Remote Sensing

Remote sensing refers to the acquisition of information about an object or

phenomenon without making physical contact with it.
Components of Remote Sensing
Energy Source (Illumination):
The energy source, typically the sun, provides illumination for remote sensing.
This energy interacts with the Earth’s surface features.
Interaction with the Target:
The energy interacts with the target (such as land, water, or vegetation).
The target reflects or emits energy back.
Recording of Energy by the Sensor:
Specialized sensors (such as cameras on satellites or aircraft) record this reflected
or emitted energy.
These sensors capture images and data related to the Earth’s surface.
Transmission, Reception, and Processing:
The remotely sensed data is transmitted to ground stations.
Scientists process and analyze this data to extract valuable information.
Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR)
Electromagnetic radiation refers to the flow of energy at the universal speed of
light through free space or a material medium. It takes the form of electric and
magnetic fields that make up various types of electromagnetic waves.

 Radio Waves: Used for communication (e.g., radio broadcasting).

 Microwaves: Used in cooking, radar, and telecommunications.
 Infrared: Associated with heat and thermal imaging.
 Visible Light: The range of wavelengths our eyes can perceive.
 Ultraviolet: Responsible for sunburn and used in sterilization.
 X-rays: Used in medical imaging and security screening.
 Gamma Rays: High-energy waves from nuclear processes.

Electromagnetic Spectrum:

The electromagnetic spectrum encompasses the full range of wave frequencies

characterizing solar radiation. Although most of this spectrum is invisible to the human
eye, satellites and sensors capture a small portion of it. Different materials reflect and
absorb specific wavelengths, leading to their unique spectral signatures.

Remote Sensing Applications:

Visible and Infrared Bands:

 Most passive remote sensing systems operate in the visible, infrared, thermal infrared,
and microwave portions of the spectrum.
 These sensors measure various physical attributes:
  Land and sea surface temperature.
 Vegetation properties.
 Cloud and aerosol properties.

Examples:

 Vegetation:
 Plant leaves absorb visible (red) light and reflect near-infrared light (invisible to
humans).
 Monitoring changes in vegetation health based on spectral signatures.
 Water:
 Longer visible wavelengths (green and red) and near-infrared radiation are absorbed
more by water.
 Satellites map optically active components in water bodies.
 Atmosphere:
 Electromagnetic energy passes through the atmosphere twice (from the sun to Earth
and back to sensors).
 Instruments measure atmospheric properties like height, temperature, and moisture

Atmospheric window refers to specific portions of the electromagnetic spectrum

that can travel through Earth’s atmosphere without significant absorption or
scattering.

Radiation - Target Interactions

Radiation that is not absorbed or scattered in
the atmosphere can reach and interact with the
Earth's surface. There are three (3) forms of
interaction that can take place when energy
strikes, or is incident (I) upon the surface.
These are: absorption (A); transmission (T);
and reflection (R). The total incident energy
will interact with the surface in one or more of
these three ways. The proportions of each will depend on the wavelength of the energy and
the material and condition of the feature.

Absorption (A) occurs when radiation (energy) is absorbed into the

target while transmission (T) occurs when radiation passes through
a target. Reflection (R) occurs when radiation "bounces" off the
target and is redirected. In remote sensing, we are most interested
in measuring the radiation reflected from targets. We refer to two types of reflection, which
represent the two extreme ends of the way in which energy is reflected from a
target: specular reflection and diffuse reflection.

When a surface is smooth we get specular or mirror-like

reflection where all (or almost all) of the energy is directed
away from the surface in a single
direction. Diffuse reflection occurs when the surface is
rough and the energy is reflected almost uniformly in all
directions. Most earth surface features lie somewhere
between perfectly specular or perfectly diffuse reflectors.
Whether a particular target reflects specularly or diffusely, or somewhere in between,
depends on the surface roughness of the feature in comparison to the wavelength of the
incoming radiation. If the wavelengths are much smaller than the surface variations or the
particle sizes that make up the surface, diffuse reflection will dominate. For example, fine-
grained sand would appear fairly smooth to long wavelength microwaves but would appear
quite rough to the visible wavelengths.

