Teaching and Teacher Education 52 (2015) 73e82

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Teaching and Teacher Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tate

Sources of self-efficacy of Vietnamese EFL teachers: A qualitative study

Nga Thi Tuyet Phan a, b, Terry Locke a, *
a
University of Waikato, PB3105, Hamilton, New Zealand
b
n Bảo, P.4, Q. Go
Ho Chi Minh City University of Industry, IUH, Số 12 Nguyễn Va  Va TP.HCM, Vietnam
^ấp,

h i g h l i g h t s

 Vietnamese EFL teachers drew on 4 sources to construct self-efficacy.

 Social persuasion was the most influential source.
 Cognitive mastery experiences were an additional source.
 Cultural factors influenced cognitive processing of efficacy information.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This article reports on a qualitative study investigating Vietnamese EFL teachers' perceptions of sources
Received 13 February 2015 of self-efficacy information. Findings suggested that four sources of efficacy information appeared to
Received in revised form influence teachers' sense of self-efficacy. Contrary to widespread belief, mastery experiences were not
21 July 2015
the most influential source of efficacy information. Rather, social persuasion was. Study teachers reported
Accepted 6 September 2015
various vicarious experiences and physiological/affective states as supplementary self-efficacy sources,
Available online 14 September 2015
including cognitive mastery experiences, which were deemed more powerful than enactive mastery
experiences. The study highlights a range of Vietnamese cultural and contextual factors that influenced
Keywords:
Teacher efficacy
the way the teachers selected, weighed and interpreted efficacy information.
Self-efficacy © 2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
EFL teaching
Sources of self-efficacy

1. Introduction studies that suggested ways of helping Vietnamese students learn

English language (Phan & Phan, 2010; Phan, 2009; Tran, 2007).
Having taught EFL at a university in Vietnam for over 5 years, the However, little has been done on Vietnamese EFL teachers' self-
first author often felt that students were not achieving as well as efficacy beliefs (Luu, 2013; Nguyen, 2011), and no studies have
they should have and wondered if this was due to a lack of teaching investigated sources of teachers' self-efficacy in the Vietnamese
strategies and English competency on her part. At the same time context and how this might be enhanced.
she saw a number of similarities between herself and her col- The definition of teacher self-efficacy adopted for this study was
leagues, who often complained that students' learning attitudes “the teacher's belief in his or her capability to organize and execute
and/or other teaching constraints at the university made them feel courses of action required to successfully accomplish a specific
less than effective in teaching the English language. She wondered teaching task in a particular context” (Tschannen-Moran, Hoy, &
where the feeling of ineffectiveness came from and what might be Hoy, 1998, p. 233) which is located within Bandura's (1997) Social
done to help teachers feel more confident and effective in teaching Cognitive Theory (see next section). A number of studies have
English language. She was aware of studies highlighting the poor suggested a connection between teacher efficacy and practice. For
quality of teaching and learning English in the university language example, teachers with a high sense of efficacy devote more class
class setting in Vietnam (Tran & Baldauf, 2007; Vu, 2007) and time to academic activities and less time to discipline. Teachers
with a strong sense of efficacy work willingly with students who
are having difficulties, invest considerable effort into finding
appropriate teaching materials and activities, perform better, and
* Corresponding author. probably remain committed to their work (Klassen, Tze, Betts, &
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (N.T.T. Phan), locketj@waikato.
Gordon, 2011; Mills, 2011).
ac.nz (T. Locke).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2015.09.006
0742-051X/© 2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
74 N.T.T. Phan, T. Locke / Teaching and Teacher Education 52 (2015) 73e82

