Atomic Mass and Composition of

Nucleus

To measure various ​objects​, we use a gram or a kilogram as the

standards. However, the mass of an ​atom​ is really small as compared
to a kilogram. To give you a perspective, the mass of a carbon atom
12​C, is 1.992647 × 10​–26​ kg. Imagine writing the mass of atoms in
kilograms – not very convenient is it? Hence, Atomic Mass is
expressed using different units. Let’s find more about the ​composition
of a nucleus in the section below.

Atomic Mass and Isotopes

One Atomic Mass unit (u) is defined as 1/12​th​ of the mass of the
carbon​ atom (​12​C). Therefore,

1u = (mass of one ​12​C atom)/12 = (1.992647 × 10​–26​)/12 = 1.660539

10​–27​ kg … (1)

Now, the atomic mass of different elements expressed in atomic units

(u) is nearly equal to being integral multiples of the mass of a
hydrogen atom. However, it is important to note that there are many
exceptions​ to this rule.

The next point is how do we measure atomic mass accurately? The

answer is – by using a mass spectrometer. An interesting observation
made by measuring atomic masses is that there are many atoms of the
same element which have different masses but exhibit the same
chemical properties. Such atoms are called ‘​Isotopes​’.

Further observation revealed that nearly all elements have a mixture of

many isotopes. However, the number of isotopes can vary, depending
on the element. Let’s look at some examples:

Example 1

Chlorine has two ​isotopes​ having masses 34.98u and 36.98u. These
are nearly the integral multiples of the atomic mass of a hydrogen
atom. Also, the relative abundance of these two isotopes is 75.4 % and
24.6% respectively. So, the average mass of chlorine is calculated by
finding the weighted average of the masses of these two isotopes;
which is,
= {(75.4 x 34.98) + (24.6 x 36.98)}/100 = 35.47u = the atomic mass of
chlorine​.

Example 2

[Source: Wikipedia]

Hydrogen, on the other hand, has three isotopes having masses 1.0078 u,
2.0141 u, and 3.0160 u. Of these, the lightest isotope has a relative

abundance of 99.985% and is called the Proton. Now, the mass of a proton is,

m​p​ = 1.00727 u = 1.67262 10​– 27​ kg … (2)

If we take the mass of a hydrogen atom and subtract the mass of an

electron from it, we get

1.00783u – 0.00055u = 1.00728u = m​p

The isotope having mass 2.0141 u is deuterium and the one having
mass 3.0160 u is tritium. Important to note here that tritium nuclei are
unstable and do not occur naturally. They are produced artificially in
laboratories.

Important Note

A proton is stable and carries one unit of fundamental charge. It is the

positive charge in the nucleus. Post the Quantum theory, it was agreed
that the electrons lie outside the nucleus (earlier there was a lot of
debate about them being inside the nucleus). The number of ​electrons
is equal to the ​atomic number​ of the element – Z.

Hence, the total charge of the atomic electrons is –Ze. Since an atom
is electrically neutral, the nucleus carries a charge of +Ze. By this, we
can conclude that the number of protons is equal to the number of
electrons in an atom = the atomic number Z.

Discovery of Neutron

Deuterium and tritium are the isotopes of hydrogen. Hence, the must
contain one proton each. However, there is a clear difference in their
atomic masses. The ratio of the atomic mass of hydrogen, deuterium,
and tritium is 1:2:3. Hence, there has to be some more matter in these
isotopes adding to their atomic masses. Also, this additional matter
needs to be electrically neutral since the protons and electrons are in
balance.

In this case, the additional matter is present in multiples of the mass of

the proton (deuterium has additional matter equal to the mass of one
proton and tritium has matter equal to the mass of two protons).
Hence, it is easy to conclude that the nuclei of atoms contain neutral
matter, in addition to protons, in multiples of a basic unit.

In 1932, James Chadwick observed the emission of a neutral radiation

when a Beryllium nucleus was bombarded with alpha particles. Now,
at that time, the only known neutral radiation was photons or
electromagnetic radiation. If the neutral radiation consisted of protons,
then

The energy of photons >> The energy available from the

bombardment of the Beryllium nuclei with alpha particles

Chadwick hypothesised that the neutral radiation consisted of a new

type of neutral particles – Neutrons. By further calculations, he proved
that the mass of a neutron is nearly equal to the mass of a proton.
Now, the mass of a neutron known to a high degree of accuracy is,

m​n​ = 1.00866 u = 1.6749×10​–27​ kg ~ m​p

Composition of Nucleus

A free neutron is unstable. It decays into a proton, an electron and an

antineutrino (an elementary particle) with a mean life of around 1000s.
However, it is stable inside the nucleus. Therefore, the composition of
a nucleus is described as follows:

A=Z+N

Where,

● Z – atomic number = number of protons

● N – neutron number = number of neutrons
● A – mass number = = total number of protons and neutrons

Protons or Neutrons are also called Nucleons. Hence, the mass

number (A) of an atom is the total number of nucleons in it. A typical
nuclide of an atom is ​AZ​X, where X is the chemical symbol of the
atom​.

Examples

The nuclide of gold is denoted by ​19779​Au. Hence, we can conclude

that there are 197 nucleons in a nucleus of gold. Out of these 79 are
protons and 118 (197-79) are neutrons.

