Ur Engineering Friend

Advance Computer Network

About Subject ACN ( elective ) -:

In Maharashtra State Board of Technical Education (MSBTE) diploma programs, an elective
subject is a course that students can choose from a set of options, in addition to the core
curriculum. Elective subjects allow students to tailor their education to their interests and
career goals by selecting topics that are not mandatory but are available as part of the broader
curriculum. These subjects often provide specialized knowledge and skills that can enhance a
student's expertise in a particular area of their field.

The "Advanced Computer Network" subject in a diploma or engineering program typically covers in-
depth topics related to computer networking. The curriculum aims to provide students with a
comprehensive understanding of advanced networking concepts, protocols, and technologies.

Chapters / Syllabus

1. Network Layers & Protocols

2. Next Generation IP

3. Unicast & Multicast Routing Protocols

4. Transport Layer Protocols

5. Application Layer Protocols

Join Maharashtra’s No. 1 Online Class – Course Details Youtube Channel

 Ur Engineering Friend

Chapter 2 -: Next Generation IP ( Part 2 )

1.1 Explain Address Space -:

In IPv6, an address space refers to the total number of unique IP addresses available under
the IPv6 system. IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses, which allows for a much larger address space
compared to the 32-bit address space in IPv4. Here's a breakdown:

1. Size of IPv6 Address Space: IPv6 supports 128-bit addresses, meaning there are
21282^{128}2128 (approximately 3.4 x 10^38) unique IP addresses. This is an
enormous increase from the 2322^{32}232 (around 4.3 billion) available in IPv4.
2. Address Format: IPv6 addresses are represented as eight groups of four
hexadecimal digits, separated by colons. For example:

2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334

3. Types of IPv6 Addresses:

o Unicast: A single unique address for one-to-one communication.
o Anycast: Assigned to multiple interfaces, but data is delivered to the nearest
one.
o Multicast: Data is sent to multiple destinations simultaneously.
4. Address Allocation: IPv6 allocates its address space hierarchically to simplify
routing. Addresses are grouped into prefixes (similar to subnets in IPv4). The general
structure is:
o Global Unicast Address (GUA): Public addresses routable on the global
Internet.
o Link-local Addresses: Used for communication within a local network
segment (starting with fe80::/10).
o Unique Local Addresses (ULA): Private addresses for local networks
(fc00::/7).

Join Maharashtra’s No. 1 Online Class – Course Details Youtube Channel

 Ur Engineering Friend

Address Space Allocation in Ipv6

The address space in IPv6 is 2128, which is equal to 3.4 x 10 38, the exact figure is :

340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456

The actual available number is slightly less than it, as there are some reserved addresses for
specific purposes. As per the Google statistics, the availability of Google users on IPv6 is 30-
33% out of the total Internet users at present.

The address space is that huge in IPv6, if we manage to adjust 268 computers in each square
meter of the planet earth, the address will still be enough to connect them all. However, all
the addresses of IPv6 are not yet allocated. Only three out of eight parts of IP addresses are
assigned to specific purposes.

Out of the 2128 addresses, 1/8th part allocated to the Global Unicast, 1/128th part to the
unique local unicast, 1/256th part each for Multicast and IPv4 compatible address, and
1/1024th part for link-local address.

Join Maharashtra’s No. 1 Online Class – Course Details Youtube Channel

 Ur Engineering Friend

It is worthwhile to mention that even the eighth part of the address is 2125, which is a pretty
large number for the Global unicast address.

To find the 1024th part of it, divide 2128 by 1024 or 210, which results in 2118.

Auto configuration

IPv6 auto-configuration is a mechanism that allows devices to configure themselves

automatically without the need for manual configuration or a DHCP server. This is essential
for large networks and mobile devices, providing a more flexible and scalable solution than
in IPv4.

Steps in IPv6 Auto configuration:

1. Link-Local Address Generation:

o As soon as the device connects to the network, it automatically generates a
link-local address.
o The address starts with fe80::/10 (reserved for link-local), and the remaining
bits are generated based on the device's MAC address or a randomly
generated value.
2. Duplicate Address Detection (DAD):
o The device performs Duplicate Address Detection (DAD) to ensure that the
link-local address is unique on the local network.
o If the address is found to be in use, the device will generate a new one.
3. Router Solicitation (RS):
o After the link-local address is confirmed, the device sends a Router
Solicitation (RS) message to request configuration information from local
routers on the network.
4. Router Advertisement (RA):
o The local router responds with a Router Advertisement (RA) message.