Teacher self-efficacy has been investigated in a range of studies adequate ways of evaluating their capabilities, they need to
and in the late 1990s was considered to “stand on the verge of compare their capabilities to others. Vicarious experiences e the
maturity” (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998, p. 202). However, in a information gained from observing other teachers or from
more recent review, Klassen et al. (2011) suggested that much re- comparing previous and present teaching practices e can enhance
mains to be known about teachers' sources of self-efficacy and little or weaken the development of positive teacher efficacy beliefs
is known about how sources operate in EFL contexts. The study (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Meece, 2006). Teachers will consider
reported here, which explored sources of self-efficacy beliefs of such factors as the similarity between the models and themselves
Vietnamese EFL teachers, aimed to discover ways of improving (for example, age, gender), the competence of the models
Vietnamese EFL teachers' sources of self-efficacy, and thereby (incompetent versus competent models), multiplicity of modeling
enhance English teaching and learning practices. Additionally, it (observing different models or a single model), when they
was hoped that the study would contribute to the development of construct their personal efficacy beliefs. If teachers view them-
teacher self-efficacy theory and research, since it was unique in selves as having similar teaching abilities as the people modeling
being conducted in the Vietnamese context. successfully, their efficacy may be heightened. In contrast, if they
believe that they are not as good as the model teachers, their own
2. Teacher self-efficacy efficacy may be lowered (Johnson, 2010; Mills, 2011).
According to Bandura, verbal persuasion is the negative or pos-
Self-efficacy is a core concept in Social Cognitive Theory itive verbal judgment of other people, such as administrators, col-
(Bandura, 1986, 1997), emphasizing that individuals have the po- leagues or students about a teacher's capability to carry out a
wer to change the environments in which they live and work, even particular task. Verbal persuasion provides information for both the
while their behaviors are mediated by environmental factors analysis of the teaching task (e.g. by suggesting strategies) and the
(Schunk & Pajares, 2010). Self-efficacy can help predict how much self-perception of teaching competence in the teacher (e.g. by
effort people make, how well they persevere when coping with giving specific feedback on the teacher's performance of a partic-
challenge and how effectively they regulate their thoughts, actions ular task) (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). The impact of verbal
and plans (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Bandura (1997) viewed teacher persuasion depends on factors such as the expertise and knowledge
efficacy as a type of perceived self-efficacy related to “beliefs in of people who provide the judgment (Bandura, 1997). For example,
one's capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action positive feedback from a senior teacher may have more effect on
required to produce given attainments” (p.3). Teacher self-efficacy the self-efficacy of a teacher than feedback from an inexperienced
is domain-, task- and context-specific, i.e. teachers feel efficacious colleague. Tschannen-Moran et al. (1998) gave the example of using
and inefficacious in different circumstances. Teachers' levels of ef- professional development workshops and coursework to provide
ficacy vary as they teach different subjects, different learners and teachers with knowledge of both relevant teaching tasks and the
perform different teaching tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, skills required to improve teaching competence. Although not
2010; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). According to Tschannen- considered a powerful source of efficacy, verbal persuasion, when
Moran et al. (1998), teachers establish their self-efficacy by way used with other sources of efficacy information, can enhance or
of evaluating their capabilities in relation to requirements for un- diminish teacher efficacy (Bandura, 1997; Milner & Hoy, 2003;
dertaking particular teaching practices in particular contexts. They Schunk & Pajares, 2010).
may consider such factors as personal knowledge and skills or Physiological and emotional states such as anxiety or excite-
personality traits in the light of factors in the environment that ment in performing a particular task may have an influence on the
impede or facilitate teaching. In other words, to make efficacy sense of competence or incompetence of the teacher (Bandura,
judgments, context, i.e. environmental or contextual factors such as 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2010). Although generally regarded as
teaching resources, student factors, leadership practices and col- the least powerful source of self-efficacy beliefs, affective states can
leagiality, needs to be taken into consideration. increase or decrease a teacher's self-efficacy when combined with
other sources of efficacy information (Bandura, 1997; Morris &
2.1. Sources of self-efficacy information Usher, 2011; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998; Wyatt, 2013). After a
successful teaching lesson, a teacher's feeling of satisfaction may
According to Bandura (1997), individuals construct their self- enhance self-efficacy. However, the way affective states influence a
efficacy beliefs by processing information derived from four sour- teacher's self-perception of teaching competence depends on the
ces of efficacy: mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal way attention is directed to his/her affective states (Bandura, 1997;
persuasion, and physiological and emotional states. Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). A teacher may disregard feelings of
Mastery experiences are the authentic performances, the per- anxiety as a result of focusing himself/herself on making a teaching
ceptions of previous enactive experiences of a teacher, viewed as task understandable to students. As this study discovered, cultural
successful or unsuccessful (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2010). factors influence the way affective states are managed and pro-
Successful experiences may lead to increased efficacy and failures cessed (see next section).
may result in decreased efficacy. Past performances enable teachers
to ascertain their internal strengths and deficits as well as task 2.2. Cognitive processing
requirements (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Teachers' percep-
tions of unsuccessful experiences of teaching unmotivated students Although information for self-efficacy judgment comes from the
in the past, for example, may decrease their efficacy in teaching a four principal sources, Bandura (1997) and later researchers such as
group of struggling, unmotivated students, since they may assume Schunk and Pajares (2010) have asserted that the sources by
that they lack the professional knowledge to teach such students. In themselves do not necessarily raise or lower self-efficacy beliefs.
another scenario, recalling previous teaching successes may in- Only through cognitive processing do these sources become active
crease efficacy to lead teachers to invest more effort into teaching. (Bandura, 1997, p. 81). To make the sorts of judgments that
Mastery experiences are regarded as the most powerful source of constitute self-efficacy beliefs, people first select information
efficacy information compared to other sources (Bandura, 1997; deemed as relevant, then weigh and integrate this information to
Morris & Usher, 2011; Poulou, 2007). construct their self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997, p. 79).
Bandura argued that, because people cannot always have Many factors appear to influence this cognitive processing,
 N.T.T. Phan, T. Locke / Teaching and Teacher Education 52 (2015) 73e82 75

