Simulating Classical, Quantum and

Hardware Processes within 2D and 3D

Engines
Written by: Paul George Savluc - Founder & CEO OpenQQuantify
Academic Contributions by: Adam Karabin - COO OpenQQuantify
Full Company Associate Contributions: www.openqquantify.com/about_us
Date: Friday, August, 2024 8/2/2024
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 1

Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes within 2D and 3D Engines..........................0

Abstract....................................................................................................................................................6
Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 6
Utilizing F* and Metaprogramming................................................................................................. 6
Overview of F*...........................................................................................................................6
Advantages of Using F*............................................................................................................. 6
Metaprogramming in F*.............................................................................................................6
Processor Architectures Examined................................................................................................... 7
Quantum Processor Architectures.............................................................................................. 8
Intro to Boolean Algebra & Logic for Computational Processes..................................................... 9
Introduction to Boolean Algebra.......................................................................................................9
Basic Boolean Operations................................................................................................................. 9
Boolean Algebra in Algorithms and Computational Processes...................................................... 11
Binary Addition and Subtraction.............................................................................................. 11
Half Adder..........................................................................................................................11
Full Adder.......................................................................................................................... 12
Subtraction......................................................................................................................... 12
Binary Multiplication............................................................................................................... 12
Logic Gates in CPU Design............................................................................................................ 12
Error Detection and Correction.......................................................................................................12
Boolean Algebra in Control Logic..................................................................................................13
Examples of Boolean Algebra in Algorithms................................................................................. 13
Sorting Algorithms................................................................................................................... 13
Search Algorithms.................................................................................................................... 13
Cryptographic Algorithms........................................................................................................13
Advanced Topics in Boolean Algebra.............................................................................................14
Minimization of Boolean Functions......................................................................................... 14
Boolean Satisfiability Problem (SAT)...................................................................................... 14
Circuit Optimization................................................................................................................. 14
Reversible Computing.............................................................................................................. 14
Building and Simulating Verified Firmware for Arduino Using F* and C.....................................14
Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 14
Prerequisites.................................................................................................................................... 14
Mathematical Foundations.............................................................................................................. 15
Pin Initialization....................................................................................................................... 15
State Control............................................................................................................................. 15
Sensor Interaction..................................................................................................................... 15
Define and Verify Firmware Logic in F*........................................................................................16
F* Code: Firmware.fst..............................................................................................................16
Generate C Code from F*............................................................................................................... 16
Integrate with Arduino.................................................................................................................... 17
Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 2

Arduino Sketch: Firmware.ino................................................................................................. 17

Simulating an Example Circuit with LtSpice................................................................................. 18
Measure Values: Use the cursor to measure values at different points in the circuit......................19
Ensure Accuracy: Compare the simulated values with theoretical calculations.............................19
Mathematical Validation................................................................................................................. 19
Python Script...................................................................................................................................19
Simulate in a Game Engine.............................................................................................................21
Unity Setup............................................................................................................................... 22
Unity Script: ArduinoSimulation.cs......................................................................................... 22
Classical RF Signal Processing and Simulations.................................................................................. 23
Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 23
Logical Operations and Execution Time Formulas.........................................................................23
Filtering.................................................................................................................................... 24
Modulation............................................................................................................................... 24
Demodulation........................................................................................................................... 24
Error Correction........................................................................................................................24
CRC.......................................................................................................................................... 24
Unified Equation for RF Processing.........................................................................................24
Example Calculation....................................................................................................................... 25
Breakdown of Data for Calculations...............................................................................................25
Filtering.................................................................................................................................... 25
Modulation............................................................................................................................... 25
Demodulation........................................................................................................................... 25
Error Correction........................................................................................................................26
CRC.......................................................................................................................................... 26
Unified Equation for Multiple Processes........................................................................................ 26
Script for RF Processing Calculation..............................................................................................27
Practical Application: Simulating Data Processing Systems.......................................................... 30
Simulation Setup...................................................................................................................... 30
Example Simulation................................................................................................................. 30
FFT Implementation in F* with Low-Level Compilation and Mathematical Explanation...................31
Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 31
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)................................................................................................................31
Classical FFT.................................................................................................................................. 31
Mathematical Representation................................................................................................... 31
Boolean Algebra Representation.............................................................................................. 31
Execution Time Calculation..................................................................................................... 32
Implementing FFT in F*................................................................................................................. 32
F* Code for FFT (Pseudo Code).............................................................................................. 32
Explanation of F* Implementation........................................................................................... 33
Mathematical Verification in F*............................................................................................... 34
Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 3

Extracting and Transforming F* Code............................................................................................34

Extracting F* Code to OCaml.................................................................................................. 34
Compiling OCaml Code to C................................................................................................... 35
Generating Low-Level Code and Assembly............................................................................ 35
Compiling to Target Specific Architectures....................................................................................35
x86 Architecture....................................................................................................................... 35
ARM Architecture.................................................................................................................... 36
RISC-V Architecture................................................................................................................ 36
Compiling to Straight Assembly.....................................................................................................36
Compiling OCaml Code to Assembly...................................................................................... 36
Generating Assembly Code Directly from C........................................................................... 36
Low-Level Code Pseudo Code Examples................................................................................ 37
Quantum FFT.................................................................................................................................. 39
Mathematical Representation................................................................................................... 39
Boolean Algebra Representation.............................................................................................. 39
Execution Time Calculation..................................................................................................... 39
Low-Level Code Pseudo Code Examples................................................................................ 40
Simulation Demonstration: Approximating & Relating Classical and Quantum FFT Processing
Systems.................................................................................................................................................. 40
Overview......................................................................................................................................... 40
Execution Time Formulas............................................................................................................... 40
Classical FFT Execution Time................................................................................................. 41
Quantum FFT Execution Time.................................................................................................41
Boolean Algebra Representation.................................................................................................... 42
Classical FFT............................................................................................................................42
Quantum FFT........................................................................................................................... 42
Unified Equation to Transcribe Classical to Quantum Processing................................................. 43
Demonstration of the Unified Equation.......................................................................................... 43
Given Parameters:.................................................................................................................... 43
Calculation:...............................................................................................................................44
Demonstration in Reverse (Transcribing Quantum to Classical)....................................................44
Given Parameters:.................................................................................................................... 44
Calculation:...............................................................................................................................45
Boolean Value Relationships.......................................................................................................... 45
Classical FFT Boolean Operations........................................................................................... 45
Quantum FFT Boolean Operations.......................................................................................... 45
Time Factors and Logical Routes....................................................................................................45
Extending the Analysis to Other Processes........................................................................................... 46
Example: Error Correction Code (ECC)......................................................................................... 46
Classical ECC Execution Time................................................................................................ 46
Quantum ECC Execution Time................................................................................................ 46
Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 4