Join Maharashtra’s No. 1 Online Class – Course Details Youtube Channel

 Ur Engineering Friend
o The RA message contains:
▪ Prefix Information: The network prefix used for generating global
addresses.
▪ Prefix Length: Typically /64.
▪ Flags that indicate whether the device should use SLAAC or consult a
DHCPv6 server for additional configuration (like DNS).
5. Global Address Configuration:
o Using the network prefix from the RA, the device creates a global unicast
address.
o It appends a 64-bit interface identifier (usually derived from its MAC
address or randomly generated) to the prefix, forming a full 128-bit IPv6
address.
6. Duplicate Address Detection (DAD) for Global Address:
o The device performs DAD once again, this time for the newly created global
address, to ensure it is unique on the network.
7. Optional DHCPv6 (if needed):
o If the Managed (M) flag or Other (O) flag in the RA message is set, the
device may use DHCPv6 to obtain additional configuration, such as DNS
server information.
o If both flags are set, the device will use DHCPv6 to obtain its IP address and
configuration.
8. Address Assignment and Network Participation:
o Once the global address is confirmed and any additional configuration is
obtained, the device can fully participate in the IPv6 network.

Transition from IPv4 to IPv6

The transition from IPv4 to IPv6 is necessary due to the depletion of IPv4 addresses and the
growing need for a larger and more efficient IP addressing system. IPv6 was developed to
provide a virtually unlimited number of addresses, while also offering enhanced features such
as improved security and routing efficiency.

Join Maharashtra’s No. 1 Online Class – Course Details Youtube Channel

 Ur Engineering Friend
Reasons for Transition

1. IPv4 Address Exhaustion:

o IPv4 uses a 32-bit addressing system, which provides about 4.3 billion unique
addresses. This supply has been depleted due to the explosion of devices
connected to the internet (smartphones, IoT devices, etc.).
o IPv6 uses a 128-bit addressing system, which provides around 340 undecillion
(3.4×10^38) unique addresses, ensuring no shortage for the foreseeable future.

Transition Strategies

Since IPv4 and IPv6 are not natively compatible, various strategies are used to facilitate the
transition:

1. Dual Stack:
o This method allows devices and networks to run both IPv4 and IPv6
simultaneously. Devices choose which protocol to use based on the network or
destination's capabilities.
o Over time, as more networks support IPv6, IPv4 usage will decline.
2. Tunneling:
o IPv6 packets are encapsulated inside IPv4 packets to traverse IPv4 networks.
This allows IPv6 traffic to be sent over existing IPv4 infrastructure.
o Common tunneling protocols include:
▪ 6to4: Encapsulates IPv6 traffic over IPv4 automatically.
▪ Teredo: Designed for IPv6 connectivity through IPv4 NAT (Network
Address Translation).
3. Translation (NAT64/DNS64):
o These techniques translate IPv6 traffic into IPv4 for networks that still run
IPv4-only services. This helps IPv6-only devices communicate with IPv4
servers.

1. Dual Stack

Dual Stack is a technique used during the transition from IPv4 to IPv6 that allows devices
and networks to run both IPv4 and IPv6 protocols simultaneously. With this method, network

Join Maharashtra’s No. 1 Online Class – Course Details Youtube Channel

 Ur Engineering Friend
devices are configured to support both protocols, enabling communication with both IPv4
and IPv6 networks.

How Dual Stack Works:

• Dual Stack Devices: Devices like computers, routers, and servers are configured to
support both IPv4 and IPv6. These devices will have both an IPv4 address and an
IPv6 address.
• Protocol Preference: When a device communicates with another device, it first
checks which protocol the destination supports. If both support IPv6, IPv6 is used
(preferred for its advantages like better routing and more address space). If IPv6 isn’t
supported, the device will fall back to IPv4.

Advantages:

• Seamless Transition: It allows a gradual transition because devices can communicate

using either protocol. This way, networks and services can be upgraded to IPv6
without disrupting existing IPv4 services.
• Compatibility: Dual-stack ensures that as IPv6 adoption grows, communication can
continue with legacy IPv4 systems.

Disadvantages:

• Resource Intensive: Since devices need to maintain both IPv4 and IPv6 connections,
it can increase the complexity of network management.

Join Maharashtra’s No. 1 Online Class – Course Details Youtube Channel

 Ur Engineering Friend
• Cost: Implementing and maintaining a dual-stack network requires additional
resources, including bandwidth and processing power.