including people's rules for weighing and interpreting efficacy in- by men. The women in their sample relied mostly on the encour-
formation. Bandura (1997) listed four possible rules of weighting agement and modeling provided by people around them. The au-
and integrating efficacy-relevant information: additive processing thors concluded that the verbal persuasion and vicarious
(more available sources result in a more enhanced sense of self- experiences experienced around important others played critical
efficacy), relative weighting (some factors are weighted more roles in their lives, and these women's self-efficacy in selecting and
heavily than others), multiplicative processing (two or more sour- continuing their careers was strengthened. Similarly, Milner (2002)
ces interact with one another), and configurable processing (the conducted a case study with an experienced English teacher in a
strength of a source is contingent on the availability of other high school in the U.S. to understand her self-efficacy and persis-
sources) (p. 114). These rules vary among individuals and largely tence. Feedback, both negative and positive, from the teacher's
depend on the availability of sources of efficacy information as well students, their parents and colleagues mattered most to her. It was
as socio-contextual factors (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Meece, 2006). the negative verbal feedback on her teaching styles that diminished
For example, some sources are weighted more heavily by some her efficacy. However, her self-efficacy was strengthened by posi-
people than others. Failure performances may affect self-efficacy tive verbal feedback from colleagues and students and her
beliefs differently for different people. perceived success in new teaching tasks. According to Milner
(2002), social persuasion and mastery experiences worked
2.3. A selective review of some relevant studies together to raise her self-efficacy and contributed to her persistence
in her work situation.
In response to calls for research investigating the differential Researchers also disagree on whether each of the following
influence of various sources on teacher self-efficacy in different sources e social persuasion, vicarious experiences and affective
contexts (Klassen & Usher, 2010; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998), states e independently contributes to teacher efficacy. Regarding
there have been an increasing number of studies in recent years. social persuasion, some researchers (see above) found that social
However, findings have yielded inconsistent results regarding the persuasion in the form of feedback and various support measures
strength of each source, the emergence of other sources not iden- predicts the efficacy beliefs of teachers. Other researchers (e.g.
tified by Bandura (1997), and the relationship among sources. Palmer, 2006; Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007) have argued that
Many researchers (e.g. Morris & Usher, 2011; Poulou, 2007; this source of efficacy information has either an unimportant or no
Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007; Tschannen-Moran & McMaster, role to play in the formation of self-efficacy.
2009) support Bandura's assertion that teacher efficacy is best Some researchers (e.g. Johnson, 2010; Mills, 2011) have reported
enhanced by the combination of four sources of efficacy informa- that vicarious experiences, for example, imagining, hearing or
tion but is most directly influenced by enactive mastery experi- observing colleagues teach, predicted self-efficacy of teachers. Mills
ences. For example, Tschannen-Moran and McMaster (2009) found (2011) found that for teaching assistants in the study, observations
that the most powerful source of efficacy information of primary of current and former professors were their primary source of ef-
teachers in the U.S. was mastery experiences in the form of ficacy information. Johnson (2010) discovered that the self-efficacy
perceived successful planning and practice of teaching strategies for literacy instruction of pre-service teachers was influenced by
with colleagues (p. 240). Similarly, in their study of university vicarious experiences in the form of modeling by a teacher educator
professors in the U.S., Morris and Usher (2011) found that mastery and master teachers. In another study conducted by Zeldin and
experiences emerged as a primary source of efficacy information. Pajares (2000), together with social persuasion, exposure to
These professors considered perceived success in past instructional competent models in the family and at school or at various points
experiences as one of the most important factors in the formation throughout their career paths fostered women's beliefs in their
of their self-efficacy beliefs. The contention that mastery experi- own abilities to pursue careers in the areas of mathematics, science
ences play a significant role in the formation of self-efficacy was and technology (traditionally dominated by men). Others studies,
also confirmed in a study by Poulou (2007) of student teachers in in contrast, found little or no such relationship. Professors in the
Greece. study of Morris and Usher (2011) saw few opportunities to watch
Other researchers have suggested that teachers' self- other teachers teach and relied on second-hand information to
perceptions of knowing relevant materials and how to teach build their self-efficacy. Vicarious experiences did not receive high
(cognitive mastery of content and pedagogical skills) significantly ratings as potential sources of teaching efficacy from student-
influence teacher self-efficacy. A study by Palmer (2006) revealed teachers in the studies of Anderson and Betz (2001) and Poulou
that perceptions of success in understanding how to teach primary (2007), and did not predict self-efficacy in the studies of Capa
science student teachers in Australia constituted the main source of and Hoy (2005) and Woolfolk Hoy and Burke-Spero (2005).
self-efficacy information. He argued that this particular source of A number of researchers agree with Bandura that physiological
efficacy information was distinct from enactive mastery experi- and affective states are a supplementary source of teaching efficacy
ences (Bandura, 1997) because it does not involve doing something, (Morris & Usher, 2011; Mulholland & Wallace, 2001; Palmer, 2006;
but rather understanding something (p. 339). The significant role of Poulou, 2007). Britner and Pajares (2006), in a study of middle-
cognitive mastery experiences in mediating teachers' self-efficacy school science students, found that, “Each of the sources signifi-
beliefs was confirmed in the studies of Morris and Usher (2011), cantly correlated with each other, with science self-efficacy, and
Morris (2010) and Chaco n (2005). Interestingly, Tschannen-Moran with achievement in science” (p. 494). Morris and Usher (2011)
et al. (1998) did not use the term cognitive mastery, preferring to found that a number of study professors “interpreted their affec-
view professional development/learning as an example of vicarious tive arousal as an index of how well, or poorly, they were teaching”
experience. (p. 240). In contrast, an insignificant relationship between physio-
Some researchers (e.g. Capa & Hoy, 2005; Milner & Hoy, 2003) logical states and self-efficacy was found in the studies of Ross and
contest Bandura's (1997) view that mastery experiences are the Bruce (2007), Poulou (2007) and Mulholland and Wallace (2001),
most powerful predictor. In these studies, social persuasion while Mills (2011) and Palmer (2006) stated that physiological and
impacted on participants' sense of self-efficacy most significantly, affective states did not appear to influence teachers' self-efficacy in
sometimes in combination with other sources. Zeldin and Pajares their studies.
(2000) used a narrative approach to explore the sources of self- The literature above illustrates inconsistencies in studies
efficacy of women who worked in careers traditionally dominated exploring sources of teachers' self-efficacy beliefs. As mentioned
76 N.T.T. Phan, T. Locke / Teaching and Teacher Education 52 (2015) 73e82