● Deuterium is denoted as ​21​H … it has one proton and one

neutron
● Tritium is denoted as ​31​H … it has one proton and two neutrons

Isobars and Isotones

● Isobars – Nuclides with same mass number A. For Eg. ​31​H and
32​H

● Isotones – Nuclides with the same number of neutrons (N) but

different atomic numbers (Z). For e.g. ​19880​Hg and ​19779​Au.

Solved Examples for You

Question: Two stable isotopes of lithium ​63​Li and ​73​Li have respective
abundances of 7.5% and 92.5%. These isotopes have masses 6.01512u
and 7.01600u, respectively. Find the ​atomic mass​ of lithium.

Answer: Mass of the first lithium isotope ​63​Li = m​1​ = 6.01512u

Mass of the second lithium isotope ​73​Li = m​2​ = 7.01600u

Abundance of ​63​Li = n​1​ = 7.5%

Abundance of ​73​Li = n​2​ = 92.5%

The atomic mass (m) of lithium is

m = (m​1​n​1​ + m​2​n​2​) / (n​1​ + n​2​)

= {(6.01512u x 7.5) + (7.01600u x 92.5)} / (7.5 + 92.5)

= 6.940934u

Hence, the atomic mass of lithium is 6.940934u.

Mass Energy and Nuclear Binding
Energy

The famous Einstein’s theory of special relativity established the fact

that mass is another form of energy. Also, you can convert the
mass-energy into other forms of ​energy​. This opened the doors to a
better understanding of nuclear masses and the interaction of nuclei
with each other. In this article, we will look at the binding energy of a
nucleus which is essential to understand the nuclear fission and fusion
processes​.

Suggested Videos
Structure of Atom

Atomic mass and composition of nucleus

Basics of Isotopes,Isotones and Isobars

According to Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence relation, we know

that,

E = mc​2​ … (1)

where c is the ​velocity​ of light in vacuum and is ≅ 3 x 10​8​ m/s. Also, E

is the energy equivalent of the mass, ‘m’. Experimental studies of
nuclear reactions between nucleons, nuclei, electrons and other more
recently discovered particles. According to the Law of Conservation
of Energy, we know that in a reaction, the initial and final energy is
the same provided we take the mass-energy into ​consideration​.

Nuclear Binding Energy

We know that the nucleus is made up of protons and ​neutrons​. So,

logically, the mass of the nucleus = the sum of masses of the protons
and neutrons, right? Not really! The nuclear mass (M) is always less
than this sum. To e=understand this better, let’s look at an example,

168​O has 8 protons and 8 neutrons. Now,

● Mass of 8 neutrons = 8 × 1.00866 u

● Mass of 8 protons = 8 × 1.00727 u
● Mass of 8 ​electrons​ = 8 × 0.00055 u

Therefore the expected mass of ​168​O nucleus = = 8 × 2.01593 u =

16.12744 u.

We know from mass spectroscopy experiments that the atomic mass

of 168O is 15.99493u. Subtracting the mass of 8 electrons from this,
we get the experimental mass of ​168​O nucleus = 15.99053u
(15.99493u – [8 x 0.00055u]). Hence, we see that there is a difference
between the two numbers of 0.13691u (16.12744 u – 15.99053u).

In simple words, the mass of the ​168​O nucleus is less than the total
mass of its constituents by 0.13691u. This difference in mass of a
nucleus and its constituents is called the mass defect (ΔM) and is
given by

ΔM = [Zm​p​ + (A – Z)m​n​] – M … (2)

So, what exactly does mass defect mean?

The mass of an oxygen nucleus < the sum of masses of its protons and
neutrons (in an unbounded state). Therefore, the equivalent energy of
the oxygen nucleus < the sum of the equivalent energies of its
constituents.

We can also say that if you want to break down an oxygen nucleus
into 8 protons and 8 neutrons, then you must provide the extra energy
(ΔMc​2​). The ​relation​ between this energy (E​b​) to the mass defect
(ΔM) is derived from Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence relation
{​equation​ (1)}. Therefore,
 E​b​ = ΔMc​2​ … (3)

In other words, if certain protons and neutrons are brought together to

form a nucleus of a certain charge and mass, then an energy E​b​ is
released in the process. This energy is called the Binding Energy of
the nucleus. So, if we want to separate a nucleus into protons and
neutrons, then we will need to provide an energy E​b​ to the particles.

Binding Energy per Nucleon

A more useful measure of the binding between protons and neutrons is

the binding energy per nucleon or E​bn​. It is the ​ratio​ of the binding
energy of a nucleus to the number of nucleons in the nucleus:

E​bn​ = E​b​/A … (4)

where Eb is the binding energy of the nucleus and A is the number of

nucleons in it. So, the binding energy per nucleon is the average
energy per nucleon needed to separate a nucleus into its individual
nucleons. Let’s look at a plot of the binding energy per nucleon versus
the mass number for a large number of nuclei:
Here is what we can observe:

● The maximum binding energy per nucleon is around 8.75 MeV

for mass number (A) = 56.
● The minimum binding energy per nucleon is around 7.6 MeV
for mass number (A) = 238.
● For 30 < A < 170, E​bn​ is nearly constant.
● Ebn is low for both light nuclei (A < 30) and heavy nuclei (A >
170)