Unified Equation to Transcribe Classical to Quantum ECC.................................................... 46

Demonstration of ECC Transcription............................................................................................. 46
Given Parameters:.................................................................................................................... 46
Calculation: On Next Page....................................................................................................... 47
Calculation:...............................................................................................................................48
Demonstration in Reverse for ECC................................................................................................ 49
Given Parameters:.................................................................................................................... 49
Calculation:...............................................................................................................................49
Boolean Value Relationships for ECC............................................................................................ 49
Classical ECC Boolean Operations.......................................................................................... 49
Quantum ECC Boolean Operations..........................................................................................49
Time Factors and Logical Routes for ECC..................................................................................... 50
Steps to Break Down Code into Algebra and Fundamental Logic................................................. 50
Example Process to Break Down a Code Segment.........................................................................50
Example Pseudo Code Segment:..............................................................................................50
Step-by-Step Breakdown:.........................................................................................................51
Identify Fundamental Operations....................................................................................................51
Express Operations using Boolean Algebra....................................................................................52
Variable Assignment:...................................................................................................................... 52
Map to CPU Instructions.................................................................................................................52
Summary of Formulas.....................................................................................................................54
Detailed Boolean Algebra Breakdown:.......................................................................................... 55
Addition Using Full Adder:......................................................................................................55
Example:...................................................................................................................................55
Implementing a Scanner for Low-Level Analysis:......................................................................... 56
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 5

Abstract
This document provides an analysis and approximation of classical and quantum processing architectures,
focusing on the application of Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and other signal processing tasks. We
compare and transcribe the logic through both classical and quantum paradigms, using mathematical and
Boolean algebra to illustrate the different processes. Detailed low-level code, processor calculations, and
architectural overviews are provided to demonstrate how logic and data processing can be attuned to time
constants and logical routes within the processing mechanisms. We will also explore how these
architectures can be simulated within 2D and 3D environments, enabling real-time visualization and
development of new hardware, firmware, and embedded systems.

Introduction
This document details the process of implementing a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm in F*,
verifying its correctness, and compiling it to run on various hardware architectures, including x86, ARM,
and RISC-V. Additionally, it provides mathematical explanations for the FFT algorithm, its
implementation in F* and Qiskit, and the verification process that ensures correctness and portability.
Finally, we will explore how to compile the FFT implementation into straight assembly code and
algorithms for simulating and approximating systems within gamified environments.

Utilizing F* and Metaprogramming

Overview of F*

F* is a functional programming language with a strong emphasis on formal verification. It allows

developers to write programs that can be formally verified for correctness. F* uses dependent types,
refinement types, and SMT solvers to ensure that programs meet their specifications.

Advantages of Using F*

1. Formal Verification: Ensures that code adheres to its specifications.

2. Type Safety: Prevents many common programming errors.
3. Mathematical Rigor: Allows for the formalization and verification of complex algorithms.

Metaprogramming in F*

Metaprogramming is the practice of writing code that can generate other code at compile time. In F*
metaprogramming can be used to simplify the development of complex algorithms by automating
repetitive tasks and ensuring consistency.
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 6

Processor Architectures Examined

x86 Architecture

Overview: The x86 architecture is renowned for its complex instruction set computing (CISC) nature.
This architecture is capable of executing a wide range of instructions, which contributes to its versatility.
However, this versatility comes at the cost of higher power consumption and increased complexity. The
architecture supports a rich set of instructions that can perform complex tasks in a single step, which
makes it powerful but also more challenging to optimize for energy efficiency.

Applications: The x86 architecture is predominantly used in general-purpose computing. It powers

desktops, laptops, and servers, forming the backbone of personal computing and enterprise-level server
infrastructure. Its ability to handle diverse workloads makes it a staple in environments where flexibility
and performance are paramount.

FFT Implementation: In the context of Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) implementations, the x86
architecture leverages SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) instructions. SIMD allows for the parallel
processing of data, which significantly enhances the efficiency of FFT computations. By processing
multiple data points with a single instruction, SIMD reduces the time complexity and boosts performance,
making it a preferred method for implementing FFT on x86 processors.

ARM Architecture

Overview: ARM architecture is based on reduced instruction set computing (RISC) principles,
emphasizing efficiency and low power consumption. Unlike the x86 architecture, ARM processors
execute simpler instructions that can be completed in a single cycle. This simplicity translates to lower
power usage and less heat generation, making ARM processors ideal for mobile and embedded devices.

Applications: The primary applications of ARM architecture include smartphones, tablets, and a variety
of embedded systems. Its energy-efficient design makes it suitable for battery-operated devices and
applications where power efficiency is crucial. ARM's architecture is also highly modular, allowing for
extensive customization, which is beneficial in the diverse landscape of embedded systems.

FFT Implementation: FFT implementations on ARM architecture are optimized for energy efficiency
and low power usage. The architecture’s design enables efficient data handling and processing, which is
essential for real-time signal processing applications. By using ARM's NEON technology, a SIMD
architecture extension, FFT operations can be accelerated while maintaining low power consumption,
thus extending the battery life of mobile devices.
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 7

RISC-V Architecture

Overview: RISC-V is an open-source RISC architecture that provides flexibility and extensibility,
allowing for custom instructions tailored to specific applications. Its open nature encourages innovation
and customization, making it a popular choice for academic research and custom hardware development.
RISC-V’s modularity and simplicity ensure that it can be adapted to meet the specific needs of various
applications.