previously, both Bandura (1997) and Tschannen-Moran et al. (1998) perceptions of teaching competence and relationships with others.
emphasized the differential availability of sources in different Such perceptions are personal and sensitive matters in Vietnamese
contexts and the role of cognitive processing in relation to efficacy culture and regarded as unsuitable to be shared in public (Tran,
information which potentially contribute to the discrepancies in 2006). Individual interviews were the main data-collection tool
the above findings. A number of researchers (e.g. Milner & Hoy, and were conducted so as to ensure that participants felt
2003; Palmer, 2011; Zeldin & Pajares, 2000) suggest that context, comfortable sharing their views. A semi-structured set of questions
i.e. the environment where the teachers are living and working, can was employed in each one-to-one interview. Each interview lasted
foster or impede the processing of certain categories of sources of approximately 60 min and was audio recorded. The data from one-
self-efficacy information. For example, female participants in the to-one interviews were used to triangulate with the data from
study of Zeldin and Pajares (2000) were found to lack opportunities observations and journaling. Follow-up interviews were arranged
to engage in mastery experiences in mathematics-related careers. in order to reduce the risk of observer bias.
The women reported relying on supportive feedback and models Journaling was used by the researcher (first author) to monitor
from important people, i.e. family members and teachers, to build and explore each participant's perspective on significant events and
their self-efficacy. In the studies of Atay (2007) and Palmer (2006, experiences in their own words (Hood, 2009). A weekly entry was
2011), mastery experiences were the most important source of sought from each participant over a three-month period (Faizah,
self-efficacy information. This may have been because past per- 2008). This was to enable the researcher to track changes or de-
formance accomplishments were the most relevant sources of self- velopments in teachers' perceptions of the impact of ongoing ac-
efficacy information for participants at the time surveys and tivities, even though the changes/developments might not occur
questionnaires were completed by them. for all participants. The participants had an option to keep their
In addition, some researchers (e.g. Klassen, 2004; Pajares, 2007) entries in a provided folder or they could send their entries via
suggest that psychological processes are contingent on cultural email as Word Documents. The journal of the first author was used
factors. For example, cultural dimensions related to constructions for monitoring the progress of the study, improving the quality of
of individualism and collectivism seem to encourage participants data-gathering tools (Friedemann, Mayorga, & Jimenez, 2011) and
from Asian cultures to exhibit lower self-efficacy beliefs than those developing her critical thinking and analytical abilities (Borg, 2001;
who are not from these cultures, but these diminished self-efficacy Jasper, 2005).
beliefs do not impede their performance (Ho & Hau, 2004; Lam, Observation was deemed a useful instrument because it enabled
Chen, & Schaubroeck, 2002; Leung, 2001; Salili, Chiu, & Lai, a description of participants' behavior in “a naturalist setting”
2001). Self-efficacy beliefs are generally more other-oriented than (Cowie, 2009, p. 178). Observation was used together with in-
self-oriented for people in non-Western cultures (Earley, Gibson, & terviews in order to strengthen the data and discover new infor-
Chen, 1999; Kim & Park, 2006). It was the inconsistencies in find- mation (Stake, 2010, p. 19). Non-participant observation was the
ings in relation to how contextual factors shape sources of self- chosen stance so as not to interfere with people or activities under
efficacy in relation to features of Vietnamese culture, e.g. collec- observation (Creswell, 2012, p. 214). Observations included teach-
tivism and power hierarchies (Phan, 2005; Tran, 2006), which in ers' formal meetings in the meeting hall with leaders, informal
part prompted the Vietnamese study reported on here, which set conversations along classroom corridors and classroom sessions.
out to revisit the four sources of efficacy-relevant information Each observation session lasted approximately 45e60 min and only
posited by Bandura (1997) to see whether they were applicable in formal meetings were audio-recorded.
the Vietnamese context, whether there were additional sources,
what the strength of each source was, and how the sources related 3.2. Participants
and operated in this context. The following questions guided the
study: Participants were eight university teachers of English language
at a technical university in Vietnam. This university provides both
1. Which sources of self-efficacy information do the Vietnamese industrial and economics training services and offers university
teachers rely on to construct their self-efficacy beliefs? degrees, in-service degrees and vocational certificates. The study
2. Which sources are the most influential? teachers taught General English and IETLS (International English
3. Are there any additional sources? Language Testing System) for students who had failed the entrance
4. How do the sources interact to affect the teachers' sense of self- university exam to other universities. Such students were enrolled
efficacy beliefs? in one of three joint-programmes offered at the university: Busi-
ness Administration, Information Technology, and Accounting and
3. The study Auditing. The Table 1 below shows the teachers' profiles.

3.1. Methodology and data collecting tools 3.3. Data collection and analysis

The research took the form of a qualitative case study. In order to Data collection lasted seven months. After participating in the
determine which factors Vietnamese teachers relied on to first round of individual interviews, teachers started writing journal
construct their self-efficacy beliefs, it was essential to focus on the entries over a 3-month period. Observation sessions were con-
socio-cultural context in which teachers live and work. A case study ducted concurrently with journaling and finished before the second
design facilitated in-depth understanding of the case within its round of individual interviews. Interviews and observation session
context. Qualitative case studies take participants' perspectives and were recorded and transcripts sent to participants for validation
experiences as central, acknowledge the complex interactions of and emendation. The preferred language for communication be-
factors and report multiple perspectives (Stake, 2010). Individual tween the researcher and her participants and among the partici-
interviews, journaling and non-participant observations were used pants was Vietnamese, although English was available as an option.
to address the research questions. The first researcher did not translate all data when coding so as to
An assumption brought to the study was that each teacher avoid a possible distortion in meanings created during the
would internalize contextual efficacy information in different ways. Vietnamese-English translation process. Excerpts from transcripts
In addition, some of the teachers' experiences included their and journal entries used in the findings were translated from
 N.T.T. Phan, T. Locke / Teaching and Teacher Education 52 (2015) 73e82 77

Table 1
Profiles of 8 EFL teachers.

