Chapter 2 Wil.

- The Psychoanalytic
Diagnosis of Character
Classical psychoanalytic conceptualization has approached the study of character or personality in two distinct
ways, derived from earlier theoretical models of individual development:

Drive Theory: Freud’s original drive theory sought to understand personality by examining fixations at specific
developmental stages, asking, "At which early maturational phase is this person psychologically stuck?" This
view emphasizes the impact of early experiences and unresolved conflicts on adult personality.

Ego Psychology: In contrast, ego psychology focuses on the role of defenses in shaping character,
questioning, "What are this person’s typical ways of avoiding anxiety?" This model highlights how individuals
develop adaptive and defensive patterns in response to inner conflicts and external pressures. Although ego
psychology builds upon drive theory, it shifts the focus to understanding how people manage and defend
against emotional stress.

These two conceptual frameworks are not mutually exclusive; rather, they provide complementary ways to
understand the complexities of personality development. Drive theory offers insights into early developmental
stages, while ego psychology emphasizes the dynamics of defense mechanisms in later life.
In contemporary psychoanalytic theory, relational models such as British object relations, American interpersonal
psychoanalysis, self psychology, and newer empirical findings (e.g., attachment research and cognitive-affective
neuroscience) further enrich our understanding of character. These models highlight the significance of
interpersonal relationships and emotional experiences in shaping personality.

Applying a diversity of theories and models to diagnostic tasks can often be more effective than relying on a
singular perspective. Therapists benefit from integrating various approaches, as different clients may resonate
with different models. For example, some individuals may evoke theories based on Kernberg’s views, while others
may align more with Horney’s or Freud’s early drive theory. Effective therapists tend to draw freely from multiple
sources, recognizing that each theoretical model may illuminate different aspects of an individual’s personality.

Classical Freudian Drive Theory

Freud's biologically derived model of personality development emphasizes the role of instinctual processes, with
human development progressing through distinct psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, and genital. In early life,
children seek uninhibited instinctual gratification, with variations in the intensity of these drives based on
individual differences. Parental involvement plays a crucial role in balancing satisfaction and frustration during
these stages:

Sufficient Gratification: Ensures emotional security and pleasure, facilitating healthy development.

Appropriate Frustration: Helps the child transition from the pleasure principle (seeking immediate
gratification) to the reality principle (understanding that some desires must be delayed or deferred).

If children experience excessive frustration or gratification during any specific stage, they may become fixated at
that stage, leading to long-term character traits:

Depressive Personality: Often linked to neglect or overindulgence during the oral stage (0–1.5 years).

Obsessive Personality: Resulting from conflicts during the anal stage (1.5–3 years).

Hysterical Personality: Emerging from rejection or overstimulation during the phallic stage (3–6 years).

Although understanding personality based solely on drive-based fixation has proven to be insufficient, the
foundational ideas of Freud’s theory continue to influence psychodynamic approaches. Some therapists still
conceptualize psychopathology as developmental arrest or conflict at a specific psychosexual stage.

Evolution of Developmental Stages

1. Erik Erikson’s Reformulation (1960s–70s): Erikson expanded Freud's psychosexual stages into a theory of
psychosocial development, reframing them as interpersonal and intrapsychic tasks. For example:

Chapter 2 Wil. - The Psychoanalytic Diagnosis of Character 1

 Oral Stage → Development of basic trust.

Anal Stage → Acquisition of autonomy.

Phallic Stage → Development of identity and sense of agency.

2. Harry Stack Sullivan emphasized the importance of communication milestones in childhood, focusing on
speech and social interactions rather than just drive satisfaction.

3. Margaret Mahler proposed a more nuanced understanding of early development, breaking the stages into
subphases, such as:

Autistic Phase: Infant’s initial lack of awareness of others.

Symbiotic Phase: The child’s deep connection with the caregiver.

Differentiation and Rapprochement: The child begins to separate from the caregiver and develops a
sense of individuality.

4. Melanie Klein focused on the infant's early emotional experiences, describing transitions between:

Schizoparanoid Position: The infant does not yet distinguish the caregiver from the self.

Depressive Position: The child realizes the caregiver is a separate individual, leading to feelings of loss or
guilt.

