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True Meridians
The true meridian is sometimes known as the geographic meridian. It is
generally adapted reference line in surveying practice. This line passes
through the geographic north and south poles of the earth and the
observer’s position.

Magnetic Meridians
A magnetic meridian is a fixed line of reference which lies parallel with the
magnetic line of forces of the earth. Its direction is defined by a freely
suspended magnetic needle of a compass held at the observer’s position.
This lines converge at the magnetic poles of the earth.

Assumed Meridians
An assumed meridian is an arbitrarily chosen fixed line of reference which is
taken for convenience. This meridian is usually the direction of from a survey
station to an adjoining station or some well-defined and permanent point.
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Units of Angular Measurement
1. Degree – the sexagesimal system is used in which the
circumference of a circle is divided into 360 parts or degrees. The
angle of one degree is defined as the subtended by 1/360 part of
the circumference of the circle. The basic unit is the degree, which
is further subdivided into 60 minutes, and the minute is further
subdivided into 60 seconds, represented by the symbols
°,‘,“, respectively.

2. Grad – The grad unit is the unit of measure in the centesimal

system. In this system, the circumference of the a circle is divided
into 400 parts called grads. The grad is subdivided into 100
centesimal minutes and a centesimal minute is further subdivided
into 100 centesimal seconds, represented
by the symbols, 𝑔 , 𝑐 , 𝑐𝑐 , respectively.
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Units of Angular Measurement
3. Mil – The circumference of a circle is divided into 6400 parts
called mils, or 1600 mils is equal to 90 degrees. It is
commonly used in military operations as in fire directions of
artillery units.

4. Radian – One radian is defined as the angle subtended at

the center of the circle by an arc length equal to the radius
of the circle. One radian equals 180/π or 57.2958 degrees.
It is sometimes referred to as the natural unit of angle
because there is no arbitrary number in its definition.

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Conversion

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Designation of North
1. True North – is the north point of the true meridian. It is
portrayed in the direction of the actual location of the earth’s
geographic north pole and is always shown along a
vertical line.
2. Magnetic North – a north point established by means of a
magnetized compass needle when there are no local attractions
affecting it. It usually points to the earth’s magnetic north pole

3. Assumed North – is used to portray the location of any arbitrary

chosen north point.

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Direction of Lines
The direction of a line is defined as the horizontal angle the line
makes with an established line of reference. There are various kinds
of angles which can be used to describe the direction of lines: interior
angles, deflection angles , bearings, and azimuths.

1. Interior angles – the angle

between two adjacent lines in
a closed polygon is an interior
angle.

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2. Deflection angles – the angle between a line and the prolongation of
the preceding line is called a deflection angle. It may be turned to the
right (clockwise) or left (counterclockwise) and it is always necessary
to append the letters R and L.

3. Bearings – The bearing of a line is

the acute horizontal angle between
the reference meridian and the line.
A quadrantal system is used to
specify bearings such that a line
may fall under one of the following
quadrants: NE, SE, SW, and NW.
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Direction of Lines
Bearings – either the letters N or S precedes the bearing angle and
the letters E or W follows the indicated value of the angle.

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4. Azimuths – The azimuth of a line is its direction as given by the angle
between the meridian and the line measured in a clockwise direction
from either the north or south branch of the meridian.

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A. CONVERTING BEARINGS TO AZIMUTHS. Convert the following bearings to equivalent
azimuths.
a) AB, N 25°25' W
b) BC, Due East
c) CD, S 50°10' E
d) DE, S 45°50' W
e) EF, N 66°30' W
B. CONVERTING AZIMUTHS TO BEARINGS. Convert the following azimuths to equivalent
bearings:
a) AZIMs of Line AB = 230°30'
b) AZIMn of Line BC = 112°46'
c) AZIMₛ of Line CD = 270°00'
d) AZIMₙ of Line DE = 228°15'
e) AZIMₛ of Line EF = 135°00'

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Definition of Terms
1. Traverse – A traverse is a series of lines connecting successive
points whose lengths and directions have been determined from
field measurements.

2. Traversing – The process of measuring the lengths and

directions of the lines of a traverse for the purpose of
locating the position of certain points.
3. Traverse Station – Any temporary or permanent point of reference
over which the instrument is set up. Traverse stations are
sometimes called the angle points because an angle is usually
measured at stations.

4. Traverse Lines – Lines connecting traverse stations and whose

lengths and directions are determined.
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Interior Angle Traverse
The interior angle traverse is used principally in land surveying. The
angles formed between the adjacent sides of the closed figure shown
are known as interior angles. These are the angles at stations A, B, C,
D, E and F.