Applications: The primary applications of RISC-V include research and custom hardware development.
Its open-source nature makes it a valuable tool for educational purposes and experimental designs. It is
also increasingly used in commercial applications where specific performance or feature requirements
necessitate custom processor designs.

FFT Implementation: In the realm of FFT implementations, RISC-V can leverage custom instructions to
enhance performance. Developers can design and integrate specialized instructions that accelerate FFT
computations, tailoring the processor to the specific needs of the application. This ability to customize the
instruction set allows for highly optimized and efficient FFT processing.

Quantum Processor Architectures

Quantum Computers

Overview: Quantum processors harness the principles of quantum mechanics to perform calculations that
are infeasible for classical computers. These processors use qubits, which can exist in superpositions of
states, unlike classical bits that are either 0 or 1. This capability allows quantum processors to process a
vast amount of data simultaneously, achieving parallelism at an unprecedented level.

Key Concepts: The core concepts underpinning quantum computing include superposition, entanglement,
and quantum gates. Superposition allows qubits to represent multiple states simultaneously, while
entanglement enables qubits that are spatially separated to be correlated in ways that classical bits cannot.
Quantum gates manipulate qubits through operations that take advantage of these quantum properties,
forming the basis for quantum algorithms.

Applications: Quantum computers hold promise for a variety of applications, including cryptography,
optimization problems, and quantum simulations. In cryptography, quantum algorithms such as Shor’s
algorithm can factorize large numbers exponentially faster than the best-known classical algorithms,
potentially breaking widely used cryptographic systems. Optimization problems, particularly those
involving large datasets and complex variables, can be solved more efficiently with quantum processors.
Quantum simulations can model quantum systems accurately, aiding in the development of new materials
and drugs.

FFT Implementation: The Quantum Fourier Transform (QFT) is the quantum analog of the classical
FFT. QFT is a crucial component of many quantum algorithms, including Shor’s algorithm. It transforms
quantum states into a superposition of their frequency components, leveraging the parallelism of quantum
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 8

computation to perform the transformation exponentially faster than classical FFT in certain scenarios.
The implementation of QFT takes advantage of quantum gates to manipulate the states of qubits, enabling
efficient and powerful Fourier transformations in the quantum domain.

Intro to Boolean Algebra & Logic for Computational

Processes
Introduction to Boolean Algebra

Boolean algebra is the branch of algebra that deals with variables and operations involving truth values,
typically represented as true (1) and false (0). It is fundamental in the design and analysis of digital
circuits, computer algorithms, and various computational processes. At a low level, the CPU performs
operations using Boolean algebra, often through basic gates like AND, OR, NOT, XOR, etc.

Basic Boolean Operations

Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 9
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 10

Boolean Algebra in Algorithms and Computational Processes

Binary Addition and Subtraction

Half Adder
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 11

Full Adder

Subtraction

Using 2's complement representation, subtraction can be performed by adding the complement of the
subtrahend.

Binary Multiplication

Uses AND gates for partial product generation and binary adders for summing the partial products.

Logic Gates in CPU Design

AND, OR, NOT Gates: Fundamental building blocks for constructing combinational circuits.

Multiplexers: Use a combination of AND, OR, and NOT gates to select between multiple input signals.

Demultiplexers: Distribute a single input signal to one of many output lines.

Flip-Flops: Bistable devices used for storing binary data, constructed using logic gates.

Error Detection and Correction

Parity Bits: Use XOR gates to detect single-bit errors.

Hamming Codes: Use combinations of AND, OR, and XOR gates to detect and correct single-bit errors.

Digital Signal Processing (DSP)

Fast Fourier Transform (FFT): Uses a combination of adders, multipliers, and butterfly networks
constructed from logic gates.

Finite Impulse Response (FIR) Filters: Use multipliers and adders to process input signals.
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 12

Boolean Algebra in Control Logic

Finite State Machines (FSM): Use flip-flops for state storage and combinational logic for state
transitions and output generation.

Control Units in CPUs: Use complex combinational and sequential logic to control the flow of data and
operations.

Examples of Boolean Algebra in Algorithms

Sorting Algorithms

Bitwise Operations: Often used in low-level optimizations, e.g., bitwise AND to check even/odd status,
bitwise OR to set bits, etc.

Comparisons: Use XOR to check for equality, AND/OR for conditional branching.

Search Algorithms

Binary Search: Uses comparison operations which are essentially XOR and AND operations at the
hardware level.

Hashing: Involves bitwise operations for hash calculations and table indexing.

Cryptographic Algorithms

AES (Advanced Encryption Standard): Uses XOR for the substitution step, AND for mix columns, and
bitwise shifts.

RSA (Rivest–Shamir–Adleman): Involves modular exponentiation which can be optimized using

bitwise operations.
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 13

Advanced Topics in Boolean Algebra

Minimization of Boolean Functions

Karnaugh Maps (K-Maps): A visual method of simplifying Boolean expressions by grouping adjacent
cells.

Quine-McCluskey Algorithm: A tabular method for minimizing Boolean functions, suitable for
computer implementation.

Boolean Satisfiability Problem (SAT)

The problem of determining if there exists an interpretation that satisfies a given Boolean formula. This is
a fundamental problem in computer science with applications in optimization, verification, and artificial
intelligence.

Circuit Optimization

Techniques like common subexpression elimination, retiming, and logic synthesis are used to optimize
digital circuits for speed, area, and power consumption.

Reversible Computing

Involves designing circuits where each output vector maps uniquely back to an input vector, essential for
quantum computing.

Building and Simulating Verified Firmware for Arduino

Using F* and C
Introduction

Firmware development for embedded systems, like Arduino, demands precision and correctness due to
the hardware's resource constraints and critical applications. By leveraging F*, a functional programming
language with a strong emphasis on formal verification, we can ensure our firmware is correct by
construction. This document provides a detailed guide on using F* to build and verify firmware logic,
generating C code, and integrating it with Arduino. Furthermore, we simulate these interactions within a
game engine to visualize and test our setup.