Teacher Gender Age Approx. years of teaching Qualification Skill(s) taught

Thanh Female 30 7 BA in TEFL, MA in TESOL Reading

Anh Female 34 11 BA in TEFL, MA in TESOL Writing/Listening
My Female 36 13 BA in English, MA in TESOL Speaking
Nhung Female 35 12 BA in TEFL, MA in TESOL Listening
Phuong Female 38 16 BA in English, MA in TESOL Writing
Hoa Female 33 10 BA in TEFL, MA in TESOL Writing
Thu Female 36 13 BA in TEFL, MA in TESOL Writing
Hung Male 42 17 BA in TEFL, MA in TESOL Reading

Vietnamese into English and vice versa to ensure accuracy. The 4.1. Mastery experiences
selected transcriptions were proof-read in relation to their English
expression before being sent to participants. No participants Bandura's (1997) contention that enactive mastery experiences
altered their responses or translations. are the most powerful source of self-efficacy information was not
An inductive coding process as suggested by Creswell (2012) supported in the present study. Findings indicated that the study
was used for analyzing data, as was thematic analysis as sug- teachers seldom referred to examples of enactive mastery as a main
gested by Braun and Clarke (2006). The first author recognized that source enhancing or diminishing their teacher efficacy. When doing
her role as researcher had the potential to impact on participating so, study teachers' interpretations of past teaching performance
teachers and the information gathered at different stages of the were often informed by students' feedback (verbal and non-verbal).
research (Merriam, 1998). The collection, analysis and interpreta- For example, Anh wrote in one of her journal entries:
tion of data were influenced by the first author's experience as a
I was aware that my learners were very attentive to my talk.
teacher of English and by her cultural background as a Vietnamese.
Their look and nod showed that they understood different steps
Over the course of the research, she found herself being challenged
in a writing task… In replying to my question of whether they
as both a researcher and friend. A sense of loyalty and friendship,
understood thoroughly how to write this particular type of
for example, at times led to reluctance to present data critically in a
essay, they altogether shouted yeah. I felt very happy. I was
way that might harm a friendship. Her interpretation of data, then,
successful. My lesson was effective. This will be a very big
must be viewed as a version of the truth, not the truth itself.
motive for my next teaching sessions. I think I go on the right
track and I will stick to the same teaching techniques.
3.4. Establishing validity and reliability
My evaluated her teaching performance through interpreting
Strategies used to ensure reliability and validity in the study students' in appropriate behavior, e.g., “play[ing] games”, “teas[ing]
included making research aims and research questions explicit, one another”, as evidence of ineffective instruction. Thanh wrote
accounting for the researcher's position as well as the position of that because her students “did something else rather than doing
those being investigated, and making the research process textbook tasks”, she concluded that her lesson “was not effective at
transparent by providing detailed descriptions of data collection all”.
methods and procedures, and of data analysis methods Several teachers claimed that students' completion (or not) of
(including triangulation). In addition, participants were classroom tasks has the potential to enhance or diminish their
frequently invited to clarify anything that was unclear and to belief in their teaching ability. For example, Anh stated in an
review transcripts. In reporting findings, an attempt has been interview that when “their [students'] writing pieces … had orga-
made to clarify aspects of context and to attend to the voices of nization or suitable ideas as provided in the writing model or their
the participating teachers. writings included some taught structures and expressions”, she felt
In keeping with the conditions of ethical approval, the rights of confident about her teaching instruction. Observation data showed
participating teachers to privacy and confidentiality were always that Anh looked happy when praising several students for using
respected. All data were treated confidentially; where teachers are certain grammatical structures correctly. In contrast, she appeared
referred to, pseudonyms (chosen by the participants) are used. to be impatient when several students were unsuccessful in using
them. Reflecting on one teaching session, Anh wrote that while
4. Findings marking her students' papers, the fact that students “made too
many grammatical and spelling mistakes,” though she had already
Four sources of efficacy information appeared to influence drawn students' attention to them, made her conclude that her
these Vietnamese teachers' self-efficacy in relation to teaching teaching strategies “seemed to be not effective at all!”.
EFL. Mastery experiences were not the most influential source of These teachers, then, perceived the effectiveness of their prac-
efficacy information. Rather, social persuasion was. The study tices (enactive mastery experiences) mainly via interpretations of
teachers also pointed to instances of vicarious experiences, students' verbal and non-verbal behavior as indicators of their
which, with physiological/affective states, were supplementary teaching effectiveness, which suggests that past performance in-
sources of self-efficacy. Cognitive mastery experiences, as formation contributed to their efficacy source interpretation but
explained by Palmer (2006), were an additional source identified certainly was not the most important information source. This is
in the present study, and were more powerful than enactive consistent with such researchers as Milner and Hoy (2003) and
mastery experiences. We first discuss the degree of influence Zeldin and Pajares (2000) as discussed previously.
various sources had on self-efficacy and source relationships. We In the current study, cognitive mastery experiences, that is, the
then discuss possible explanations for differences in the relative mastery of content and skills related to instruction (Palmer, 2006),
contribution of sources. were more salient than enactive mastery experiences. Teachers'
78 N.T.T. Phan, T. Locke / Teaching and Teacher Education 52 (2015) 73e82