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Deflection Angle Traverse
The deflection angle traverse is used frequently for the location survey
of roads, railroad, canals, transmission lines and similar structures. A
deflection angle is a horizontal angle measured clockwise or
counterclockwise from the prolongation of the preceding line to the
succeeding line.

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Latitude and Departure
Latitude of a line is its projection onto the reference meridian or a
north-south line. Latitudes are usually referred to as northings.
Latitudes directed to the north are positive (+) and to the south,
negative (-).

Departure of a line is its projection onto the reference parallel or

an east-west line. Departures to the east are positive (+) and to the
west, negative (-).

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 Latitude Departure
Course Distance Bearing
+N -S +E -W
AB 550.30m N28°10’E

BC 395.48 S69°35’E

CD 462.70 S27°50’E

DE 631.22 N50°00’E

EF 340.05 S25°05’E

FG 275.86 Due EAST

SUM

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 Latitude Departure
Course Distance Bearing
+N -S +E -W
AB 550.30m N28°10’E

BC 395.48 S69°35’E

CD 462.70 S27°50’E

DE 631.22 N50°00’E

EF 340.05 S25°05’E

FG 275.86 Due EAST

SUM

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 Latitude Departure
Course Distance Bearing
+N -S +E -W

AB 550.30m N28°10’E 485.13 259.76

BC 395.48 S69°35’E 137.96 370.64

CD 462.70 S27°50’E 409.17 216.04

DE 631.22 N50°00’E 405.74 483.54

EF 340.05 S25°05’E 307.98 144.16

FG 275.86 Due EAST --- --- 275.86

SUM

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Linear Error of Closure
The linear error of closure (LEC) is usually a short line of unknown
length and direction connecting the initial and final stations of the
traverse. It is computed as the hypothenuse of a right triangle whose
other sides are error in closure of the latitudes and departures.
−𝐶𝐷 𝐿𝐸𝐶
𝐿𝐸𝐶 = 𝐶𝐿 2 + 𝐶𝐷 2 tan 𝜃 =
−𝐶𝐿 𝑅𝑃 =
𝐷

Where:
𝐿𝐸𝐶 = Linear error of closure
𝐶𝐿 = error in closure in latitude or the algebraic sum of north and south
latitudes
𝐶𝐷 = error in closure in departure or the algebraic sum of east and west
departures
𝜃 = bearing angle of the side of error
𝑅𝑃 = relative precision of measurement
𝐷 = total length or perimeter of the traverse
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 Traverse Adjustment Compass Rule

𝒅 𝒅
𝒄𝒍 = 𝒄𝑳 𝒄𝒅 = 𝒄𝑫
𝑫 𝑫

Where:
𝐶𝑙 = correction to be applied to the latitude of any course or
traverse line
𝐶𝑑 = correction to be applied to the departure of any course or
traverse line
𝐶𝐿 = total closure in latitude
𝐶𝐷 = total closure in departure
𝑑 = length of any course or traverse line
𝐷 = total length or perimeter of the traverse

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Traverse Adjustment Compass Rule

𝐿′ = (𝐿𝑎𝑡 ′ )2 + (𝐷𝑒𝑝′ )2
′
𝐷𝑒𝑝
tan(𝛼)′ =
𝐿𝑎𝑡 ′

Where:
𝐿′ = adjusted length of a course or traverse line
𝐿𝑎𝑡′ = adjusted latitude of a course or traverse line
𝐷𝑒𝑝′ = adjusted departure of a course or traverse line
𝛼′ = adjusted bearing angle of a course or traverse line

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Problem. Given in the accompanying tabulation are the
observed data for a traverse obtained from a transit-tape
survey. Determine the latitudes and departures of each
course and balance these quantities by employing the
compass rule. Also determine the linear error, of
closure, bearing of the side of error, and the relative
error of closure. Tabulate values accordingly.

Course Distance Bearing

AB 495.85m N05°30’E
BC 850.62 N46°02’E
CD 855.45 S67°38’E
DE 1020.87 S12°25’W
EF 1117.26 S83°44’W
FA 660.08 N55°09’W
SUM

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 Latitude Departure
Course Distance Bearing
+N -S +E -W
AB 495.85m N05°30’E
BC 850.62 N46°02’E
CD 855.45 S67°38’E
DE 1020.87 S12°25’W
EF 1117.26 S83°44’W
FA 660.08 N55°09’W
SUM