Prerequisites

Install F*: Follow the installation guide to set up F* on your system.

 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 14

Arduino IDE: Download and install from Arduino's official website.

Game Engine: We recommend Nvidia Omniverse, GoDot, Unity or Unreal Engine for this case.

Hardware: Arduino board (e.g., Uno), LED, sensors (e.g., temperature sensor).

Mathematical Foundations

Understanding the underlying mathematics of firmware logic helps in verifying its correctness. Here, we
define some basic operations and properties that our firmware must satisfy.

Pin Initialization

Let be the set of all pins. Each pin is characterized by:

Initialization: The initialization function sets the state of a pin to false and assigns it a mode.

State Control

The state control function changes the state of a pin.

Property: The state change should persist.

Sensor Interaction

Reading data from a sensor involves ensuring the pin is in input mode.
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 15

Define and Verify Firmware Logic in F*

We write our firmware logic in F* and verify its correctness through formal proofs.

F* Code: Firmware.fst
module Firmware

type pin = {
number: int;
state: bool;
mode: string
}

// Initialize the pin (LED or sensor)

let init_pin (p: pin) (mode: string) : Tot pin = {
number = p.number;
state = false; // Default state is off
mode = mode
}

// Set the pin state

val set_pin : p:pin -> state:bool -> Lemma (requires True)
(ensures (let p' = { p with state = state } in
p'.state == state))
let set_pin (p: pin) (state: bool) =
let p' = { p with state = state } in
()

// Read data from the sensor (dummy function for demonstration)

val read_sensor : p:pin -> Lemma (requires p.mode == "INPUT")
(ensures True)
let read_sensor (p: pin) =
assert (p.mode == "INPUT");
let data = 42 in // Dummy data
()

Generate C Code from F*

Use F* to generate the corresponding C code:

 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 16

fstar.exe --codegen C Firmware.fst

This command generates a Firmware.h file containing the verified logic translated into C.

Integrate with Arduino

Arduino Sketch: Firmware.ino

We integrate the generated C code with an Arduino sketch to control an LED and read sensor data.

#include <Arduino.h>
#include "Firmware.h"

// Define a simple structure for pin

typedef struct {
int number;
bool state;
char mode[10];
} Pin;

// Function to initialize the pin

void initialize_pin(Pin *pin, int number, const char *mode) {
pin->number = number;
pin->state = false; // LED is initially off
strcpy(pin->mode, mode);
pinMode(pin->number, strcmp(mode, "OUTPUT") == 0 ? OUTPUT : INPUT);
}

// Function to set the pin state

void set_pin(Pin *pin, bool state) {
pin->state = state;
digitalWrite(pin->number, state ? HIGH : LOW);
}

// Function to read data from the sensor

int read_sensor(Pin *pin) {
if (strcmp(pin->mode, "INPUT") == 0) {
return analogRead(pin->number);
}
return -1; // Error code
}
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 17

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);

// Initialize LED pin

Pin led;
initialize_pin(&led, 13, "OUTPUT");

// Initialize sensor pin

Pin sensor;
initialize_pin(&sensor, A0, "INPUT");
}

void loop() {
// Blink LED
static bool led_state = false;
set_pin(&led, led_state);
led_state = !led_state;
delay(1000);

// Read sensor data

int sensor_data = read_sensor(&sensor);
Serial.print("Sensor data: ");
Serial.println(sensor_data);
delay(1000);
}

Simulating an Example Circuit with LtSpice

For this example, let's design a simple LED circuit:

Power Source (V1): 5V DC

Resistor (R1): 220Ω

LED (D1): Standard red LED

Example Simulation Setup:

Define Simulation Parameters:

Go to Simulate -> Edit Simulation Cmd.

Choose Transient and set Stop Time to 1s.

 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 18

Place the Simulation Command: Place the simulation command on the schematic by clicking where you
want it to be.

Run the Simulation: Click the run button (running man icon) to start the simulation. LTspice will analyze
the circuit and display the results.

Step 3: Analyzing the Results

View Waveforms: After running the simulation, a new window will open showing the current and voltage
waveforms.

Measure Values: Use the cursor to measure values at different points in the circuit.

Ensure Accuracy: Compare the simulated values with theoretical calculations.

Mathematical Validation

The current I through the LED can be calculated using Ohm's law:

Where:

Thus:

This current should be validated against the simulation results.

To automate the LTspice simulation, we will use a Python script. This script will create the netlist, run the
simulation, and parse the results.

Python Script

import os
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 19

import subprocess

import re

# Define the LTspice netlist for the LED circuit

netlist = """

* LED Circuit

V1 N001 0 DC 5V

R1 N001 N002 220

D1 N002 0 LED

.model LED D (IS=1e-14 N=1.7 Rs=10m BV=100 IBV=1u Cjo=10p)

.tran 0 1

.end

"""

# Write the netlist to a file

netlist_file = 'led_circuit.cir'

with open(netlist_file, 'w') as file:

file.write(netlist)

# Define the LTspice executable path

ltspice_executable = "C:\\Program Files\\LTC\\LTspiceXVII\\XVIIx64.exe"

# Run the LTspice simulation

 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 20

subprocess.run([ltspice_executable, '-Run', netlist_file], check=True)

# Read the raw file generated by LTspice

raw_file = 'led_circuit.raw'

with open(raw_file, 'r') as file:

raw_data = file.readlines()

# Parse the raw file to extract the current through the LED

current_pattern = re.compile(r'I\(R1\)\s+=\s+([-+]?\d*\.?\d+([eE][-+]?\d+)?)')

current_values = []

for line in raw_data:

match = current_pattern.search(line)

if match:

current_values.append(float(match.group(1)))

# Print the average current through the LED

average_current = sum(current_values) / len(current_values)

print(f'Average current through the LED: {average_current:.2f} A')

Simulate in a Game Engine

Simulating hardware interactions within a game engine helps visualize and test our setup. We'll use Unity
for this example.

