Protocol Layering

Protocol layering allows us to divide a complex task into several

smaller and simpler tasks
❖ A layer (module) is a black box with inputs and outputs
without concerns about the conversion of inputs to outputs

❖ A layer needs to be able to receive a set of services from the

lower layer and to give the services to the upper layer
▪ We do not care about how the layer is implemented

❖ There are also intermediate systems other than end-systems

used by communication with respect to protocol layering in
the Internet
Protocol Layering
A simples scenario (only 1 layer)

A bit complex scenario (many layers)

 Principles of Protocol layering
First principle
❖ For bidirectional communication: Each layer should be
able to perform two opposite tasks

▪ 3rd layer task is to talk (in one direction) and listen (in
other direction)

▪ 2nd layer encrypt (on one side) and decrypt (other side)

▪ 1st layer, send and receive email

 Principles of Protocol layering
Second principle
❖ Two objects under each layer at both sides should be
identical

▪ Objects under layer 3 : plain text

▪ Objects under layer 2: Cipher text

▪ Objects under layer 1: a piece of mail

Models of Layers
Principals Create a layer where a different abstraction is needed

❖ Each layer should perform a well-defined function

❖ The function of each layer should be chosen

▪ With target for standardization

❖ Minimize information flow across layer boundaries

❖ Number of layers
❖Large: distinct functions are not in the same layer
❖Small : architecture does not become complex
INTERFACE BETWEEN LAYERS

➢The passing of the data and network information down through the
layers of the sending device and back up through the layers of the
receiving device is made possible by an interface between each pair
of adjacent layers.

➢Each interface defines the information and services a layer must

provide for the layer above it.

➢Well-defined interfaces and layer functions provide modularity to

a network.
Reference Models
Layers model
▪A theoretical approach describing how data is
going to be transmit over the network
❖ The TCP/IP Protocol Suit
▪ Used in all WANs, the ARPANET, worldwide
Internet
▪ The OSI Reference Model (minus physical
medium)
 TCP/IP Layered Architecture
➢ Consider a small internet of three LANs (each with a link layer
switch).
➢ Further, assume that links are connected by one router
 TCP/IP Layered Architecture
➢ The two hosts are involved in all five layers
➢ Source host creates a message in the application layer and sends
it down the layer for physical delivery to the destination host
➢ Destination host receives the communication at physical and
then deliver to the application layer through other layers

➢ Router is involved three layers

❖ Involved in only one network layer; but involved in n
(number of links) combinations of link and physical layers
❖ Each link may use its own data link and physical protocol

➢ Link layer switch is involved in only two layers

❖ It is involved only in one data-link and one physical layer
LAYERS IN THE TCP/IP Protocol Suit (Book2:2.2
➢ Logical connections make easier to think about the duty of
each layer.
➢ The duty of the application, transport, and network layers is
end-to-end (so domain is internet).
➢ However, the duty of the data-link and physical layers is hop-
to-hop, a hop being a host or router (domain is link).
LAYERS IN THE TCP/IP Protocol Suit
➢ Logical connections may be thought of as data unit created at
each layer, a hop being a host or router.
➢ In top three layers
❖ Data unit (packets) should not be changed by any router or
link-layer switch.
➢ In the bottom two layers,
❖ the packet created by the host is changed only by the routers,
not by the link-layer switches.
Description of Layers
PHYSICAL LAYER IN THE TCP/IP
➢ responsible for carrying individual bits in a frame across the
link.

➢ Transmission medium does not carry bits; it carries electrical or

optical signals.
➢ So the bits received in a frame from the data-link layer are
transformed and sent through the transmission media,
➢ but we can think that the logical unit between two physical
layers in two devices is a bit.

➢ There are several protocols that transform a bit to a signal.

DATA-LINK LAYER IN THE TCP/IP (1)
➢ Several overlapping sets of links for datagram to travel from
source to the destination.
➢ The routers are responsible for choosing the best links.

➢ When the next link to travel is determined by the router,

➢ the data-link layer takes datagram and moves across the link.

➢ The link can be a wired LAN with a link-layer switch, a wireless

LAN, a wired WAN, or a wireless WAN.

➢ In each case, the data-link layer is responsible for moving the

packet (frame) through the link.
DATA-LINK LAYER IN THE TCP/IP (2)
➢ The data-link layer takes a datagram and encapsulates it in a
packet called a frame.

➢ Each link-layer protocol may provide a different service.

➢ Some link-layer protocols provide complete error detection
and correction,
➢ some provide only error correction.
Hop-to-hop delivery
NETWORK LAYER IN THE TCP/IP (1)
➢ Responsible for creating a connection between the source and the
destination.
➢ The communication at the network layer is host-to-host.

➢ Routers in the path are responsible for choosing the best route for
each packet.
So, network layer is responsible for host-to-host communication
and routing the packet through possible routes.

➢ In the Internet, it includes the main protocol, Internet Protocol

(IP), that defines
➢ the format of the packet, called a datagram at the network
layer.
➢ the format and the structure of addresses used in this layer.
NETWORK LAYER IN THE TCP/IP (3)
➢ IP is also responsible for routing a packet from its source to its
destination,
➢ achieved by each router forwarding the datagram to the next
router in its path.
➢ It includes unicast and multicast routing protocols

➢ Routing is duty of IP (not of routing protocol)

➢ Routing protocol helps routers in routing process

➢ By creating forward tables for routers
Source-to-destination delivery
Transport Layer (Layer 4)
❖ UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
UDP Header Data

❖ Adds more addressing: “ports”

▪ IP address tell you which computer
▪ Ports tell you which application on that computer
▪ Example: a web server “listens” to requests on port 80
▪ Web browser: http://www.google.com:80 =
http://216.58.216.100:80
• “:80": optional

▪ Unreliable!
• Packets can get lost; packets can arrive out of order
Transport Layer
❖ TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
❖ Reliable protocol!
❖ Adds ports (just like UDP), but also provides:
▪ In-order delivery of packets (using sequence numbers)
▪ Reliable delivery: using acknowledgment (ACK) packets

Packet
ACK

▪ Flow control & congestion control:

• Allows receiver to slow down sender
• Allows “network” to slow down sender
UDP vs TCP
❖ TCP:
▪ typical choice of most applications
▪ do not want to lose data, out-of-order arrival, etc.
▪ email, web traffic, financial transactions, etc.

❖ UDP:
▪ can be “faster”
• no flow/congestion control “slowing down” traffic
• no retransmissions
• good for “real-time” traffic
▪ out-of-order arrival: can also “reorder” at application level
▪ loss of data: can be acceptable
• missing frames in video/audio stream
Reliable process-to-process
delivery of a message
APPLICATION LAYER
The application layer is responsible to allow access to network
resources (to send and receive data)

- Interface between user applications and lower network services

All applications and utilities communicating with the network fall in

this layer
Examples: Browsers, Email clients (outlook express, Opera mail),
FTP clients (WinSCP, Filezila)
The two application layers exchange messages between each other
as though there were a bridge between the two layers.
➢ However, the communication is done through all the layers.

Protocols: Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Simple Mail Transfer

Protocol (SMTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Simple Network Management
Protocol (SNMP), Domain Naming System (DNS), Telnet etc.