Conclusion 01

The force is attractive in nature and very strong producing a binding

energy of around a few MeV per nucleon.
Conclusion 02
● Why is E​bn​ nearly constant in the range 30 < A < 170? The
answer is simple – the nuclear force is short-ranged. Now,
imagine a really large nucleus. A nucleon (N​A​) in this nucleus
will be influenced only by some of its neighbours. These
neighbours are those which lie in the short-range of the nuclear
force.
● This means that all nucleons beyond the range of the nuclear
force form N​A​ will have no influence on the binding energy of
N​A​. So, we can conclude that if a nucleon has ‘p’ neighbours
within the range of the nuclear force, then its binding energy is
proportional to ‘p’.
● In the same large nucleus, if we increase the mass number (A)
by adding nucleons, it will not change the binding energy of
N​A​. Why? Because, in a large nucleus, most of the nucleons lie
inside it and not on the surface. Hence, the change in binding
energy, if any, would be negligibly small.
● Remember, the binding energy per nucleon is a constant and is
equal to pk, where k is a constant having the dimensions of
energy. Also, the property that a given nucleon influences only
 nucleons close to it is also referred to as saturation property of
the nuclear force.

Conclusion 03

Next, imagine a very heavy nucleus having A = 240. This has a low
binding energy. Therefore, if a nucleus A = 240 breaks down into two
A = 120 nuclei, then the nucleons get bound more tightly. Right?
Also, in the process energy is released. This concept is used in
Nuclear Fission.

Conclusion 04

On the other hand, imagine two very light nuclei with A < 10. If these
two nuclei were to join to form a heavier nucleus, then the binding
energy per nucleon of the fused and heavier nucleus is more than the
E​bn​ of the lighter nuclei. Right? So, the nucleons are more tightly
bound post fusion. And, energy is released in the process. This is how
the Sun works!

Solved Examples for You

Question: Obtain the binding energy (in MeV) of a nitrogen nucleus
(​147​N) , given m (​147​N) =14.00307u.

Solution: A nucleus of Nitrogen contains 7 protons and 7 neutrons.

Therefore, the mass defect of this nucleus is,

ΔM = 7m​p​ + 7m​n​ – m (​147​N)

Now,

Mass of a proton = m​p​ = 1.007825u

Mass of a neutron = m​n​ = 1.008665u

Therefore,

ΔM = (7 x 1.007825u) + (7 x 1.008665u) – 14.00307u = 0.11236u

Now, we know that 1u = 931.5 MeV/c​2​. Therefore,

ΔM = 0.11236 x 931.5 MeV/c​2

The binding energy of the nucleus is,

Eb = ΔMc​2

= 0.11236 x 931.5 (MeV/c​2​) x c​2

= 0.11236 x 931.5 MeV

= 104.66334 MeV.

Nuclear Force

Coulomb force determines the motion of ​electrons​ in an ​atom​. By

now, we already know that the binding energy per nucleon is around 8
MeV, for average mass nuclei. This is much larger than the binding
energy in atoms. Hence, the nuclear force required to bind a nucleus
together must be very strong and of a different type. It should
overcome the repulsion between like-charged protons and should bind
the protons and ​neutrons​ into a really small nuclear volume. In this
article​, we will look at the features of this force, also called the nuclear
binding force.

Nuclear Force
The nucleus of all atoms (except hydrogen) contain more than one
proton. Also, protons carry a positive charge. And, like ​charges​ repel
each other. Then why or how do these nucleons stay together in a
nucleus? They should repel each other, right? This is where the strong
nuclear force comes into play.

Source: Wikipedia

Features of Nuclear Force

Between 1930 and 1950, many ​experiments​ were conducted to

understand nuclear force. Some key observations and/ or features are
listed below:

● The nuclear force acts between the charges and functions as the
gravitational force between masses. This is much stronger than
the Coulomb force. This is because the nuclear force needs to
 overpower the Coulomb repulsive force between the
like-charged protons inside the nucleus. Hence, the nuclear
force > the Coulomb force. Also, the gravitational force much
weaker than the Coulomb force.
● The distance between two nucleons is measured in femtometers
(1fm = 10​–15​m). The nuclear force is really attractive when the
distance between two nucleons is around 1fm. As the ​distance
increases beyond 2.5fm, this attractive force starts decreasing
rapidly. Hence, for a medium to a large-sized nucleus, the
forces get saturated leading to the constancy of the binding
energy per nucleon. Also, if the distance falls below 0.7fm,
then this force becomes repulsive. A rough plot of the potential
energy between two nucleons as a function of distance is
shown below.
 ● Finally, the nuclear force between two neutrons, two protons
and a neutron and a proton is nearly the same. It is important to
note that the nuclear force is independent of the electric charge
of the neurons. Further, unlike Coulomb’s Law or Newton’s
Law of Gravitation, Nuclear force does not have a simple
mathematical form.

There are four basic forces in nature:

1. Gravitational Force
2. Electromagnetic Force
3. Strong Nuclear Force
 4. Weak Nuclear Force

The strong nuclear force is what keeps the nucleons together despite
having a similar charge.

