ECOLOGY

This is the study of organisms interact with each other and with their environment.

An ecosystem is made up of biotic and abiotic components (living and non- living).

The principal source of energy in an ecosystem is the sun.

Energy is transferred through an ecosystem by feeding. When one organism eats another organism,
energy is passed on in the form of chemical energy.

The feeding relationships are shown in food chains and food webs. A food chain is made up of one
type of organism at each level. A food web is made up of one type of organism at each level.

A food web is made up of many food chains. There are usually 4 or 5 feeding levels in a food chain.
These levels are called trophic levels.

The first trophic level is producers. These are always green plants or green algae, which can
photosynthesise. Producers provide food for the next trophic level, which are primary consumers.
These are always plant eaters, so they are called herbivores. Primary consumers are eaten by
secondary consumers. Secondary consumers are eaten by tertiary consumers. Secondary and
tertiary consumers are called carnivores because they feed on animals.

Sun’s energy

Producer primary consumer secondary consumer tertiary consumer

 The arrows show the flow of energy. Energy is non-cyclic, meaning it cannot return to its
source.
 Energy is used up or lost along the food chain. Therefore, less energy is transferred from one
trophic level to another. More energy is found at the beginning of the food chain and
decreases up the tropic level. Organisms at the highest trophic level receive the least
amount of energy in a food chain.
 Energy transfer can be expressed as a pyramid.

Pyramid of energy

Tertiary consumer/30

Secondary consumer/20

Primary consumer/10

Producers

Energy cannot be recycled in an ecosystem but nutrients like and nitrogen can be recycled.

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CARBON CYCLE

Photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide in the Decay Plants use carbon dioxide to
atmosphere produce carbohydrates
Respiration

Decay

Respiration Eating

Animal tissue formed

Combustion from plant tissue Fossilisation

Fossil fuels e.g. natural gas, coal,

etc

NITROGEN CYCLE

NNINITROGEN IN THE SOIL

Denitrifying bacteria
Ammonia ammonium compounds nitrites nitrates

(action of nitrifying bacteria)

Decay excretion absorption NITROGEN IN THE

AIR

ORGANIC NITROGEN IN NITROGEN IN

death & eaten
REMAINS ANIMALS PLANTSN
defecation (protein)
LEGUMINOUS
root nodules
PLANTS
Death

nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil

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EFFECTS OF HUMAN BEINGS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

There is natural balance between plants and animals, as shown by food webs and food chains.
However, many human activities upset the balance, harming the environment and causing many
problems for human beings themselves. Some examples are given below;

How poor agricultural practices result in the destruction of the ecosystem

1. Monoculture
This means growing one type of crop on the same piece of land year after year. Such crops
cannot support a mixed population of organisms. It also leads to the displacement of natural
plants and animals, as the land will be cleared for growing that particular crop. Monoculture
also results in the use of pesticides to control pests affecting that particular crop, but this
often kill not only pests but also other beneficial organisms.

2. Overstocking
This means keeping a large number of livestock within a small given area. This leads to
overgrazing which may lead to soil erosion. Overgrazing leads to the destruction of habitats
for small organisms.

3. Deforestation
This is the cutting down of too many trees (for the purpose of building materials,
construction of roads, firewood etc) without replacing them. This result in most habitats and
food for organisms being destroyed. Some plant species may also become extinct and the
noise caused during constructions may drive away some animal species hence leading to an
imbalance in the ecosystem.

4. Pesticides
Some insecticides such DDT are non-biodegradable, i.e. cannot be decomposed by biological
organisms. Therefore, they enter the smaller organisms in the food chain. The concentration
of this insecticide increases up the trophic level, hence the tertiary consumers may die due
to higher concentrations of this insecticide.

vulture

cat

lizard

mosquito

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5. The use of fertilizers
Fertilizers are very rich in nitrates and phosphates and they are normally used to enrich the
soil for crop production. This enrichment of water sources by nitrates and phosphates is
called Eutrophication. If these nitrates and phosphates are drained into rivers due to
running water, they promote the growth of green algae. This green algae will cover up the
surface of the water and prevents the plants beneath from receiving light, as a result these
plants may eventually die because they will not be able to make their own food. When they
die, they are decomposed by bacteria and this process uses a lot of oxygen from the water.
As a result there will be insufficient oxygen supply to the animals living in water e.g. fish.
These animals will then suffocate and die.

