.

Answer: The first address is 140.120.80.0/20 (set all

bits of host part to 0)
The last address is 140.120.95.255/20 (set all bits of
host part to 1)
Another way to find the last address:
Add the mask complement to the beginning address to find the
last address.
140 . 120 . 80 . 0
0 . 0 . 15 . 255
----------------------------
140 . 120 . 95 . 255 42
 Example 5: Find the block if one of the addresses is
190.87.140.202/29.
Solution: To find the first address, we notice that the mask (/29)
has five 1s in the last byte.
So write the last byte as powers of 2 and retain only the leftmost
five:
202 128 + 64 + 0 + 0 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0
The leftmost 5 numbers are 128 + 64 + 0 + 0 + 8
The first address is 190.87.140.200/29
The number of addresses is 232−29 or 8.
To find the last address, use the complement of the mask. The mask
has twenty-nine 1s; the complement has three 1s. The complement
is 0.0.0.7. Add this to the first address to get 190.87.140.207/29.
So, the first address is 190.87.140.200/29, the last address is
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190.87.140.207/29. There are only 8 addresses in this block.
Previous Example: Network Configuration

In classless addressing, the last address in the block does not

necessarily end in 255.
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➢In classless addressing, an address can belong to
many blocks (depending on value of prefix associated
with that block).
➢For example, consider the address 230.8.24.56
➢It can belong to many blocks
Prefix length Block
From To
16 230.8.0.0 230.8.255.255
20 230.8.16.0 230.8.31.255
26 230.8.24.0 230.8.24.63
27 230.8.24.32 230.8.24.63
29 230.8.24.56 230.8.24.63
31 230.8.24.56 230.8.24.57

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 Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)
➢ VLSM is a way of further sub-netting a subnet.

➢ we can allocate IPv4 addresses to the subnets by the exact

need by using VLSM

➢ VLSM allows us to use more than one subnet mask within the
same network address space.

➢ In classful addressing, we can divide a network only into

subnets with equal number of IPv4 addresses.

➢ VLSM allows to create subnets from a single network with

unequal number of IPV4 addresses

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 Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)
➢ Suppose we want to divide 192.168.10.0 (a Class C network)
into four networks each with unequal number of address as per
the following requirements:
Subnet A : 126 IPv4 Addresses.
Subnet B : 62 IPv4 Addresses.
Subnet C : 30 IPv4 Addresses.
Subnet D : 30 IPv4 Addresses.

➢ Such division is not possible in classful addressing, since it

divides the network equally,
➢ but it is possible with VLSM.

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Two-level hierarchy in an IPv4 address

Three-level hierarchy in an IPv4 address

 Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)
Division of 192.168.10.0/24 (original network) into four networks
with VLSM.

FIRST DIVISION
▪ Divide into two networks equally with 128 addresses (126 usable)
using subnet mask 255.255.255.128

1. 192.168.10.0/25 [255.255.255.128]
➢ 11000000.10101000.00001010.00000000 [in binary]
11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000 [subnet mask]
2. 192.168.10.128/25 [255.255.255.128]
➢ 11000000.10101000.00001010.10000000
11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000 [subnet mask]

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 Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)
SECOND DIVISION
▪ Divide second subnet 192.168.10.128/25 (obtained from first
division) again into two networks,
▪ Each with 64 addresses (62 usable) using subnet mask
255.255.255.192
1. 192.168.10.128/26 [255.255.255.192]
➢ 11000000.10101000.00001010.10000000 [in binary]
11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000 [subnet mask]
2. 192.168.10.192/26 [255.255.255.192]
➢ 11000000.10101000.00001010.11000000
11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000 [subnet mask]

50
 Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)
THIRD DIVISION
▪ Divide second subnet 192.168.10.192/26 (obtained from second
division) again into two networks,
▪ each with 32 addresses (30 usable) using subnet mask
255.255.255.224
1. 192.168.10.192/27 [255.255.255.224]
➢ 11000000.10101000.00001010.11000000 [in binary]
11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000 [subnet mask]
2. 192.168.10.224/27 [255.255.255.224]
➢ 11000000.10101000.00001010.11100000
11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000 [subnet mask]

▪ So, splitting of 192.168.10.0/24 into four subnets using VLSM

with unequal number of addresses is done
51
Example 2:
An organization is granted a block of addresses starting
with 17.12.14.0/26 (64 addresses).