Solved Examples for You

Question:

Assertion: More ​energy​ is released in fusion than fission.

Reason: More number of nucleons take part in fission.

A. Both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the

correct explanation for Assertion.
B. Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason is not the
correct explanation for ​Assertion​.
C. Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
D. Both Assertion and Reason are incorrect.

Solution: Option B. Since energy released per mass is more in fusion

as compared to fission, more energy is released in it. More number of
neutrons are released in fission as compared to fusion and hence, more
nucleons take part in fission.

Question: In nuclear reaction: ​4​Be​9​+​2​He​4​→​6​C​12​+X, X will be:

A. Proton
B. Neutron
C. β-particle
D. α-particle

Solution: ​4​Be​9​+​2​He​4​→​6​C​12​+X

No. of protons is already balanced with C.

∴ X carries no charge.

and 9+4 > 12 by 1 unit mass.

∴ X carries one unit mass.

It’s a neutron.

Nuclear Energy – Nuclear Fusion

When we talk about nuclear energy, understanding nuclear fusion is
essential. It helps us gain insight into how a massive amount of ​energy
is released when two light nuclei combine to form a single larger
nucleus.

Some examples of nuclear fusion:

11​H + ​11​H → ​21​H + e​–​ + v + 0.42 MeV … (1)

Here two protons combine to form a deuteron and a positron

releasing 0.42 MeV of energy.

21​H + ​21​H → ​32​He + n + 3.27 MeV … (2)

Here two deuterons combine to form the light isotope of Helium

releasing 3.27 MeV of energy.
 21​H + ​21​H → ​31​H + ​11​H + 4.03 MeV … (3)

In this case, two deuterons combine to form a triton and a proton

releasing 4.03 MeV of energy.

Note that in all these examples, two positively charged particles

combine to form a larger nucleus. Further, the Coulomb repulsion
hinders the process of fusion since it acts to prevent two positively
charged particles from getting within the ​range​ of their attractive
nuclear forces.

Now, the height of the Coulomb barrier depends on the charges and
the radii of the two interacting nuclei. For example, the barrier height
for two protons is around 400 keV. Also, higher charged nuclei have a
higher barrier height. The ​temperature​ at which the protons in a proton
gas have enough energy to cross the coulomb’s barrier is around 3 x
10​9​ K.

Now, to generate any useful amount of energy, nuclear fusion must

occur in bulk matter. To achieve this, the temperature of the ​material
can be raised until the particles have enough energy to cross the
coulomb barrier due to their thermal motions. This is thermonuclear
fusion.

Nuclear Fusion in the Sun

The temperature of the core of the Sun is around 1.5 x 10​7​ K. Hence,
even in the sun fusion occurs only when protons having energies
above the average energy are involved. In simple ​words​, for
thermonuclear fusion to occur extreme temperature and pressure
conditions are needed. This is only possible in the interiors of the Sun
and other stars.

Source: Wikipedia

In the Sun, nuclear fusion occurs in a multi-step process where

hydrogen​ is burned into helium. Here, hydrogen is the fuel and
helium, the ash. The process is represented as follows:
 11​H + ​11​H → ​21​H + e​–​ + v + 0.42 MeV … (4)

e​–​ + e​+​ → γ + γ + 1.02 MeV … (5)

21​H + ​11​H → ​32​He + γ + 5.49 MeV … (6)

32​He + ​32​He → ​42​He + ​11​H + ​11​H + 12.86 MeV … (7)

For the fourth reaction to occur, the first three need to occur twice.
Thereby, two light helium nuclei unite to form a normal helium
nucleus. This four-step ​process​ can be summarised as:

4​11​H + 2e​–​ → ​42​He + 2v + 6γ + 26.7 MeV … (8)

Hence, we can see that four hydrogen nuclei combine to form a

helium nucleus and release 26.7 MeV of energy.

Some Trivia

Hydrogen has been burning in the Sun’s core for around 5 x 10​9
years! According to calculations, this will continue for another 5 x 109​
years in the future too. In about 5 billion years, the Sun’s core will be
primarily helium. This is when it will start to cool down and collapse
under its own gravity. Eventually, this will raise the core temperature
and cause the outer envelope to expand. The sun will then look like a
red giant! Once the core temperature increases to 10​8​ K, energy
production will resume through fusion again. However, this time
helium will be burned to make carbon.

Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion

On November 01, 1952, the USA exploded a nuclear fusion device

generating energy equivalent to 10 million tons of TNT. Just to put it
into perspective, one ton of TNT produces 2.6 x 10​22​ MeV of energy
on explosion. This was the first thermonuclear reaction on earth. It is
very difficult to achieve a sustained and controlled source of fusion
power​. However, it is regarded as the power source of the future and
most countries are pursuing it vigorously.

Solved Question for You

Question: How long can an electric lamp of 100W be kept glowing by

fusion of 2.0 kg of deuterium? Take the fusion ​reaction​ as:

21​H + ​21​H → ​32​He + n + 3.27 MeV

Solution: We know that 1 mole or 2 grams of deuterium contains
6.023 x 10​23​ atoms. Therefore, 2 kg of deuterium will contain:

{(6.023 x 10​23​)/2} x 2000 = 6.023 x 10​26​ atoms.