Unity Setup
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 21

Add Arduino Simulation: Use a Unity-Arduino integration to simulate Arduino hardware.

Unity Script: ArduinoSimulation.cs

This script simulates the LED and sensor interactions defined in our firmware.

using UnityEngine;
using System.Collections;

public class ArduinoSimulation : MonoBehaviour

{
public GameObject ledObject; // Reference to a GameObject representing the LED
public GameObject sensorObject; // Reference to a GameObject representing the sensor

private bool ledState = false;

private float sensorValue = 0f;

void Start()
{
// Initialize LED and sensor
InitializePin(ledObject, "OUTPUT");
InitializePin(sensorObject, "INPUT");
}

void Update()
{
// Simulate LED blink
if (Time.time % 2 < 1)
{
SetPinState(ledObject, true);
}
else
{
SetPinState(ledObject, false);
}

// Simulate sensor reading

sensorValue = ReadSensor(sensorObject);
Debug.Log("Sensor value: " + sensorValue);
}

void InitializePin(GameObject pinObject, string mode)

{
// Initialize the pin (for now just setting color or position for simulation)
if (mode == "OUTPUT")
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 22

{
pinObject.GetComponent<Renderer>().material.color = Color.red;
}
else if (mode == "INPUT")
{
pinObject.transform.position = new Vector3(0, 1, 0); // Arbitrary position for simulation
}
}

void SetPinState(GameObject pinObject, bool state)

{
// Set the pin state (for now just changing color for simulation)
if (state)
{
pinObject.GetComponent<Renderer>().material.color = Color.green;
}
else
{
pinObject.GetComponent<Renderer>().material.color = Color.red;
}
}

float ReadSensor(GameObject pinObject)

{
// Simulate reading sensor data (for now just a random value)
return Random.Range(0f, 100f);
}
}

Classical RF Signal Processing and Simulations

Introduction

RF signal processing involves various steps such as filtering, modulation, demodulation, error correction,
and cyclic redundancy check (CRC). This document describes these processes using Boolean algebra and
calculates their execution times. The goal is to simulate these processes on an ATmega328P
microcontroller and a quantum processor, providing a detailed mathematical and code-based approach.

Logical Operations and Execution Time Formulas

Filtering
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 23

Modulation

Demodulation

Error Correction

CRC

Unified Equation for RF Processing

Combining these operations using the unified equation:

 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 24

Example Calculation

Assume:

● Filtering: 3 operations
● Modulation: 1 operation
● Demodulation: 1 operation
● Error Correction: 3 operations
● CRC: 8 operations

Logical routes sum: 5 (for simplicity)

Breakdown of Data for Calculations

Filtering

Modulation

Demodulation
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 25

Error Correction

CRC

Unified Equation for Multiple Processes

The total execution time for multiple RF processing tasks can be generalized as:

Where:
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 26

Script for RF Processing Calculation

The script provides an approach to simulating RF signal processing on an ATmega328P microcontroller.

The provided script demonstrates the complete process, from loading an audio file to calculating
execution times and visualizing the results. By understanding and optimizing the Boolean logic and
mathematical operations, we can effectively simulate and analyze RF signal processing systems.

Note: We can simulate how a signal would run on the chip and we can map it out to the embedded system
if we take a look deeper into the process and collect more data.

Here is part of an example script for handling RF processing calculations:

Pseudo Code

# Load an audio file

def load_audio(file_path):
signal, samplerate = sf.read(file_path)
return signal, samplerate

# Convert signal to 8-bit integer format for bitwise operations (simulating 8-bit microcontroller behavior)
def convert_signal_to_int(signal):
max_int = 127 # Max value for 8-bit integer
int_signal = (signal * max_int).astype(np.int8)
return int_signal

# Classical Boolean operations

def classical_and(a, b):
return a & b

def classical_or(a, b):

return a | b
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 27

def classical_xor(a, b):

return a ^ b

def classical_not(a):
return ~a & 0xFF # Adjust to handle 8-bit integer properly

# Abstract Quantum Boolean operations

def abstract_and(a, b):
return a & b

def abstract_or(a, b):

return ~(~a & ~b) & 0xFF # Adjust to handle 8-bit integer properly

def abstract_xor(a, b):

return a ^ b

def abstract_not(a):
return ~a & 0xFF # Adjust to handle 8-bit integer properly

# Simulate filtering
def simulate_filtering(signal):
filtered_signal = []
for i in range(0, len(signal) - 1, 4):
A = signal[i]
B = signal[i + 1]
C = signal[i + 2]
D = signal[i + 3]
filtered_signal.append(classical_or(classical_and(A, B), classical_and(C, classical_not(D))))
return np.array(filtered_signal)

# Simulate modulation
def simulate_modulation(signal):
modulated_signal = []
for i in range(0, len(signal) - 1, 2):
A = signal[i]
B = signal[i + 1]
modulated_signal.append(classical_xor(A, B))
return np.array(modulated_signal)

# Simulate demodulation
def simulate_demodulation(signal):
demodulated_signal = []
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 28

for i in range(0, len(signal) - 1, 2):

A = signal[i]
B = signal[i + 1]
demodulated_signal.append(classical_xor(A, B))
return np.array(demodulated_signal)

# Simulate error correction

def simulate_error_correction(signal):
corrected_data = []
for i in range(0, len(signal) - 1, 2):
A = signal[i]
B = signal[i + 1]
corrected_data.append(classical_or(classical_and(A, classical_not(B)),
classical_and(classical_not(A), B), classical_and(A, B)))
return np.array(corrected_data)

# Simulate CRC
def simulate_crc(signal):
crc = 0
for i in range(len(signal)):
crc = classical_xor(crc, signal[i])
return crc

# Calculate RF processing execution time

def calculate_execution_time(n, parallelism, threads, clock_rate, logical_routes):
return (n / (parallelism * threads * clock_rate)) * logical_routes