Leaves: A chemical compound in leaves

called chlorophyll strongly absorbs
radiation in the red and blue
wavelengths but reflects green
wavelengths. Leaves appear "greenest"
to us in the summer, when chlorophyll
content is at its maximum. In autumn,
there is less chlorophyll in the leaves, so
there is less absorption and
proportionately more reflection of the red wavelengths, making the leaves appear red or
yellow (yellow is a combination of red and green wavelengths). The internal structure of
healthy leaves act as excellent diffuse reflectors of near-infrared wavelengths. If our eyes
were sensitive to near-infrared, trees would appear extremely bright to us at these
wavelengths. In fact, measuring and monitoring the near-IR reflectance is one way that
scientists can determine how healthy (or unhealthy) vegetation may be.
Water: Longer wavelength visible and near
infrared radiation is absorbed more by water
than shorter visible wavelengths. Thus
water typically looks blue or blue-green due
to stronger reflectance at these shorter
wavelengths, and darker if viewed at red or
near infrared wavelengths. If there is
suspended sediment present in the upper
layers of the water body, then this will allow
better reflectivity and a brighter appearance
of the water. The apparent colour of the water will show a slight shift to longer wavelengths.
Suspended sediment (S) can be easily confused with shallow (but clear) water, since these
two phenomena appear very similar. Chlorophyll in algae absorbs more of the blue
wavelengths and reflects the green, making the water appear greener in colour when algae is
present. The topography of the water surface (rough, smooth, floating materials, etc.) can also
lead to complications for water-related interpretation due to potential problems of specular
reflection and other influences on colour and brightness.

We can see from these examples that, depending on the complex make-up of the target that is
being looked at, and the wavelengths of radiation involved, we can observe very different
responses to the mechanisms of absorption, transmission, and reflection. By measuring the
energy that is reflected (or emitted) by targets on the Earth's surface over a variety of
different wavelengths, we can build up a spectral response for that object. By comparing the
response patterns of different features we may be able to distinguish between them, where we
might not be able to, if we only compared
them at one wavelength. For example,
water and vegetation may reflect somewhat
similarly in the visible wavelengths but are
almost always separable in the infrared.
Spectral response can be quite variable,
even for the same target type, and can also
vary with time (e.g. "green-ness" of leaves)
and location. Knowing where to "look"
spectrally and understanding the factors which influence the spectral response of the features
of interest are critical to correctly interpreting the interaction of electromagnetic radiation
with the surface.
Energy Interaction with Earth Surface:
When sunlight (or any other electromagnetic radiation) hits the Earth, three
fundamental energy interactions occur:
Reflection:
Reflection occurs when radiation is redirected after hitting the target. According to
the law of reflection, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. For
example, when sunlight hits a lake, some of it reflects back towards space.
Reflection helps us observe features like water bodies, urban areas, and vegetation.
Absorption:
Absorption happens when radiation is absorbed by the target. The absorbed energy
contributes to thermal radiation (heat) emitted by the Earth’s surface. Different
materials absorb different wavelengths of energy. For instance, dark soil absorbs
more energy than snow-covered surfaces.
Transmission:
Transmission occurs when radiation is allowed to pass through the target.
Depending on the medium’s characteristics, the velocity and wavelength of the
radiation may change. Some energy may scatter or get absorbed during
transmission. Transparent materials like air allow sunlight to pass through.
Sensors of Remote Sensing:
Sensors are devices used to detect and measure energy reflected or emitted from objects on
Earth. These sensors can be mounted on satellites, aircraft, drones, or even ground-based
platforms.
Types of Remote Sensing Sensors
1. Passive Sensors: These sensors detect natural energy that is reflected or emitted from
the Earth’s surface. The most common source of radiation detected by passive sensors
is sunlight. Examples of passive sensors: Photographic cameras, Infrared sensors,
Radiometers and Spectrometers
2. Active Sensors: These sensors emit their own energy and measure the reflection or
backscatter from the Earth’s surface. Examples include radar and LiDAR.RADAR
(Radio Detection and Ranging): Uses radio waves to detect objects and measure their
distance. LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging): Uses laser pulses to measure
distances and create high-resolution maps.

Key Characteristics
1. Spatial Resolution: This is the size of the smallest object that can be detected by the
sensor. Higher spatial resolution means smaller objects can be detected. Spatial
resolutions of different LISS versions are: LISS-IV: 5.8 metre, LISS-III: 23.5 meters
for visible and Near-Infrared bands, and 70.5 meters for short wave infrared band,
 LISS-3: 24 meters, LISS-II: 36.25 metres and LISS-II: 72.5 metres. Spatial resolution
of Cartosat-2: 1m, Quick Bird: 0.5 meter, IKONOS: 1 meter & spatial resolutions of
Modis (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer): spatial resolutions -- 250m,
500m, and 1,000m.

2. Spectral Resolution: This refers to the ability of a sensor to distinguish between

different wavelengths of light. Higher spectral resolution means the sensor can detect
finer differences in wavelength.LISS-IV is a high resolution multi-spectral sensor
operating in three spectral bands (B2 0.52 - 0.59, B3 0.62 - 0.68, B4 0.77 -0.86).
Hyper spectral imaging typically involves hundreds of narrow spectral bands.