The organization needs to have three sub-blocks of

addresses to use in its three subnets:
• one sub-block of 32 addresses, and
• two sub-blocks of 16 addresses each.
Design the sub-blocks and find out how many addresses
are still available after these allocations.
X.X.X.000xxxxx
X.X.X.00xxxxxx X.X.X.0010xxxx
X.X.X.001xxxxx
X.X.X.0011xxxx
Solution of Example 2:
Configuration and addresses in a sub-netted network

X.X.X.0010xxxx

X.X.X.000xxxxx
X.X.X.0011xxxx
Example 3:
An organization is granted a block of addresses starting
with 14.24.74.0/24.

The organization needs to have three sub-blocks of

addresses to use in its three subnets:
• one sub-block of 10 addresses,
• one sub-block of 60 addresses, and
• one sub-block of 120 addresses.

Design the sub-blocks and find out how many addresses

are still available after these allocations.
Solution to Example 3:
There are 2 32-24 = 256 addresses in this block. The first
address is 14.24.74.0/24 and last address is
14.24.74.255/24 .

Assign addresses to sub-blocks starting with the largest and

ending with the smallest one.

➢ Mask n1 for the first (largest) subnet 2 32-n1 must be 128

(a number with power of 2 nearest to 120). So n1 = 25. We
allocate 128 addresses instead of 120 to this subnet

➢The first address in this subnet is 14.24.74.0/25 and

last address is 14.24.74.127/25
Solution (previous example 3 continue)
➢Mask for the second subnet 2 32-n2 must be 64 (a
number with power of 2 nearest to 60). So n2 = 26
➢The first address in this subnet is 14.24.74.128/26
and last address is 14.24.74.191/26

➢Mask for the third subnet 2 32-n3 must be 16 (a

number with power of 2 nearest to 10). So n3 = 28
➢The first address in this subnet is 14.24.74.192/28
and last address is 14.24.74.207/28

➢So we have 128+64+16 = 208 addresses in all three

sub-blocks.
➢Therefore, 48 address are still left in reserve.
 Example
An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting with
190.100.0.0/16 (65,536 addresses). The ISP needs to
distribute these addresses to three groups of customers as
follows:
a. The first group has 64 customers; each needs 256
addresses.
b. The second group has 128 customers; each needs 128
addresses.
c. The third group has 128 customers; each needs 64
addresses.
Design the sub-blocks and find out how many addresses
are still available after these allocations.
 Example (continued)
Solution
Group 1
For this group, each customer needs 256 addresses.
This means that 8 (log2 256) bits are needed to define each
host.
The prefix length is then 32 − 8 = 24.
 Example (continued) X.X.00000000.x
X.X.00000001.x
Solution …
X.X.00111111.x
Group 1: The addresses are …
 X.X.01000000.0-------
Example (continued) X.X.01000000.1-------
…
X.X.01111111. 0-------
X.X.01111111. 1-------
Group 2 …
For this group, each customer needs 128 addresses. This
means that 7 (log2 128) bits are needed to define each host.
The prefix length is then 32 − 7 = 25. The addresses are
 Example (continued)
Group 3
For this group, each customer needs 64 addresses. This
means that 6 (log264) bits are needed to each host. The
prefix length is then 32 − 6 = 26. The addresses are
 X.X.10000000.00------
Example (continued) X.X.10000000.01------
X.X.10000000.10------
X.X.10000000.11------
…
X.X.10011111. 10-------
X.X. 10011111. 11-------
…

Number of granted addresses to the ISP: 65,536

Number of allocated addresses by the ISP: 40,960
Number of available addresses: 24,576
Figure: An example of address allocation
and distribution by an ISP
 Address depletion and IPv6
Classless addressing is a short term solution to solve
the address depletion problem

➢ Uses the same address space but change the

distribution of addresses to provide a fair share to
each organization.

➢ Still uses the IPv4 addresses (class privilege was

removed from the distribution)

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 Address depletion and IPv6
➢ Despite all short-term solutions, address depletion is
still a long-term problem for the Internet.

➢ This and other problems in the IP protocol itself have

been the motivation for already devised IPv6.
➢ The long-range solution
➢ The larger address space is obtained by
increasing the length of IP addresses (128 bits)

➢ It means that format of IP packets need to be

changed

65
IPv6 ADDRESSES
Abbreviated IPv6 addresses
 EXAMPLE
Expand the address 0:15::1:12:1213 to its original.
Solution
We first need to align
➢ the left side of the double colon to the left of the
original pattern and
➢ the right side of the double colon to the right of the
original pattern
in order to find how many 0s we need to replace the double
colon.

This means that the original address is.