# Main function to demonstrate the FFT process

def fft_demo(audio_file, cpu_freq):
# Load the audio file
signal, samplerate = load_audio(audio_file)
original_signal = signal.copy()

# Convert signal to 8-bit integer format for bitwise operations

int_signal = convert_signal_to_int(signal)

print("Original Audio Signal (int):")

print(int_signal)

# Simulate filtering
filtered_signal = simulate_filtering(int_signal)

# Simulate modulation
modulated_signal = simulate_modulation(filtered_signal)
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 29

# Simulate demodulation
demodulated_signal = simulate_demodulation(modulated_signal)

# Simulate error correction

corrected_data = simulate_error_correction(demodulated_signal)

# Simulate CRC
crc = simulate_crc(corrected_data)

# Calculate execution times

f = cpu_freq * 1e6 # Convert MHz to Hz
T_filter = 3 * (1 / f)
T_mod = 1 * (1 / f)
T_demod = 1 * (1 / f)
T_error_corr = 3 * (1 / f)
T_CRC = len(corrected_data) * (1 / f)

Practical Application: Simulating Data Processing Systems

Simulation Setup

To simulate data processing systems, we define the following parameters:

Example Simulation

Consider a system with 100 logical operations, a clock rate of 2 GHz, parallel processing degree of 4, and
8 threads:
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 30

FFT Implementation in F* with Low-Level Compilation and

Mathematical Explanation
Introduction

This document details the process of implementing a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm in F*,
verifying its correctness, and compiling it to run on various hardware architectures, including x86, ARM,
and RISC-V. Additionally, it provides mathematical explanations for the FFT algorithm, its
implementation in F*, and the verification process that ensures correctness and portability. Finally, we
will explore how to compile the FFT implementation into straight assembly code.

Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)

Classical FFT

Mathematical Representation

The DFT of a sequence x of length N is given by:

The FFT algorithm reduces the complexity from to by recursively breaking

down the DFT into smaller DFTs.

Boolean Algebra Representation

Each step of the FFT involves complex multiplications and additions:

 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 31

● Complex Multiplication:
○ Represented using AND operations for multiplications.
○ Represented using XOR operations for additions.

Execution Time Calculation

For a signal of length NNN, the FFT algorithm has a time complexity of . The execution

time can be expressed as:

where:

● N: Length of the signal

● p: Degree of parallel processing
● t: Number of threads
● f: Processor clock rate

Implementing FFT in F*

F* Code for FFT (Pseudo Code)

module FFT

open FStar.Seq

open FStar.Mul.Floats

let pi = 3.14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937510

val fft: seq (float * float) -> int -> Tot (seq (float * float))

let rec fft (X, N) =

if N <= 1 then X

else
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 32

let even = Seq.init (N/2) (fun i -> X.[i*2])

let odd = Seq.init (N/2) (fun i -> X.[i*2 + 1])

let evenFFT = fft (even, N/2)

let oddFFT = fft (odd, N/2)

let combine k =

let w = (cos (-2.0 * pi * float k / float N), sin (-2.0 * pi * float k / float N))

let t = (fst w * fst (oddFFT.[k]), snd w * snd (oddFFT.[k]))

let ek = evenFFT.[k]

let ekN2 = evenFFT.[k + N/2]

((fst ek + fst t, snd ek + snd t), (fst ekN2 - fst t, snd ekN2 - snd t))

Seq.flatten (Seq.init (N/2) (fun k -> [combine k]))

let fft_seq (X: seq (float * float)) (N: int) = fft (X, N)

Explanation of F* Implementation

1. Module Declaration: The module FFT is declared to encapsulate the FFT functionality.
2. Imports: Necessary modules FStar.Seq and FStar.Mul.Floats are imported for sequence
operations and floating-point arithmetic.
3. Constants: The constant pi is defined for use in trigonometric calculations.
4. Function Declaration: The function fft is declared with its type signature, indicating it takes a
sequence of complex numbers (represented as tuples of floats) and an integer NNN, returning a
sequence of complex numbers.
5. Base Case: If N≤1, the input sequence X is returned as is.
6. Splitting: The input sequence is split into even and odd indexed elements.
7. Recursive Calls: FFT is recursively applied to the even and odd sequences.
8. Combination: The results of the recursive calls are combined using the twiddle factors (cosine
and sine values) to produce the final FFT result.
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 33

Note:

Mathematical Verification in F*

F* is a functional programming language designed for program verification. It uses dependent types,
refinement types, and SMT solvers to ensure that programs meet their specifications. The verification
process in F* ensures that the FFT implementation is mathematically correct and adheres to its type
signature.

Dependent Types: These are types that depend on values. For example, the type of a sequence of length
NNN can be expressed as seq (float * float) { length = N }.

Refinement Types: These are types augmented with logical predicates. For example, the type of an FFT
function can be refined to ensure that the input length is a power of 2.

SMT Solvers: These solvers automatically verify logical assertions made in the code.

In the FFT implementation, F* ensures that:

1. The input sequence is correctly split into even and odd indexed elements.
2. Recursive calls to the FFT function correctly handle the reduced problem size.
3. The combination of results using twiddle factors is mathematically valid.

Extracting and Transforming F* Code

Extracting F* Code to OCaml

F* can be compiled to OCaml, which can then be transformed into low-level C code. Here are the steps to
achieve this:

Write the F Code*: Implement the algorithm in F* ensuring all the necessary type checks and verification.
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 34

Type Checking and Verification: Run F* to ensure the code type-checks and passes all verification
conditions.

fstar.exe FFT.fst

Extraction to OCaml: Use F*'s extraction feature to convert the F* code to OCaml.

fstar.exe --codegen OCaml FFT.fst

Output: This command generates the OCaml code from the F* code, typically outputting it to a file with
a .ml extension.