From the given reaction, we know that 3.27 MeV of energy is released
when 2 deuterium nuclei fuse. Therefore, the total energy released per
nucleus is:

(3.27/2) x 6.023 x 10​26​ MeV

= (3.27/2) x 6.023 x 10​26​ x 1.6 x 10​–19​ x 10​6​ Joules

= 1.576 x 10​14​ J

Power of the lamp is 100 W = 100 J/s. So, in one second the lamp
utilizes 100 J. Therefore, the total time for which the lamp will burn is
the time taken to utilize 1.576 x 10​14​ J. Here is the calculation:

(1.576 x 10​14​/100) seconds

= (1.576 x 10​14​/100 x 60 x 60 x 24 x 365) years

= 4.9 x 10​4​ years

Nuclear Energy – Nuclear Fission

Binding Energy, as we know, is the energy released in the ​processes​ in

which the light nuclei fuse or the heavy nuclei split to form a
transmuted nucleus. This energy is made available as nuclear energy.
Let’s learn about the nuclear fission in section below.

While studying about Binding energy we observed that the binding

energy per nucleon (E​bn​) is nearly constant (around 8 MeV) for mass
numbers in the range 30 < A < 170. Also, for lighter nuclei (A < 30)
and heavier nuclei (A > 170), E​bn​ is less than 8 MeV. And, the nuclei
in the ​range​ 30 < A < 170 are more tightly bound than those below or
above the range specified.

Further, in conventional energy sources like ​coal​ or petroleum, energy

is released through ​chemical reactions​. However, for the same
quantity​ of matter, nuclear ​sources​ provide million times larger energy
than these conventional sources. For example, one kilogram of coal
gives 107J of energy on burning. On the other hand, one kilogram of
uranium creates 1014J of energy on fission.

Nuclear Fission

Post the discovery of the neutron, Enrico Fermi found that on

bombarding a neutron different elements produced new radioactive
elements. However, on bombarding a uranium target, the nucleus
broke into two nearly equal fragments and released a great amount of
energy. An example of the same is:

10​n + ​23592​U → ​23692​U → ​14456​Ba + ​8936​Kr + 3​10​n

Fission does not always produce Barium and Krypton. Here is another
example:

10​n + ​23592​U → ​23692​U → ​13351​Sb + ​9941​Nb + 4​10​n

One more example:

10​n + ​23592​U → ​23692​U → ​14054​Xe + ​9438​Sr + 2​10​n

All the fragmented nuclei produced in fission are neutron-rich and
unstable. Also, they are radioactive and emit beta ​articles​ until they
reach a stable end-​product​.

Nuclear Energy Released in a Fission Reaction

In the example above, the nuclear energy released is of the order of

200 MeV per nucleus undergoing a fission. Here is how it is
calculated: Imagine a heavy nucleus having A = 240. Now, this
nucleus breaks into two nuclei with A = 120 each. Therefore,

E​bn​ (A = 240 nucleus) = 7.6 MeV

E​bn​ (each of A = 120 nuclei) = 8.5 MeV

Hence, the gain in binding energy per nucleon is about 0.9 MeV (8.5 –
7.6). Therefore, the total gain in binding energy is 240×0.9 = 216
MeV.

The disintegration energy in fission events initially appears as the

kinetic energy of the fragments and neutrons. Subsequently, the
surrounding matter starts heating up. The source of energy in nuclear
reactors, which produce ​electricity​, is nuclear fission. The enormous
energy released in an atom bomb comes from uncontrolled nuclear
fission.

Nuclear Reactor

When ​23592​U undergoes a fission after being bombarded by a neutron,

it splits into two nuclei and releases a neutron. This extra neutron now
initiates the fission of another ​23592​U nucleus. For that matter, 2.5
neutrons are released per fission of a uranium nucleus. Also, fission
produces more neutrons than what can be consumed.

This increases the chances of a chain reaction with each neutron that is
produced, triggering another fission. If this chain reaction is
uncontrolled, then it can lead to destruction (like a nuclear bomb). On
the other hand, in a controlled manner, it can be harnessed to generate
electric power.

However, there was a small problem. The neutrons generated in

fission were highly energetic. They would escape rather than trigger
another fission reaction. Also, it was observed that slow neutrons have
a higher possibility of inducing fission in ​23592​U than their faster
counterparts.
Now, the energy of a neutron produced in fission of ​23592​U is around 2
MeV. Unless these neutrons are slowed down, they tend to escape
without inducing fission. This simply means that we need a lot of
fissionable material to sustain the chain reaction.

Slowing Down Fast Neutrons in a Nuclear Reactor to Generate

Nuclear Energy

These fast neutrons are slowed down by elastic scattering with a light
nuclei. Chadwick, in his experiments, showed that in an elastic
collision with hydrogen, these neutrons almost come to rest and the
protons carry away the energy.

To understand this, imagine two marbles. One at rest and one

travelling fast. When the fast-moving marble hits the stationary
marble head-on, it comes to rest.

Therefore, in nuclear reactors, light nuclei are provided along with the
fissionable nuclei to slow down the fast neutrons. These light nuclei
are the ‘​moderators’.​ The most commonly used moderators are water,
heavy water (D​2​O) and graphite.