5. Peter Fonagy and colleagues introduced the concept of mentalization, highlighting the development of the
ability to recognize and understand the separate subjective realities of others. This ability is critical for social
functioning and is typically developed around the ages of 4–5.

Clinical Applications and Empathy

These developmental models offer new ways for therapists to understand how clients may become "stuck" at
particular developmental phases. They provide a framework for fostering empathy and self-compassion, helping
clients move beyond self-blame or distorted interpretations of their struggles. For instance, understanding a
client's difficulties in terms of Erikson’s or Mahler's stages can allow therapists to explore how unmet
developmental needs or unprocessed relational dynamics might influence current behavior. In this way, these
theories offer clinicians valuable tools for understanding personality development and psychopathology beyond
Freud’s original drive-based framework.

Ego Psychology
Freud's The Ego and the Id (1923) introduced his structural model of the mind, marking a significant shift from
focusing on the contents of the unconscious to exploring the processes that keep those contents repressed. This
new approach emphasized how the mind manages and defends itself against anxiety and conflict, offering a more
nuanced understanding of human psychology. The key concepts within Ego Psychology involve the dynamic
interplay of the Id, Ego, and Superego, as well as the mechanisms that govern their interaction.

Key Concepts in Ego Psychology:

Id: The Id houses primitive drives, desires, and instincts, governed by the pleasure principle. It seeks
immediate gratification without regard for consequences or moral considerations. It is entirely unconscious,
with no concept of reality, time, or logic. Neuroscientific models associate the Id with the amygdala, which is
involved in primal emotional responses.

Ego: The Ego mediates between the demands of the Id, external reality, and the moral constraints of the
Superego. It operates on the reality principle, working to find realistic ways to satisfy the Id’s desires within
the boundaries of what is socially and ethically acceptable. The Ego is responsible for logical thinking and
decision-making and includes both conscious and unconscious functions. In neuroscience, the Ego is aligned
with the prefrontal cortex, the brain area involved in higher cognitive processes such as planning, reasoning,
and impulse control.

Superego: The Superego represents the moral and ethical aspects of the self. It internalizes societal and
parental values and is responsible for feelings of guilt, shame, and pride. The Superego can be thought of as
the conscience, critiquing actions and thoughts according to internalized standards. It works partly at a

Chapter 2 Wil. - The Psychoanalytic Diagnosis of Character 2

 conscious level but also has unconscious components, often formed during the Oedipal stage through
identification with parental figures.

Clinical Implications of Ego Psychology:

1. Defense Mechanisms: Ego Psychology places a strong emphasis on the defense mechanisms employed by
the Ego to protect the individual from anxiety. These defenses, such as repression, denial, displacement, and
rationalization, can be adaptive or maladaptive depending on their flexibility and maturity. Ego Psychology
contributes significantly to character diagnosis by understanding how individuals use these mechanisms to
cope with internal and external conflicts.

2. The Observing Ego: A critical aspect of psychoanalytic therapy involves the concept of the "observing Ego,"
the part of the self that can objectively reflect on emotions and experiences. This observing Ego forms an
alliance with the therapist to analyze the "experiencing Ego," which is more visceral and emotional. This split
allows for more effective treatment, as the observing Ego can comment on and process feelings, facilitating
greater insight and self-awareness. Developing this observing function is often one of the first therapeutic
tasks, helping patients gain more control over their emotional responses.

3. Therapeutic Process: Ego Psychology asserts that the Ego’s ability to adapt to reality is central to
psychological well-being. In therapy, the goal is to strengthen the Ego, allowing it to handle difficult emotions
and conflicts more effectively. This involves not only integrating the defensive mechanisms but also helping
patients develop healthier coping strategies. The existence of a mature and flexible Ego, able to handle stress
and adapt to reality, is seen as essential for emotional and psychological health.

4. Superego and Moral Development: In therapy, understanding the role of the Superego is crucial for treating
patients who may struggle with overly harsh internal moral standards. Freud recognized that an excessively
punitive Superego can lead to feelings of guilt and self-criticism, often hindering personal growth. One
therapeutic aim is to help patients reevaluate these internalized moral standards, especially when they are
overly rigid or unrealistic, promoting healthier ethical behavior.