Compiling OCaml Code to C

To compile the OCaml code to C, we use OCaml's native compilation capabilities:

Install OCaml: Ensure OCaml and its native code compiler are installed on your system.

sudo apt-get install ocaml ocamlbuild

Compile OCaml Code to Native Code: Use ocamlopt to compile the OCaml code to native code, and
then use tools to extract C code from the compiled binaries.

ocamlopt -o FFT fft.ml

objdump -d FFT > FFT.s

Generating Low-Level Code and Assembly

The objdump tool is used to disassemble the compiled binary into assembly code for the target
architecture. This gives us a detailed view of the machine-level instructions.

Compiling to Target Specific Architectures

Once we have the C code, we can compile it for different architectures using GCC or appropriate
cross-compilers.

x86 Architecture

gcc -m32 -o FFT_x86 FFT.c

 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 35

ARM Architecture

gcc -march=armv7-a -o FFT_arm FFT.c

RISC-V Architecture

riscv64-unknown-elf-gcc -o FFT_riscv FFT.c

Compiling to Straight Assembly

To compile the F* code directly to assembly, follow these steps:

Compiling OCaml Code to Assembly

Compile OCaml Code to Native Code: Use ocamlopt to compile the OCaml code to native code.
ocamlopt -o FFT fft.ml

Generate Assembly Code: Use objdump to disassemble the binary into assembly code.
bash
Copy code
objdump -d FFT > FFT.s

Generating Assembly Code Directly from C

Alternatively, you can generate assembly code directly from the C code obtained from OCaml:

Compile to Assembly: Use GCC to compile the C code directly to assembly.

gcc -S FFT.c -o FFT_x86.s

gcc -S -march=armv7-a FFT.c -o FFT_arm.s

riscv64-unknown-elf-gcc -S FFT.c -o FFT_riscv.s

These steps will produce assembly code for the FFT implementation, tailored to the specific target
architecture.
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 36

Low-Level Code Pseudo Code Examples

x86 Architecture (SIMD with SSE)

#include <immintrin.h>
#include <complex.h>

void fft_simd(float complex *X, int N) {

if (N <= 1) return;

// Separate even and odd elements

float complex even[N/2];
float complex odd[N/2];
for (int i = 0; i < N/2; i++) {
even[i] = X[i*2];
odd[i] = X[i*2 + 1];
}

// Recursive FFT
fft_simd(even, N/2);
fft_simd(odd, N/2);

// Combine
for (int k = 0; k < N/2; k++) {
__m128 w = _mm_set_ps(cos(-2 * M_PI * k / N), sin(-2 * M_PI * k / N), 0, 0);
__m128 t = _mm_mul_ps(w, _mm_set_ps(creal(odd[k]), cimag(odd[k]), 0, 0));
X[k] = even[k] + t[0] + t[1]*I;
X[k + N/2] = even[k] - t[0] - t[1]*I;
}
}

ARM Architecture (NEON)

#include <arm_neon.h>
#include <complex.h>

void fft_neon(float complex *X, int N) {

if (N <= 1) return;

// Separate even and odd elements

float complex even[N/2];
float complex odd[N/2];
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 37

for (int i = 0; i < N/2; i++) {

even[i] = X[i*2];
odd[i] = X[i*2 + 1];
}

// Recursive FFT
fft_neon(even, N/2);
fft_neon(odd, N/2);

// Combine
for (int k = 0; k < N/2; k++) {
float32x4_t w = vdupq_n_f32(cos(-2 * M_PI * k / N));
float32x4_t t = vmulq_n_f32(w, creal(odd[k]));
X[k] = even[k] + t[0] + t[1]*I;
X[k + N/2] = even[k] - t[0] - t[1]*I;
}
}

RISC-V Architecture

#include <complex.h>

void fft_riscv(float complex *X, int N) {

if (N <= 1) return;

// Separate even and odd elements

float complex even[N/2];
float complex odd[N/2];
for (int i = 0; i < N/2; i++) {
even[i] = X[i*2];
odd[i] = X[i*2 + 1];
}

// Recursive FFT
fft_riscv(even, N/2);
fft_riscv(odd, N/2);

// Combine
for (int k = 0; k < N/2; k++) {
float w = cos(-2 * M_PI * k / N);
float t = w * creal(odd[k]);
X[k] = even[k] + t + t*I;
X[k + N/2] = even[k] - t - t*I;
}
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 38

Quantum FFT

Mathematical Representation

The QFFT algorithm uses quantum gates to perform the Fourier transform on qubits. The Hadamard gate
(H) and controlled phase shift gates are key components.

Boolean Algebra Representation

Quantum operations involve applying gates, represented as:

Hadamard Gate (H): Applies an XOR operation to create superposition.

Controlled Phase Shift: Applies an AND operation to control the phase shift based on the state of
another qubit.

Execution Time Calculation

The QFFT algorithm has a time complexity of . The execution time can be
expressed as:

where:

● N: Length of the signal

● q: Degree of quantum parallel processing

● : Number of quantum threads (qubits)

● ​: Quantum processor clock rate

 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 39

Low-Level Code Pseudo Code Examples

Quantum FFT Implementation with Qiskit

from qiskit import QuantumCircuit, Aer, execute

from qiskit.circuit.library import QFT

# Create a Quantum Circuit with 3 qubits

qc = QuantumCircuit(3)

# Apply Quantum Fourier Transform

qft = QFT(3)
qc.append(qft, [0, 1, 2])

# Measure the qubits

qc.measure_all()

# Execute the circuit on the qasm_simulator

backend = Aer.get_backend('qasm_simulator')
job = execute(qc, backend, shots=1024)

# Get the results

result = job.result()
counts = result.get_counts(qc)

# Print the results

print("QFFT Result:", counts)

Simulation Demonstration: Approximating & Relating Classical

and Quantum FFT Processing Systems
Overview

To understand the relationship between classical and quantum processing systems for FFT, we need to
analyze and compare the execution times and logical routes of each system using Boolean values and time
factors. This section provides a unified view of these systems by relating their mathematical formulas and
execution dynamics.
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 40

Execution Time Formulas

Classical FFT Execution Time

The execution time for the classical FFT is given by:

where:

● N is the length of the signal.