Moderators
Moderators can ensure that the number of neutrons generated by a
given generation is greater than those produced by the preceding
generation. Hence, the multiplication factor ‘K’ or the measure of the
growth rate of neutrons in the reactor can be in the range 1 < K < 1.
Here is what it means:

● K < 1 means that the neutrons are not increasing in number

over the previous generations. Or, they are escaping without
inducing fission.
● K> 1 means that the reaction rate and nuclear power in the
reactor is increasing exponentially and can even explode. It
needs to be brought down to as close to unity as possible.
● K = 1 means that the reactor will be able to generate steady
power.

This control is managed by using cadmium rods which can absorb

neutrons. So, there is a dual control on a nuclear fission reaction.

● Slowing down the fast neutrons so that the induce fission and
start a chain reaction.
 ● Introducing neutron absorbing rods in the reactor to ensure that
the value of ‘K’ stays as close to 1 as possible.

Another interesting isotope is ​23892​U. This isotope is available in

abundance and does not fission. Also, it forms plutonium by capturing
neutrons. Here’s how:

23892​U + ​10​n → ​23992​U → ​23993​Np + e​–​ + v​–

23993​Np → ​23994​Pu + e​–​ + v​–

Plutonium is highly radioactive and can also undergo nuclear fission

under bombardment by slow neutrons.

A Nuclear Power Plant

The image above outlines a typical nuclear power plant based on a
pressurized water reactor. In such reactors, water is used as a
moderator and heat transfer medium. In the primary-loop, water is
circulated through the reactor vessel and transfers energy at high
temperature and pressure (at about 600 K and 150 atm) to the steam
generator, which is part of the secondary loop.

In the steam generator, evaporation provides high-pressure steam to

operate the turbine that drives the electric generator. The low-pressure
steam from the turbine is cooled and condensed to water and forced
back into the steam generator.
Since the energy released in nuclear reactors is very high, they need
very less fuel. However, in these reactors, highly radioactive elements
are produced continually. Hence, this radioactive waste needs to be
accumulated regularly. This includes both fission products and heavy
transuranic elements like plutonium and americium.

Solved Question for You

Question: The fission properties of ​23994​Pu are very similar to those of

23592​U. The average energy released per fission is 180 MeV. How
much energy, in MeV, is released if all the atoms in 1 kg of pure
23994​Pu undergo fission?

Solution:

Average energy released per fission of ​23994​Pu, E​av​ = 180 MeV

Amount of pure ​23994​Pu, m = 1 kg = 1000 grams

Avogadro’s number = N​A​ = 6.023 x 10​23

Mass number of ​23994​Pu = 239

Now, 1 mole of ​23994​Pu contains N​A​ atoms. Therefore, ‘m’ grams of
23994​Pu will contain {(N​A​/Mass number) x m} number of atoms,

= [(6.023 x 10​23​)/239] x 1000 = 2.52 x 10​24​ atoms.

Hence, total energy released during the fission of 1 kg of ​23994​Pu is:

E = E​av​ x 2.52 x 10​24

= 180 x 2.52 x 10​24​ = 4.536 x 10​26​ MeV.

Radioactivity – Law of Radioactive

Decay

In 1896, A.H. Becquerel accidentally discovered radioactivity. He was

studying the fluorescence and phosphorescence of compounds
irradiated with visible light. This is when he observed something
interesting. Let’s learn more about the law of radioactive decay in the
section below.

He illuminated some pieces of Uranium-Potassium-Sulphate with

visible light. Next, he wrapped these pieces in black paper and
separated it from a photographic plate by a piece of silver. He left it
for several hours. When he developed the photographic plate, he
found that there was blackening on the plate.

This meant that something was emitted by the compound which

penetrated the silver and black paper and hit the plate. Subsequent
experiments show that radioactivity is a nuclear ​phenomenon​ which
occurs when an unstable nucleus undergoes a decay. This is called
Radioactive Decay.

Radioactive Decay

There are three types of radioactive decays in nature:

● α-decay​ –a helium nucleus (​42​He) is emitted

● β-decay​ – where electrons or positrons (​particles with the same
mass as e​ lectrons​, but with a charge exactly opposite to that of
an electron)​ are emitted;
● γ-deca​y – high energy (hundreds of keV or more) photons are
emitted.
Law of Radioactive Decay

When a radioactive material undergoes α, β or γ-decay, the number of

nuclei undergoing the decay, per unit time, is proportional to the total
number of nuclei in the sample ​material​. So,

If N = total number of nuclei in the sample and ΔN = number of nuclei

that undergo decay in time Δt then,

ΔN/ Δt ∝ N
 Or, ΔN/ Δt = λN … (1)

where λ = radioactive decay constant or disintegration constant. Now,

the change in the ​number​ of nuclei in the sample is, dN = – ΔN in time
Δt. Hence, the rate of change of N (in the ​limit​ Δt → 0) is,

dN/dt = – λN

Or, dN/N = – λ dt

Now, integrating both the sides of the above ​equation​, we get,

NN0​∫ dN/N = λ ​tt0​∫ dt … (2)

Or, ln N – ln N​0​ = – λ (t – t​0​) … (3)

Where, N​0​ is the number of radioactive nuclei in the sample at some

arbitrary time t​0​ and N is the number of radioactive nuclei at any
subsequent time t. Next, we set t​0​ = 0 and rearrange the above
equation (3) to get,

ln (N/N​0​) = – λt
 Or, N(t) = N​0​e​– λt​ … (4)

Equation (4) is the Law of Radioactive Decay.