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 Latitude Departure
Course Distance Bearing
+N -S +E -W
AB 495.85m N05°30’E 493.57 47.53
BC 850.62 N46°02’E 590.53 612.23
CD 855.45 S67°38’E 325.53 791.09
DE 1020.87 S12°25’W 996.99 219.51
EF 1117.26 S83°44’W 121.96 1110.58
FA 660.08 N55°09’W 541.70
SUM 5000.13 +1461.29 -1444.48 +1670.36 -1652.28

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 Latitude Departure Correction
Course
+N -S +E -W LAT DEP
AB 493.57 47.53 1.67 1.79
BC 590.53 612.23 2.86 3.08
CD 325.53 791.09 2.88 3.09
DE 996.99 219.51 3.43 3.69
EF 121.96 1110.58 3.75 4.04
FA 541.70 2.22 2.39
SUM +1461.29 -1444.48 +1670.36 -1652.28

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All computed corrections should be added to check their
respective sums equal the closures in latitude and departure. It
will be observed that during the process of adjustment an excess
or deficiency of 0.01m may result when rounding off computed
values. This imbalance is usually eliminated by applying an
arbitrary correction such as revising one of the computed
corrections.

To determine the adjusted latitude of any course the latitude

correction is either added to or subtracted from the computed
latitude of the course. A simple rule to remember is: If the
sum of the north latitudes exceeds the sum of the south
latitudes, latitude corrections are subtracted from north
latitudes and added to corresponding south latitudes.
However, if the sum of the south latitudes exceeds the
sum of the north latitudes, the corrections are applied
in the opposite manner. A similar procedure is used when
adjusting the departures. After all corrections have been
applied properly to the latitudes and departures the traverse,
it will be expected that a perfect closure will be obtained.
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PAGE 405
 Latitude Departure Correction Corrected Latitude Corrected Departure
Course

+N -S +E -W LAT DEP +N -S +E -W

AB 493.57 47.53 1.67 1.79

BC 590.53 612.23 2.86 3.08

CD 325.53 791.09 2.88 3.09

DE 996.99 219.51 3.43 3.69

EF 121.96 1110.58 3.75 4.04

FA 541.70 2.22 2.39

SUM +1461.29 -1444.48 +1670.36 -1652.28 16.81 18.08

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Course Correction CORRECTED Latitude CORRECTED Departure
LAT DEP +N -S +E -W
AB 1.67 1.79 491.90 45.74
BC 2.86 3.08 587.67 609.15
CD 2.88 3.09 328.41 788.00
DE 3.43 3.69 1000.42 215.82
EF 3.75 4.04 125.71 1114.62
FA 2.22 2.39 374.97 544.09
SUM 16.81 18.08 + 1454.54 -1454.54 +1658.71 -1658.71

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Course Correction CORRECTED Latitude CORRECTED Departure
LAT DEP +N -S +E -W
AB 1.67 1.79 491.90 45.74
BC 2.86 3.08 587.67 609.15
CD 2.88 3.09 328.41 788.00
DE 3.43 3.69 1000.42 215.82
EF 3.75 4.04 125.71 1114.62
FA 2.22 2.39 374.97 544.09
SUM 16.81 18.08 + 1454.54 -1454.54 +1658.71 -1658.71

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FINAL ANSWER
Course Adjusted Latitude Adjusted Departure Adjusted Adjusted
+N -S +E -W Length Bearing
AB
491.90 45.74 494.02m N05°19’E
BC
587.67 609.15 846.42 N46°02’E
CD
328.41 788.00 853.70 S67°23’E
DE
1000.42 215.82 1023.43 S12°10’W
EF
125.71 1114.62 1121.69 S83°34’W
FA
374.97 544.09 660.78 N55°26’W
SUM

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Summary of the procedure:

1. Compute the sum of the Distance:

2. Compute the Latitude and Departure:

3. Compute the SUM of the Latitude

and Departure

4. If there is an imbalance between the

North and South latitude(𝐜𝐋 ) ; East and
West Departure (𝐜𝑫 ) , proceed to the 𝑪𝑳 = ෍ 𝑵𝑳 + ෍ 𝑺𝑳
computation of the Total imbalance. This
value will also be the correction to be
distributed among the latitude and
𝑪𝑫 = ෍ 𝑬𝑫 + ෍ 𝑾𝑫
departure.

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Summary of the procedure:

5. Compute the correction per traverse line. As

checking add the CORRECTIO for latitude and
departure. It must be numerically equal to the
TOTAL imbalance (𝐜𝐋 ), (𝐜𝑫 )

6. Compute the adjusted Latitude and

departure by using the COMPASS
RULE. After computing, of NL and SL as
well as the ED and WD must be equal to
ZERO.

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Summary of the procedure:

6. Lastly, compute the adjusted Length and bearing.

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