3. Temporal Resolution: This indicates how often a sensor can capture data for the
same location. Higher temporal resolution means more frequent data collection.
MODIS (Terra and Aqua satellites): 1-2 days. Landsat 8: 16 days. Sentinel-2: 5 days
at the equator (with two satellites in orbit). GOES (Geostationary Operational
Environmental Satellites): Every 30 seconds to 15 minutes, depending on the specific
instrument and observation mode. NOAA-20 (JPSS-1): 1-2 days. Cartosat-3: 4-5
days1. Resourcesat-2: 24 days. RISAT-1: 25 days. Oceansat-2: 2 days. INSAT-3D: 26
minutes (geostationary satellite, providing frequent updates for weather monitoring).
 4. Radiometric Resolution: This refers to the sensor’s ability to detect slight
differences in energy. Higher radiometric resolution means the sensor can detect finer
differences in energy levels. 8-bit: 256 levels of intensity (0 to 255); 10-bit: 1,024
levels of intensity (0 to 1,023); 12-bit: 4,096 levels of intensity (0 to 4,095) & 16-bit:
65,536 levels of intensity (0 to 65,535). For example, Landsat 8 has a 12-bit
radiometric resolution, which means it can capture 4,096 different levels of radiance.

Properties of Remote Sensing Sensors

1. Wavelength Range: Different sensors operate in different parts of the
electromagnetic spectrum, such as visible light, infrared, or microwave.
2. Field of View (FOV): This is the extent of the observable area that a sensor can
capture at any given moment.
3. Swath Width: This is the width of the strip of the Earth’s surface that is imaged by
the sensor during a single pass.
4. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR): This measures the level of the desired signal relative to
the background noise. Higher SNR indicates clearer and more accurate data.
Applications
Remote sensing plays a crucial role in various fields:
 Agriculture: Monitoring crop health, estimating yields, and optimizing irrigation.
 Archaeology: Identifying ancient structures and landscapes.
 Climate Studies: Observing atmospheric conditions, sea surface temperatures, and
ice cover.
 Disaster Management: Assessing damage from natural disasters like floods,
earthquakes, and hurricanes.
 Environmental Monitoring: Assessing land cover changes, tracking deforestation,
and monitoring natural disasters.
 Geology: Studying geological features, mineral exploration, and fault detection.
 Satellite Imagery: Obtaining high-resolution images for mapping and analysis.
 Urban Planning: Mapping urban areas, transportation networks, and infrastructure.
Different Types of Platforms In Remote Sensing
Remote sensing is a powerful tool used to acquire information about the Earth’s surface,
atmosphere, and oceans without direct physical contact. This process relies on various
carriers, known as platforms, sensors to capture and record data from a distance.
1. Airborne Platforms
Airborne platforms are remote sensing vehicles that operate in the Earth’s atmosphere. These
include airplanes, helicopters, and drones. Airborne platforms are ideal for capturing high-
resolution images and data over small areas. They are commonly used for aerial photography,
surveying, and mapping. Airborne platforms can be further divided into two categories:
manned and unmanned.
Manned Aircraft
Manned platforms are piloted aircraft that require a human operator. They are used for
capturing high-quality imagery and data over large areas. Manned platforms are ideal for
capturing aerial photographs for mapping purposes. They are also used for surveillance and
reconnaissance.
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), also known as drones, are becoming increasingly popular
for remote sensing applications. UAVs can be used to capture high-resolution images and
data at low altitudes, making them useful for a wide range of applications. UAVs are
particularly useful for applications that require frequent monitoring or that involve hazardous
or difficult-to-reach areas.
2. Ground Borne Platforms
Ground platforms are remote sensing vehicles that operate on the Earth’s surface. These
include vehicles such as trucks, boats, and buoys. Ground platforms are used for capturing
data from close proximity to the Earth’s surface. They are commonly used for monitoring soil
moisture, ocean currents, and vegetation growth.
There are two main types of ground-based platforms: ground-based laser scanning (LiDAR)
and terrestrial photogrammetry.
Ground-Based Laser Scanning (LiDAR)
Ground-based laser scanning, also known as LiDAR, is a remote sensing technique that uses
laser pulses to measure distances between the sensor and the Earth’s surface. LiDAR can be
used to create highly accurate 3D models of the Earth’s surface.
Terrestrial Photogrammetry
Terrestrial photogrammetry is a remote sensing technique that uses photographs taken from
the ground to create 3D models of the Earth’s surface. Terrestrial photogrammetry can be
used to create highly accurate models of the Earth’s surface, and can be used for a wide range
of applications, including land surveying, construction, and urban planning.
3. Space Borne Platforms
Space platforms are remote sensing vehicles that operate in space. These include satellites,
which are the most commonly used space platforms for remote sensing. Satellites are used for
capturing data from a global perspective, allowing us to monitor changes in the Earth’s
atmosphere, oceans, and land. They are also used for disaster management and national
security. Space platforms can be further divided into two categories: low-Earth orbit and
geostationary orbit.
Low-Earth Orbit Platforms - LEO / Sun synchronous satellites
Low-Earth orbit platforms are satellites that orbit the Earth at an altitude of less than 2000
km. They are used for capturing high-resolution imagery and data over small areas. Low-
Earth orbit platforms are commonly used for monitoring weather patterns, tracking wildfires,
and studying the Earth’s surface. Examples: IRS-1A, Cartosat-3, EOS-04, Envisat, Sentinel,
ERS-1&2, Landsat, MetOp, Cloudsat, Radarsat-2.
Geostationary Orbit Platforms / High earth orbit satellites - HEO
Geostationary orbit platforms are satellites that orbit the Earth at an altitude of approximately
36,000 km. They are used for capturing data from a global perspective, allowing us to
monitor changes in the Earth’s atmosphere, oceans, and land. Geostationary orbit platforms
are commonly used for weather forecasting and climate monitoring. Examples: INSAT,
GISAT-1, GOES, COMS-1, EUMETSAT, Elektro-L, Himawari-8.
Airborne Remote Sensing:
In airborne remote sensing, downward or sideward looking
sensors are mounted on an aircraft to obtain images of the
earth's surface. An advantage of airborne remote sensing,
compared to satellite remote sensing, is the capability of
offering very high spatial resolution images (20 cm or less).
The disadvantages are low coverage area and high cost per
unit area of ground coverage.