The Decay Rate

In radioactivity calculations, we are more interested in the decay rate

R ( = – dN/dt) than in N itself. This rate gives us the number of nuclei
decaying per unit time. Even if we don’t know the number of nuclei in
the sample, by simply measuring the number of ​emissions​ of α, β or γ
particles in 10 or 20 seconds, we can calculate the decay rate. Let’s
say that we consider a time interval dt and get a decay count ΔN (=
–dN). The decay rate is now defined as,

R = – dN/dt

Differentiating equation (4) on both sides, we get,

R = λ N​0​ e​−λt

Or, R = R​0​e​−λt​ … (5)

Where, R​0​ is the radioactive decay rate at the time t = 0, and R is the
rate at any subsequent time t. Equation (5) is the alternative form of
the Law of Radioactive Decay. Now we can rewrite equation (1) as
follows,

R = λN … (6)

where R and the number of radioactive nuclei that have not yet
undergone decay must be evaluated at the same instant.

Half-Life and Mean Life

The total decay rate of a sample is also known as the ​activity​ of the
sample. The SI unit for ​measurement​ of ​activity​ is ‘​becquerel’​ and is
defined as,

1 becquerel = 1 Bq = 1 decay per second

An older unit, the curie, is still in common use:

1 curie = 1 Ci = 3.7 × 10​10​ Bq (decays per second)

There are two ways to measure the time for which a radionuclide can
last.

● Half-life T​1/2​ – the time at which both R and N are reduced to

half of their initial values
● Mean life τ – the time at which both R and N have been
reduced to, e​-1​ of their initial values.

Calculating Half-Life

Let’s find the ​relation​ between T1/2 and the disintegration constant λ.
For this, let’s input the following values in equation (5),

R = (1/2)R​0​ and t = T​1/2

So, we get T​1/2​ = (ln2)/ λ

Or, T​1/2​ = 0.693/ λ … (7)

Calculating Mean life

Next, let’s find the relation between the mean life τ and the
disintegration constant λ. For this, let’s consider equation (5),
 ● The number of nuclei which decay in the time interval: ‘t’ to ‘t
+ Δt’ is: R(t)Δt = (λN​0​e​–λt​ Δt).
● Each of them has lived for time ‘t’.
● Hence, the total life of all these nuclei is tλN​0​e​–λt​ Δt

Hence, to obtain the mean life, we integrate this expression over all
the times from 0 to ∞ and divide by the total number of nuclei at t = 0
(which is N​0​).

τ = (λN​0 0∞​∫ te​–λt​dt)/N​0

= λ​0∞​∫ te​–λt​dt

On solving this integral, we get

τ = 1/λ

Therefore, we can summarise the observations as follows:

T1/2 = (ln2)/λ = τ ln 2 … (8)

Solved Examples for You

Question: The half-life of ​23892​U undergoing α-decay is 4.5 × 10​9
years. What is the activity of 1g sample of ​23892​U ?

Answer: T1/2 = 4.5 x 10​9​ years = 4.5 x 10​9​years x 3.6 x 10​7

seconds/year = 1.42 x 10​17​ seconds

We know that 1 k mol of any isotope contains Avogadro’s number of

atoms. Hence, 1g of ​23892​U contains, {1/(238 x 10​-3​)} x 6.025 x 10​26​ =
25.3 x 10​20​ atoms. Therefore, the decay rate R is,

R = λN

= (0.693/T​1/2​)N

= (0.693 x 25.3 x 10​20​) / (1.42 x 10​17​)

Therefore, R = 1.23 x 10​4​ Bq

Radioactivity – Types of Radioactive

Decay
In this ​article​, we will look at the three types of radioactive decay
namely, alpha, beta, and gamma decay. We will try to understand how
these particles are emitted and its effects on the emitting nucleus.

Alpha Radioactive Decay

An alpha particle is a helium nucleus ​42​He. Whenever a nucleus goes

through alpha decay, it transforms into a different nucleus by emitting
an alpha particle. For example, when ​23892​U undergoes alpha-decay, it
transforms into ​23490​Th.

23892​U → ​23490​Th + ​42​He … (1)

Now, ​42​He contains two protons and two ​neutrons​. Hence, after
emission, the mass number of the emitting nucleus reduces by four
and the ​atomic number​ reduces by two. Therefore, the ​transformation
of ​AZ​X nucleus to ​A-4Z-2​X nucleus is expressed as follows,

AZ​X → ​A-4Z-2​X + ​42​He … (2)

where ​AZ​X is the parent nucleus and ​A-4Z-2​X is the daughter nucleus. It
is important to note that the alpha decay of ​23892​U can occur without
an external source of energy. This is because of the total mass of the
decay ​products​ (​23490​Th and ​42​He) < the mass of the original ​23892​U

Or, the total mass-energy of the decay products is less than that of the
original nuclide. This brings us to the concept of ‘​Q value of the
process’​ or ‘​Disintegration energy’​ which is the difference between
the initial and final mass-energy of the decay products. For an alpha
decay, the Q value is expressed as,

Q = (m​X​ – m​Y​ – m​He​) c​2​ … (3)

This energy is shared between the daughter nucleus, ​A-4Z-2​X and the
alpha particle, ​42​He in the form of ​kinetic energy​. Also, alpha decay
obeys the radioactive laws.