2. Tunneling

Tunneling is a technique that encapsulates IPv6 packets within IPv4 packets, allowing them
to be transmitted across an IPv4-only network. This is particularly useful when IPv6 traffic
needs to travel across infrastructure that has not yet been upgraded to support IPv6.

Types of Tunneling Methods:

1. 6to4 Tunneling:
o Automatically encapsulates IPv6 packets within IPv4 packets without the need
for a pre-established tunnel.
o Useful for communicating over IPv4 infrastructure, but requires the devices at
both ends to have public IPv4 addresses.
o Addressing: In 6to4, an IPv6 address is automatically generated from an IPv4
address.
2. Teredo Tunneling:
o Allows IPv6 connectivity for devices behind an IPv4 NAT (Network Address
Translation). It helps traverse networks where traditional tunneling
mechanisms like 6to4 would fail.
o NAT Traversal: Teredo is beneficial because many home and business
networks use NAT, and this method enables IPv6 packets to pass through
NAT routers.
o Commonly used in consumer networks, especially when using peer-to-peer
applications like gaming or video conferencing.
3. ISATAP (Intra-Site Automatic Tunnel Addressing Protocol):
o Used for communication between IPv6 devices across an IPv4-only network
within a single organization.
o Allows IPv6 traffic to be transported over an IPv4 intranet, which is useful in
corporate networks that have not fully migrated to IPv6.

Join Maharashtra’s No. 1 Online Class – Course Details Youtube Channel

 Ur Engineering Friend
How Tunneling Works:

• IPv6 packets are encapsulated inside an IPv4 packet at the source router or device.
• The encapsulated packet is sent across an IPv4 network.
• At the destination, the IPv4 header is stripped off, and the original IPv6 packet is
delivered.

Advantages:

Join Maharashtra’s No. 1 Online Class – Course Details Youtube Channel

 Ur Engineering Friend
• No Immediate Infrastructure Change: It allows IPv6 traffic to traverse IPv4
infrastructure, meaning there is no need to immediately replace or upgrade IPv4
networks.
• Flexible: Works well in scenarios where IPv6 adoption is limited.

Disadvantages:

• Overhead: Encapsulating IPv6 packets inside IPv4 adds overhead and increases
packet size, which can result in slightly reduced performance.
• Complexity: Managing and troubleshooting tunneled networks can be more complex
than running native IPv6 or IPv4 networks.

3. NAT64 and DNS64 (Network Address Translation)

NAT64 and DNS64 are translation mechanisms that allow IPv6-only devices to communicate
with IPv4-only services. These techniques translate between the two protocols so that IPv6
clients can access content on IPv4 servers without requiring dual-stack.

NAT64:

• Network Address Translation (NAT) translates IPv6 addresses into IPv4 addresses
and vice versa.
• It is used when an IPv6 client (with no IPv4 address) needs to connect to an IPv4
server.
• How it works:
o The NAT64 gateway translates the IPv6 packets coming from an IPv6-only
client into IPv4 packets.
o The NAT64 gateway also maintains a stateful mapping between the IPv6 and
IPv4 sessions.

Join Maharashtra’s No. 1 Online Class – Course Details Youtube Channel

 Ur Engineering Friend
o The return traffic from the IPv4 server is translated back into IPv6 at the
NAT64 gateway, so the IPv6 client can receive the data.

Advantages:

• Bridges IPv6 and IPv4: NAT64 allows IPv6-only clients to communicate with IPv4-
only services, bridging the gap between networks and avoiding the need for IPv4
addresses for clients.
• Eliminates Dual-Stack: Since IPv6 clients can communicate with IPv4 servers using
NAT64, this reduces the need for dual-stack configurations on the client side.

Disadvantages:

• Limited Scalability: NAT64 is only effective for outbound IPv6-to-IPv4 traffic,

meaning that IPv6 clients can initiate communication with IPv4 servers, but IPv4
clients cannot easily reach IPv6 servers.
• Performance Overhead: Translation processes add overhead, which can result in
slower performance compared to native IPv6 or IPv4 communication.
• Compatibility Issues: Some IPv4 services, particularly those that embed IP addresses
inside payloads (such as FTP or certain VoIP systems), may not work correctly with
NAT64 without additional configuration or workarounds.

Join Maharashtra’s No. 1 Online Class – Course Details Youtube Channel