Space borne Remote Sensing:

In space borne remote sensing, sensors are mounted on-board a spacecraft (space shuttle or
satellite) orbiting the earth. At present, there are several remote sensing satellites providing
imagery for research and operational applications. Space borne remote sensing provides the
following advantages:

 Large area coverage;

 Frequent and repetitive coverage of an area of interest;
 Quantitative measurement of ground features using radiometrically calibrated sensors;
  Semi automated computerised processing and analysis;
 Relatively lower cost per unit area of coverage.
Satellite imagery has a generally lower resolution compared to aerial photography. However,
very high resolution imagery (up to 1-m resolution) is now commercially available to civilian
users with the successful launch of the IKONOS-2 satellite in September 24, 1999.

Remote Sensing Satellites

Several remote sensing satellites are currently available, providing imagery suitable for
various types of applications. Each of these satellite-sensor platform is characterised by the
wavelength bands employed in image acquisition, spatial resolution of the sensor, the
coverage area and the temporal converge, i.e. how frequent a given location on the earth
surface can be imaged by the imaging system.
In terms of the spatial resolution, the satellite imaging systems can be classified into:
 Low resolution systems (approx. 1 km or more)
 Medium resolution systems (approx. 100 m to 1 km)
 High resolution systems (approx. 5 m to 100 m)
 Very high resolution systems (approx. 5 m or less)
In terms of the spectral regions used in data acquisition, the satellite imaging systems can be
classified into:
 Optical imaging systems (include visible, near infrared, and shortwave infrared
systems)
 Thermal imaging systems
 Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imaging systems
Optical/thermal imaging systems can be classified according to the number of spectral bands
used:
 Monospectral or panchromatic (single wavelength band, "black-and-white", grey-
scale image) systems
 Multispectral (several spectral bands) systems
 Superspectral (tens of spectral bands) systems
 Hyperspectral (hundreds of spectral bands) systems
Synthetic aperture radar imaging systems can be classified according to the combination of
frequency bands and polarization modes used in data acquisition, e.g.:
 Single frequency (L-band, or C-band, or X-band)
 Multiple frequency (Combination of two or more frequency bands)
 Single polarization (VV, or HH, or HV)
 Multiple polarization (Combination of two or more polarization modes)

India's Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) Satellite System consists of several satellites equipped
with sensors to capture Earth data from space. These satellites are used for various
applications including weather monitoring, disaster management, agriculture, and forestry.
Some notable Indian remote sensing satellites include12:
 IRS-1A and IRS-1B (launched in 1988 and 1991)
 IRS-1C and IRS-1D (launched in 1995 and 1997)
 Resourcesat-1 and Resourcesat-2 (launched in 2003 and 2011)
 Cartosat-1, Cartosat-2, and Cartosat-3
 RISAT-1 and RISAT-2
Questions:
1. Discuss the fundamental components of a remote sensing system.
2. Elaborate on the concept of electromagnetic radiation and its spectrum. How does
the atmosphere interact with this radiation?
3. Describe the various processes involved in the interaction of electromagnetic
radiation with Earth's surface
4. Discuss the key characteristics of remote sensing sensors.
5. Provide examples of different types of platforms used in remote sensing.
6. Discuss the wide range of applications of remote sensing.