Object Relations Theory Overview

Object Relations Theory shifts the focus from Freud's drive theory to the relationships that children have with
significant objects (such as parents or caregivers) and how these early interactions shape internalized
representations that persist into adulthood. These early relationships, rather than the drive for satisfaction or
psychosexual stages, are seen as the foundation for understanding behavior and emotional responses throughout
life.

Key Contributions:
Internalized Object Relations: In Object Relations Theory, character is understood as patterns of internalized
relationships with early objects. These "objects" may refer to people, such as parents, or even parts of people
(like a mother's smile or a father's attention). The quality of these early relationships—how they were
experienced and internalized—profoundly influences one's personality, emotional life, and interactions with
others. These internalized images and representations persist into adulthood, shaping how individuals relate
to the world and form attachments in later life.

Countertransference: One of the major contributions of Object Relations Theory is the shift in understanding
countertransference. While Freud originally viewed the analyst's emotional reactions to the patient as a sign
of the therapist’s inadequacy or bias, Object Relations theorists recognize countertransference as a
diagnostic tool. Analysts now see their emotional responses as crucial for understanding the patient's
unconscious dynamics. These emotional reactions, such as feelings of frustration, empathy, or even anger,
can mirror the patient's unresolved early relational issues, especially with borderline or psychotic patients. For
example, a therapist might feel as though they are being emotionally manipulated, which can correspond to
how the patient felt with significant early figures.

Therapeutic Implications:
The Therapist-Patient Relationship: Therapists using Object Relations Theory emphasize the importance of
the emotional connection between themselves and their patients. They understand that emotional safety and

Chapter 2 Wil. - The Psychoanalytic Diagnosis of Character 3

 the quality of the therapeutic relationship can allow patients to re-experience early attachment dynamics in a
corrective way. By becoming aware of these dynamics, patients can develop healthier relationships and
integrate fragmented parts of their self-image.

Understanding Ego States: In cases of severe psychopathology, such as borderline states, patients may have
fragmented or dissociated "ego states" rather than an integrated sense of self. In these cases, treatment is
less about engaging a stable ego and more about understanding which early attachment figures or
internalized objects are activated during certain emotional states.

Neuroscientific Insights: Recent advances in neuroscience, particularly studies on infant development,

mirror neurons, and nonverbal emotional communication, provide empirical support for many of the ideas in
Object Relations Theory. The idea that early emotional communication is nonverbal and shaped by early
caregivers is reinforced by findings that the emotional brain (right hemisphere) plays a crucial role in bonding
and emotional regulation. This supports the Object Relations view that emotional connections—such as those
between therapist and patient—are key to therapeutic change.

Self Psychology
Emerging in the 1960s, Self Psychology, developed by Heinz Kohut, was a response to the limitations of
traditional psychoanalytic models that primarily focused on drive theory, ego psychology, and object relations.
Many therapists at the time noticed that their patients’ issues did not fit neatly into these existing frameworks.
While traditional theories concentrated on managing instincts, defenses, and internalized objects, they were
unable to explain the experiences of clients who felt empty rather than conflicted. These clients often lacked a
stable internal sense of self and sought external validation for feelings of acceptance, admiration, and self-worth.
Key observations included:

External Confidence, Internal Insecurity: Such clients often appeared self-assured on the surface, but they
were continuously in search of reassurance and validation from others.

Need for New Frameworks: These individuals lacked a sense of inner direction and relied on external sources
for self-esteem. Traditional models failed to capture the emptiness and confusion these clients experienced,
which led therapists to develop new frameworks to better conceptualize their suffering.

Kohut’s theory introduced several critical contributions to psychoanalysis:

Idealization and Psychopathology: Kohut emphasized the normal developmental need for idealization in
early life, which, when unmet, could lead to psychopathology in adulthood. This was particularly evident in
individuals who grew up without objects they could initially idealize and then gradually deidealize in a healthy
manner.

Reframing Defenses: Self Psychology redefined defenses, viewing them not only as mechanisms to protect
against anxiety but also as crucial processes to sustain a consistent and positive self-concept. Therapists
began to see these defenses as essential for maintaining self-cohesion and self-esteem.