perceptions of their own English proficiency levels as better than a sense of mastery.
those of students strengthened their perceptions of current However, study teachers also indicated a lack of collegiality
competence. For example, Thu said, “How can we teach students which they perceived as a constraining their self-efficacy. Nhung
when we are not competent in English skills?” Hung stated that in was the only teacher in the study who stated that her perception of
terms of his own English proficiency levels, he was qualified to teaching competence increased as a result of colleagues' feedback.
teach current students at the Faculty, whose English proficiency She said that there were two colleagues who often “discussed
levels were quite low. Thanh wrote in one journal entry that she teaching issues” with her, “asked for advice” on how to implement
“[was] confident about her teaching ability” since she was able to an activity, and “listened to [her] advice attentively”. Nhung said:
“deliver [her] lessons or answer all of [her] students' questions in
These colleagues' behaviour made me believe that I am
English.”
respected for what I have, for my teaching results, my teaching
In addition, early in the study, all teachers displayed a strong
ability. They respect me. I think they think I am a qualified
belief that their pedagogical knowledge and skills enabling them to
teacher.
teach students effectively. For example, Nhung said:
I gained many useful teaching tips through my teaching life. I
Several teachers appeared to prefer a more convincing and
think that I have many strategies to make my students like my
specific kind of support from colleagues. Anh referred to a teacher
lessons. I have many strategies to help them better their skills …
who lent her own writing lesson plans but was not sure if lending
I have strategies to encourage both weak and high-achieving
lesson plans was really support. Thu mentioned discussion with a
students to participate in my lessons.
colleague about how to teach lazy students. She said, “but I am not
sure if her way of teaching is successful in my class. I wish she let
Anh wrote: “I am not confident teaching my students if I don't me observe how she does that in her class”. She wrote in a journal
know clearly how I am going to present my lessons.” entry that her previous friendship and trust with that colleague led
The teachers blamed the students for unsuccessful teaching. For to open, constructive discussions and that she could not seek
example, Hung asserted that there was “nothing wrong about me similar help from anyone else in the Faculty.
or my teaching ability; it's the students who do not want to learn or Observation data showed that during teacher meetings, study
it is institutional support.” Nhung wrote: teachers always sat and whispered in their own groups, and rarely
talked to colleagues in other groups. There were physical gaps
Most students who failed exams were the ones who were very
between groups in the meeting room. While hanging out with one
lazy … I don't think that their exam failure was caused by my
another, teachers sometimes discussed and shared ideas about how
teaching style. I think that it was certainly because they did not
to improve their teaching instruction or how to deal with a class-
want to learn … If they themselves did not want to learn, we
room situation but those discussions exhibited limited collegiality.
could not do much to increase their motivation level in this
For example, Thu, Hoa and Nhung spent only 7 out of 60 min
teaching context.
exchanging ideas about motivating a lazy student they all taught
but for different subjects.
However, at later stages of the study, self-perceptions of a lack of Findings also suggested that feedback originating from leaders
particular knowledge and skills appeared to diminish the sense of generally decreased teachers' self-efficacy. For example, during
self-efficacy of some study teachers. In their informal meetings and individual interviews, all teachers used negative words and phrases
interviews, teachers mentioned their lack of confidence in teaching to describe how university leaders failed to comment on their
struggling or unmotivated students. In follow-up interviews after teaching ability: “no one says anything”, “never hear anything”. All
observation sessions, they expressed a desire for opportunities to teachers reported feeling confusion or self-doubt arising from the
“observe colleagues teach” or to “discuss … teaching strategies … lack of top-down recognition or reward for their teaching ability
with other teachers at the Faculty” in order to “improve teaching and effort. The teachers were uncertain whether their teaching
instruction”, “deal with classroom situations”, or “motivate stu- ability “[was] good enough” or whether they “contribute[d]
dents to learn”. Nhung and Phuong felt that they were “incompe- enough” or “what should be changed.”
tent” and needed to “upgrade knowledge and skills” in order to In addition, all teachers reported that they were not genuinely
engage struggling students in classroom activities. They felt “un- encouraged to get involved in institutional decision-making, which
able” because they “were not trained” to do this. was another aspect of the lack of trust (social persuasion) stemming
The finding that mastery of content and skills impacted posi- from leaders' practices, which diminished their self-efficacy. For
tively is consistent with studies by Chaco  n (2005), Palmer (2006, example, in their journal entries, all cited the institution's new
2011), and Morris and Usher (2011) mentioned earlier. For decision to reduce the number of English learning periods without
example, in Morris and Usher's (2011) study, the professors' per- asking teachers' opinions as one example of leaders' disregard of
ceptions of whether they were knowledge experts or not had the teachers' views. Hoa wrote: “They [leaders] did not listen to us.
potential to increase or decrease their self-efficacy, while the They did not care about our voice.” Phuong wrote: “That was a top-
student-teachers in Palmer's (2006) study gained confidence on the down decision which really disappointed me.”
basis of their success in understanding relevant content and The teachers also reported negative feelings when experiencing
pedagogy. teaching supervision practice at the institution. For example, Hung
felt “irritated” and “uncomfortable” when a supervisor sometimes
“stood behind classroom window” and “stared” into his classroom.
4.2. Social persuasion He felt that the supervisor was “watching” his actions because he
suspected Hung was “doing something else” in the classroom,
It appeared from the study that social persuasion was the pre- rather than teaching. Hung said that this made him feel “less
dominant source of efficacy information for participating teachers. concentrated on teaching” and he “lost motivation to teach”.
The discussion of Anh, My and Thanh above shows how feedback Findings also suggest that the study teachers saw the lack of
from students guided study teachers' interpretations of their institutional support in terms of providing professional develop-
teaching performance, that is, certain kinds of feedback confirmed ment opportunities as having a negative impact on their self-
 N.T.T. Phan, T. Locke / Teaching and Teacher Education 52 (2015) 73e82 79

efficacy. My, Nhung, Hoa, Phuong and Thu said that the content of teachers in the study mentioned vicarious experiences as a source
monthly teacher meetings disappointed them. The teachers used a of efficacy information. In referencing this source, teachers re-
lot of negative words and phrases to describe meeting topics and ported never having had formal experiences of seeing colleagues
the attitudes of attendees: “irrelevant topics”, “no important con- teach. In making comparisons with colleagues, they relied on
tents with vague words lasting only 15 min”, “no contribution to second-hand information from students, such as random com-
professional knowledge”. Three teachers, My, Hoa and Nhung, ments and descriptions of how classes were taught, or from hearing
noted in their journal entries that there was a serious lack of pro- colleagues teach through classroom walls. For example, during an
fessional development courses or conferences for EFL teachers in individual interview, Anh mentioned:

Anh: This teacher … doesn't know how to teach … He doesn't have any teaching steps. I heard from students [that he does not know how to teach well] … I could hear the
teacher's instructions when our classrooms were next to each other … His teaching strategies made me think that I am much better than him.

the Faculty. These three teachers emphasized the importance of Such a finding is consistent with studies downplaying vicarious
new knowledge and experiences gained from attending such experiences as a crucial source of efficacy information (Anderson &
courses or conferences in helping them improve their teaching Betz, 2001; Morris & Usher, 2011; Poulou, 2007).
strategies. My wrote that such knowledge could “change” the way
she viewed students and her teaching methodology and that she
4.4. Physiological/affective states
felt “interested in implementing these ideas.”
Data from observation sessions also suggested that leaders'
In this study, negative and positive emotions as a direct result of
recognition (or not) of teachers' performance and effort, a lack of
the processing of efficacy information from other sources influ-
trust and professional opportunities appeared to diminish their
enced the construction of self-efficacy of eight teachers. For
sense of self-efficacy. Topics typically presented at teacher meet-
example, Thu's belief in her teaching ability was increased by stu-
ings by Faculty leaders were new announcements, university
dents' giving her flowers, a form of social persuasion, which
development and new regulations. Technical and managerial
instilled a feeling of happiness. In contrast, Anh wrote, “my hands
problems in classrooms such as computer breakdowns, student
were tired and eyes were sore because of checking too many
discipline or late provision of textbooks were also raised. There
grammar mistakes” in students' papers. Observation data showed
were no opportunities for the teachers to receive feedback on their
that Anh and Thanh's positive or negative feelings during their
teaching practices, to critically examine their classroom instruction
lessons depended on whether students were able to finish an ac-
and to learn from others. Study teachers appeared inattentive and
tivity (or not). Moreover, a lack of trust from those in authority, a
non-contributing during meetings with leaders. In follow-up in-
negative version of social persuasion, created self-doubt and anx-
terviews, they claimed that this was because their voice was not
iety and diminished teachers' self-efficacy in teaching EFL. For
heard at such meetings.
example, all teachers in interviews and journal entries discussed
This finding on the influential role of social persuasion contrasts
the institution's requirement of ensuring teaching quality and its
with findings from studies by Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2007),
decision to reduce the number of teaching periods. They saw this
Palmer (2006) and Poulou (2007), which concluded that verbal
decision as creating “teaching pressure” and “teaching anxiety”
persuasion played a minimal role as a source of self-efficacy in-
because it forced them to do something they did not believe
formation. Poulou (2007), for example, reported that colleagues'
possible. Anh, Nhung and Thu wrote that they “gave up” teaching
feedback did not influence student teachers' self-efficacy beliefs. In
these students and “let them do anything in the classroom”. Hoa
contrast, studies by Milner (2002) and Milner and Hoy (2003)
felt such students were “difficult to teach” and acted as if she “[did]
showed how social (verbal) persuasion operated as a critical
not hear, [did] not see” those students who behaved badly in the
source of self-efficacy. For the teacher in Milner's (2002) study, it
classroom. Unsuccessful experiences in teaching struggling stu-
was positive comments from students, teachers and colleagues that
dents together with negative feelings left teachers with less con-
enabled her to survive and prosper.
fidence and impaired performance, that is, some teachers in effect
Unlike Milner's study teacher, the eight teachers in this study
gave up on certain students. This is in line with Bandura's (1997)
enjoyed high status in Vietnamese society, where respecting
observation: “By conjuring up aversive thoughts about their inep-
teachers is a cultural norm (Nguyen, 2010; Tran, 2006). However,
titude and stress reactions, people can arouse themselves to
the teachers reported that they often received forms of negative
elevated levels of distress that produce the very dysfunctions they
social persuasion at the university, which mostly came from uni-
fear” (p. 106). The present study, then, resonates with the assertions
versity leaders. Such negative social persuasion resulted in doubt
of Bandura and other researchers (Morris & Usher, 2011;
about their own teaching performance and created anxiety among
Mulholland & Wallace, 2001; Palmer, 2006; Poulou, 2007) that
them. Perceived negative social persuasion appeared to mediate
physiological and affective states are a supplementary source of
the significant role of mastery experiences. Reasons for teachers'
teaching efficacy.
special attention to verbal persuasion from important others may
well link with cultural and contextual factors, which will be dis-
cussed later in this section. 5. Discussion

A partial explanation for the differing contributions of these

4.3. Vicarious experiences sources in the Vietnamese context is methodological, i.e. attribut-
able to the qualitative nature of the study. In the current study,
In the study, vicarious experiences provided additional efficacy participants' evaluations of past performance were often informed
information for the formation of self-efficacy of the study teachers by social persuasion when the first author asked follow-up ques-
but were not a significant source. Findings indicated that few tions, for example, “How did you know that [you had done well]?”
80 N.T.T. Phan, T. Locke / Teaching and Teacher Education 52 (2015) 73e82