FAMINE

This is severe shortage of food.

The problems which lead to famine

1. Unequal distribution of food

The country may have enough but not equally distributed among the whole population.
There are certain areas where people are extremely poor due to lack of food, while in other
areas in the same country people have more than enough.

2. Natural disasters (floods and drought)

Certain areas may experience heavy rainfall resulting in floods, which may destroy many
houses and even vegetation. People will then remain poor without shelter and food. In
certain areas it may be very hot and dry without any rain which will make farming
impossible. Since many people rely on farming, they will have serious shortage of food since
livestock will be starved to death and there will be no crops grown.

3. Increase in population

If there are too many people in a given area and less resources, they will be a serious
shortage of food as the food will not be enough to supply the large population.

POLLUTION

1. Air pollution

Poisonous gases from industries, cars and homes result in pollution of the air.

(a) Sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen

Some of the common gases released from industries in sulphur dioxide and oxides of
nitrogen from car exhausts. When these gases combine with the moisture in the
atmosphere, they fall down as acid rain which destroy vegetation and corrode
buildings.

(b) Excess carbon dioxide

An increase in carbon dioxide may be due to burning more fuel like fossil fuels, fire
wood, etc, at a higher rate and at the same time cutting down too many trees
without replacing them. Carbon dioxide has the ability to trap a lot of heat energy
from the sun but allowing les to escape to the atmosphere. If the concentration of

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 carbon dioxide is very high, it means more heat will be trapped leading to a rise in
the earth’s temperature. This is referred to as GLOBAL WARMING. This temperature
may result in the melting of the ice in the arctic areas raising sea levels, which may
even lead to floods.

(c) Oxides of lead

These oxides released from car exhausts may also pollute the air and become
harmful when inhaled.

(d) Chlorofluorocarbons
These chemicals released from coolants in refrigerators, air conditioners and some
aerosol sprays and paints when released into the atmosphere, destroy the ozone
layer. This may lead to too much from the sun reaching the earth which can destroy
plants and animals.

2. Water pollution

(a) Sewage disposal

Some waste materials from toilets and kitchen when drained into rivers will cause
water pollution. This waste contain disease-causing micro organisms which may
result in people catching diseases if they use this untreated water e.g. cholera,
bilhazia, etc. Discharge of untreated sewage waste into water sources may also lead
to Eutrophication.

(b) Inorganic waste

These are usually the waste materials from industries which when discharged into
rivers, pollute the water. This waste may contain poisonous chemical substances
such as mercury, lead, etc. if they enter the food chain e.g. from the small fish up to
the human beings, they may cause serious health problems such as cancer or even
death

(c) Oil spillage

Oil spillage into water sources lead to suffocation and death of most animals living in
water since oil prevents oxygen from dissolving into the water leading to serious
shortage of oxygen in the water.

3. Land pollution

The land may be polluted by litter e.g. tins, papers, bottles and plastics. Some of these
may end up being breeding places for vectors like mosquitoes and disease- causing
micro- organisms like bacteria. The land may also be polluted by disposed chemicals
which may destroy beneficial organisms.

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 CONSERVATION

This involves preserving habitats and protecting individual species of plants and animals.

Conservation has the following advantages;

1. It ensures biodiversity.
2. It ensures the protection and keeping of species with survival value.

Reasons for conserving organisms

a. They are source of food e.g. mowana fruit and mosukujane (used for making tea)
b. For medicinal purposes e.g. sengaparile 9devil’s claw) and monepenepe.
c. Source of income as some animals act as source of tourist attraction e.g. lions, hippos,
rhinos, zebras,etc.

Material recycling

This involves the use and reuse of materials.

Reasons for recycling materials.

 Reduce littering and pollution.

 Saves money as there is no need to buy new materials.
 Minimises deforestation e.g. recycling of paper.

Examples

- Organic waste can be fermented to produce methane gas, which is used for cooking and
other thing.
- Empty bottles can be cleaned and reused
- Scrap metals and tins can be melted and moulded to make metal sheets for other new
items.
- Old papers can used to make toilet paper, flower pots,etc