Self Psychology reshaped the understanding of narcissism and self-identity in clinical practice. It highlighted the
importance of the self as an organizing structure and underscored the role of self-esteem in mental health. By
focusing on the development of a cohesive and positive self-image, Kohut’s approach provided a more nuanced
understanding of individuals who experience chronic emptiness, and it led to more compassionate and
individualized therapeutic interventions.

Relational Psychoanalysis
The relational approach in psychoanalysis builds on ideas introduced by Winnicott, who emphasized that the
development of a child is inseparable from their caregiver, suggesting that there is no such thing as an isolated,
stable self. Instead, personality and self-concept are formed and reshaped within interpersonal contexts. This
interdependence between therapist and patient is crucial in understanding how both parties contribute to the
therapeutic relationship. The unconscious lives of both therapist and client are considered central to the
therapeutic process, influencing the dynamics that unfold in therapy.
Key contributions to personality diagnosis in relational psychoanalysis include:

Chapter 2 Wil. - The Psychoanalytic Diagnosis of Character 4

 Unformulated Experiences: Stern (1997, 2009) emphasized the importance of experiences that have not yet
been fully conceptualized or integrated into the patient's sense of self. These unformulated experiences
highlight the fluid and evolving nature of self-experience within the relational context.

Social Construction of Meaning: Hoffman (1998) introduced the idea that meaning is socially constructed,
and therefore, the therapist’s and patient's understandings of their experiences are co-created during
therapy. This challenges earlier models that treated the therapist’s understanding as objective or detached.

Multiplicity of Self-States: Bromberg (1991, 1998) stressed that rather than a singular, fixed self, individuals
have multiple self-states that arise in different relational contexts. This highlights the dynamic and context-
dependent nature of identity and self-experience.

Role of Dissociation: In response to clients with traumatic histories, relational theorists like Davies and
Frawley (1994) have emphasized the role of dissociation in self-experience. Unlike traditional repression,
dissociation involves fragmented experiences that can lead to a lack of coherence in one's self-concept.

Other Psychoanalytic Contributions to Personality Assessment

In addition to the key theories of drive theory, ego psychology, object relations, self psychology, and relational
orientations, several other psychoanalytic theories have shaped our understanding of personality. These include:

Murray’s Personology: Focuses on understanding human behavior through individual needs, goals, and the
patterns of behavior they create.

Spotnitz’s Modern Psychoanalysis: Emphasizes the importance of the therapist-client relationship in the
development and functioning of the self.

Berne’s Transactional Analysis: Examines interpersonal transactions and their psychological significance,
exploring how people relate to one another through different "ego states."

Tomkins’s Script Theory: Highlights how early experiences and emotional responses create a script or
pattern that influences a person’s behavior throughout life.

The core of psychoanalytic theory lies in its focus on dynamic processes rather than static traits. Psychoanalysts
understand personality as a complex, evolving system influenced by unconscious dynamics and early
experiences, in contrast to rigid diagnostic categories like the DSM. Psychoanalytic theories recognize that traits
often exist in polarity within an individual. For example, people with conflicts around closeness may experience
both the desire for closeness and the fear of it, or those who seek success most intensely may simultaneously
sabotage their own achievements. These internal contradictions are not random, but part of an intricate, dynamic
process that drives behavior.
Furthermore, psychoanalytic theories emphasize oscillating patterns in a person’s emotional and psychological
life, offering a more nuanced and clinically relevant understanding of character. This perspective contrasts with
more simplistic diagnostic systems that categorize personality traits as fixed attributes. By focusing on the
dynamic nature of personality, psychoanalytic approaches help clinicians understand and interpret the
complexities, contradictions, and paradoxes within their patients' lives, transforming vulnerabilities into strengths.
Thus, psychoanalytic frameworks offer a deeper and more flexible way of assessing personality, enabling
clinicians to see the fluidity and unfinished nature of self-experience, and to work with the unformulated
aspects of a person's identity, self-concept, and interpersonal relationships.

Chapter 2 Wil. - The Psychoanalytic Diagnosis of Character 5