Such follow-up questions can prompt a focus on social persuasion needs to be a focus on pertinent sources of self-efficacy information
as a source, which might not otherwise have happened. Morris and since teachers construct their self-efficacy beliefs by processing
Usher (2011, p. 12) have explained that follow-up questions have information derived from these sources (Bandura, 1997, 2006).
the potential to prompt teachers' identifications of self-efficacy The study's findings demonstrate that the participating teachers
sources. Thus, the powerful impact of social persuasion compared paid special attention to different forms of social persuasion related
to other sources of efficacy information in this Vietnamese study to institutional leaders. The perceived lack of trust embedded in
may in part be a product of the use of follow-up questions, which various leadership practices prompted negative emotions among
elicited more nuanced self-efficacy source information. the teachers and inhibited teachers' perceptions of successful
Other explanations we attribute to contextual and cultural fac- teaching performance. Leaders need to become more aware of the
tors. It became evident that certain features of context determined explicit and implicit messages they communicate to teachers, as
the availability of mastery and vicarious experiences and condi- teachers are likely to base their interpretations of competence and
tioned the forms of social persuasion and emotional states. Limited future effort on these messages. This study strongly suggests the
collegiality and lack of professional development opportunities desirability of university and faculty leaders demonstrating more
clearly deprived study teachers of formal opportunities to watch trust in teachers' abilities and effort by respecting their autonomy
others teach and constrained access to cognitive mastery experi- in the classroom and encouraging involvement in relevant
ences. Enactive mastery was elusive since teachers' perceptions of decision-making processes. Some practical ways for leaders to
successful teaching depended on others' feedback but teachers enhance teachers' self-efficacy include providing timely and
were never given formal feedback from leaders and rarely from constructive feedback on teachers' performance, working together
colleagues. Receiving no feedback from leaders caused a feeling of with teachers and educators to develop well-defined and trans-
confusion and doubt about how competent participants were in parent internal policies (e.g. performance indicators and teaching
teaching EFL. Their sense of professional autonomy was diminished recognition systems where teachers are seen as contributors to the
by supervisors' intrusions into class time, leading to negative Faculty and university), and allowing teachers more independence
feelings about teaching rights. These teachers perceived these in- and flexibility in their classrooms.
trusions and the implementation of new workplace educational The study also suggests that encouraging teachers to work
policies as indicating a lack of trust (a negative form of social collectively can be a way of having positive impact on individual
persuasion) in their teaching competence. teacher efficacy. The study teachers reported a pronounced absence
In addition, certain Vietnamese cultural factors appeared to of social persuasion and vicarious experiences and a range of
influence the way teachers selected, weighed and interpreted ef- negative feelings in relation to the sharing of professional knowl-
ficacy information. Participants selected and gave more weight to edge. The effect of teacher collaboration on individual efficacy
other-oriented (social persuasion) than self-oriented evaluation mentioned in the literature points to the positive potential of a
(mastery experiences) when constructing their self-efficacy as EFL teachers' learning community in the university context
teachers. Students' feedback confirmed a sense of mastery among (Kohlbacher & Mukai, 2007; Wenger, 1998), where teachers learn
the teachers. The lack of leaders' feedback created feelings of from and negotiate the meaning of their teaching with one another.
anxiety and doubt about their teaching competence. Vietnamese Franzak (2002, p. 260) defined Critical Friends Groups (CFGs) as
culture is generally regarded as collective in the sense that people “practitioner-driven study groups that reflect the growing trend for
favor and honor the needs of their in-group more than of their own site-based professional development.” Possible CFG protocols
individual ones (Tran, 2006). Collectiveness most likely contributed include: exploring teaching strategies (cognitive mastery experi-
to the dominant role of social persuasion in affecting the self- ences), conducting peer observations (vicarious experiences), and
efficacy of study teachers. analyzing evidence of students' growth (enactive mastery experi-
With an emphasis on the inter-dependent self, Vietnamese ences). The implementation of the second protocol is confirmed as
culture strongly values obedience and respect for authority and effective in the Vietnamese context (Vo & Nguyen, 2010). Such a
Vietnamese generally accept social power inequality (Phan, 2005; finding suggests the desirability of setting up teacher collaboration
Tran, 2006). From early childhood, Vietnamese are educated to and learning communities at the study university (and others like
obey parents, teachers and leaders and treat them as superiors. The it) which, in the long term, may reduce teachers' feelings of isola-
perception of inequality in power may have led to the importance tion (emotional states), strengthen their collaboration with col-
of leaders' feedback and behavior to teachers' constructions of self- leagues (social persuasion) and build up their sense of teaching
efficacy. Study teachers also reported a number of negative feelings accomplishment (mastery experiences).
as a result of their interpretation of efficacy information coming In addition, the study underlines participating teachers' need for
from those in authority. Stewart et al. (2004) claimed that members in-service pedagogical development programs. The literature has
of collective cultures are vulnerable to depressed moods because shown that participating in professional programmes has the po-
the strong value placed on obedience and respect for authority may tential to increase the self-efficacy beliefs of teachers (Chong &
decrease opportunities for agency. These findings support Kong, 2012; Gunning & Mensah, 2011) owing to an exposure to
Tschannen-Moran et al. (1998) and Pajares (2007) who contended new and useful pedagogical knowledge, perceptions of successful
that culture matters in the way teachers construct their self- mastery experiences, opportunities to observe peers teach, positive
efficacy, and highlight the importance of studies such as this one, feedback and positive emotional cues in the development pro-
which is unique in its focus on Vietnam. grams. However, influencing the availability of sources of self-
The literature has suggested that teachers with stronger self- efficacy information through an intervention or development
efficacy will take more responsibility for student learning, be programme does not always bring about positive changes in
more persistent when confronting a range of teaching challenges, teacher self-efficacy, especially when the content of the program
set up learning goals to improve their own professional knowledge, does not provide enough information for the development of self-
and be more committed to their profession. Enhanced teacher ef- efficacy, i.e. offering simple materials (limited availability of
ficacy is likely to lead to better student learning outcomes (see cognitive mastery) and no opportunities to get feedback from
Akbari & Tavassoli, 2014; Klassen et al., 2011 for a review of studies students and mentors and to reinforce new knowledge (limited
exploring this connection). In order to support a positive sense of availability of enactive mastery and social persuasion) (Moseley,
self-efficacy among Vietnamese EFL teachers in this study, there Reinke, & Bookout, 2003). Meng and Tajaroensuk (2013) have
 N.T.T. Phan, T. Locke / Teaching and Teacher Education 52 (2015) 73e82 81

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