Beta Radioactive Decay

Beta decay is when a nucleus decays spontaneously by emitting an

electron​ or a positron. This is also a spontaneous process, like the
alpha decay, with a definite disintegration energy and half-life. And, it
follows the radioactive laws. A Beta decay can be a beta minus or a
beta plus decay.
Source: Wikipedia

​ ​−​) decay​, an electron is emitted by the nucleus. For

In a Beta minus (β
example,

3215​P → ​3216​S + e​–​ + v​–​ … (4)

where v- is an antineutrino, a neutral particle with little or no mass.

Also, T​1/2​ = 14.3 days.
Source: Wikipedia

In a Beta plus decay,​ a positron is emitted by the nucleus. For

example,

2211​Na → ​2210​Ne + e​+​ + v … (5)

where v is a neutrino, a neutral particle with little or no mass. Also,

T​1/2​ = 2.6 years. The neutrinos and antineutrinos are emitted from the
nucleus along with the positron or electron during the beta decay
process. Neutrinos interact very weakly with matter. Hence, they were
undetected for a very long time.

Further, in a Beta minus decay, a neutron transforms into a proton

within the nucleus:

n → p + e​–​ + ν​–​ … (6)

Also, in a Beta plus decay, a proton transforms into a neutron (inside

the nucleus):

p → n + e​+​ + ν … (7)
Hence, we can see that the mass number (A) of the emitting nuclide
does not change. As shown in equations (6) and (7), either a proton
transforms into a neutron or vice versa.

Gamma Radioactive Decay

We know that atoms have energy levels. Similarly, a nucleus has

energy levels too. When a nucleus is in an excited state, it can
transition to a lower energy state by emitting an electromagnetic
radiation​. Further, the difference between the energy states in a
nucleus is in MeV. Hence, the photons emitted by the nuclei have
MeV energies and called Gamma rays.

Source: Wikipedia
After an alpha or beta emission, most radionuclides leave the daughter
nucleus in an excited state. This daughter nucleus reaches the ground
state by emitting one or multiple gamma rays. For example,

6027​Co undergoes a beta decay and transforms into ​6028​Ni. The

daughter nucleus (​6028​Ni) is in its excited state. This excited nucleus
reaches the ground state by the emission of two gamma rays having
energies of 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV. The energy level diagram shown
below depicts this ​process​.

Solved Examples for You

Question: Find the Q value and kinetic energy of the emitted alpha
particle in:

● 22688​Ra
 ● 22086​Rn

Where,

226. m (​22688​Ra) = 226.02540u

227. m (​22086​Rn) = 220.01137u
● m (​22286​Rn) = 222.01750u
216. m (​21684​Po) = 216.00189u

Answer:

(a) After emitting an alpha particle (helium nucleus), the mass number
of ​22688​Ra reduces to 222 (226 – 4) and the atomic number reduces to
86 (88 – 2).Therefore, we have

22688​Ra → ​22286​Rn + ​42​He

Source: Wikipedia

Now, Q value of the emitted alpha particle is,

Q = (m​x​ – m​y​ – m​He​) c​2​ … from equation (3) above)

= {m (​22688​Ra) – m (​22286​Rn) – m (​42​He)} c​2

We know that,

226. m (​22688​Ra) = 226.02540u

227. m (​22286​Rn) = 222.01750u
● m (​42​He) = 4.002603u

Therefore,
Q-value = [226.02540u – 222.01750u – 4.002603u] c​2​ = 0.005297uc​2

We know that, 1u = 931.5 MeV/c​2​. Hence,

Q = 0.005297 x 931.5 ~ 4.94 MeV

And, the Kinetic Energy of the alpha particle,

= {(Mass number after decay) / (Mass number before decay)} x Q

= (222/226) x 4.94 = 4.85 MeV.

(b) After emitting an alpha particle (helium nucleus), the mass number
of ​22086​Rn reduces to 216 (220 – 4) and the atomic number reduces to
84 (86 – 2).Therefore, we have

22086​Rn → ​21684​Po + ​42​He

Now, Q value of the emitted alpha particle is,

Q = (m​x​ – m​y​ – m​He​) c​2​ … from equation (3) above)

= {m (​22086​Rn) – m (​21684​Po) – m (​42​He)} c​2

We know that,

220. m (​22086​Rn) = 220.01137u

221. m (​21684​Po) = 216.00189u
● m (​42​He) = 4.002603u

Therefore,

Q-value = [220.01137u – 216.00189u – 4.002603u] c​2​ = 0.006877uc​2

We know that, 1u = 931.5 MeV/c​2​. Hence,

Q = 0.006877 x 931.5 ~ 6.41 MeV

And, the Kinetic Energy of the alpha particle,

= {(Mass number after decay) / (Mass number before decay)} x Q

= (216/220) x 6.41 = 6.29 MeV.