● p is the degree of parallel processing.
● t is the number of threads.
● f is the processor clock rate.

Quantum FFT Execution Time

The execution time for the quantum FFT is given by:

where:

● N is the length of the signal.

● q is the degree of quantum parallel processing.

● ​is the number of quantum threads (qubits).

● ​is the quantum processor clock rate.

 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 41

Boolean Algebra Representation

Classical FFT

In classical FFT, the logical operations involve AND, OR, and XOR operations. For each stage of the
FFT:

1. Complex Multiplication: Each complex multiplication can be represented as a series of AND

operations for multiplications and XOR operations for additions.

2. Bitwise Operations: The FFT algorithm involves splitting the data into even and odd indexed
elements, represented as recursive calls.

Quantum FFT

In quantum FFT, the logical operations involve quantum gates such as Hadamard (H) and
Controlled-NOT (CNOT) gates.

1. Hadamard Gate (H): Creates superposition.

Represented using XOR operation in Boolean algebra.

2. Controlled Phase Shift: Applies a phase shift based on the state of another qubit.

Represented using AND operation for conditional logic.

 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 42

Unified Equation to Transcribe Classical to Quantum Processing

To transcribe the classical FFT execution time to the quantum FFT execution time, we introduce a scaling
factor S that accounts for the differences in complexity and parallelism between the two systems.

The unified equation can be written as:

Where S is the scaling factor given by:

Demonstration of the Unified Equation

Given Parameters:

● Length of the signal, N=1024

● Degree of parallel processing in classical system, p=8
● Number of threads in classical system, t=4
● Processor clock rate in classical system,

● Degree of quantum parallel processing, q=4

● Number of quantum threads (qubits),

● Quantum processor clock rate,

 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 43

Calculation:

Demonstration in Reverse (Transcribing Quantum to Classical)

To transcribe the quantum FFT execution time back to the classical FFT execution time, we use the
inverse of the scaling factor S

The unified equation can be written as:

Given Parameters:
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 44

● Quantum FFT Execution Time,

● Scaling Factor

Calculation:

Boolean Value Relationships

The Boolean operations in both classical and quantum FFT can be summarized as follows:

Classical FFT Boolean Operations

● AND for multiplications.

● XOR for additions.
● Recursive splitting for even and odd indexed elements.

Quantum FFT Boolean Operations

● XOR for superposition (Hadamard gate).

● AND for conditional phase shifts (Controlled Phase Shift gate).

By relating these operations through Boolean algebra, we can map the logical routes in classical
processing to their quantum equivalents, demonstrating how quantum gates can perform multiple logical
operations in parallel, thus reducing the overall complexity and execution time.

Time Factors and Logical Routes

The logical routes in both processing systems involve sequences of operations that can be optimized for
execution time:

● Classical Routes: Recursive calls, bitwise operations, and multiplications/additions.

● Quantum Routes: Parallel gate operations, entanglement, and superposition.
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 45

By aligning the logical routes and their corresponding time factors, we can visualize how quantum
processing achieves lower complexity through parallelism and intrinsic quantum properties, compared to
the sequential and recursive nature of classical processing.

Extending the Analysis to Other Processes

Example: Error Correction Code (ECC)

Error Correction Codes are used to detect and correct errors in data transmission. We compare the
execution times and logical routes of classical and quantum ECC.

Classical ECC Execution Time

The execution time for classical ECC is given by:

Quantum ECC Execution Time

The execution time for quantum ECC is given by:

Unified Equation to Transcribe Classical to Quantum ECC

Where SECC​is the scaling factor given by:

Demonstration of ECC Transcription

Given Parameters:
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 46

● Length of the data, N=1024

● Degree of parallel processing in classical system, p=8
● Number of threads in classical system, t=4
● Processor clock rate in classical system,

● Degree of quantum parallel processing, q=4

● Number of quantum threads (qubits),

● Quantum processor clock rate,

Calculation: On Next Page

 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 47

Calculation:
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 48

Demonstration in Reverse for ECC

To transcribe the quantum ECC execution time back to the classical ECC execution time, we use the
inverse of the scaling factor SECC​.

The unified equation can be written as:

Given Parameters:

● Quantum ECC Execution Time,

● Scaling Factor

Calculation:

Boolean Value Relationships for ECC

The Boolean operations in both classical and quantum ECC can be summarized as follows:

Classical ECC Boolean Operations

● AND for error detection.

● XOR for error correction.
● Recursive splitting for parity checks.

Quantum ECC Boolean Operations

● XOR for superposition (Hadamard gate).

● AND for conditional phase shifts (Controlled Phase Shift gate).
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 49

By relating these operations through Boolean algebra, we can map the logical routes in classical
processing to their quantum equivalents, demonstrating how quantum gates can perform multiple logical
operations in parallel, thus reducing the overall complexity and execution time.

Time Factors and Logical Routes for ECC

The logical routes in both processing systems involve sequences of operations that can be optimized for
execution time:

● Classical Routes: Recursive calls, bitwise operations, and error detection/correction.

● Quantum Routes: Parallel gate operations, entanglement, and superposition.

By aligning the logical routes and their corresponding time factors, we can visualize how quantum
processing achieves lower complexity through parallelism and intrinsic quantum properties, compared to
the sequential and recursive nature of classical processing.

Steps to Break Down Code into Algebra and Fundamental Logic

1. Parse the Code:

Use a parser to read the code and convert it into an abstract syntax tree (AST).

Identify the basic constructs like variables, operations, loops, conditionals, and functions.

2. Identify Fundamental Operations:

Translate high-level constructs into low-level operations.

Recognize basic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logical

operations, and bitwise operations.

3. Express Operations using Boolean Algebra:

Convert logical and arithmetic operations into Boolean expressions.

Use fundamental Boolean operations like AND, OR, NOT, XOR to represent the logic.

4. Map to CPU Instructions:

Translate Boolean expressions and low-level operations into assembly instructions.

Identify how these instructions are executed at the hardware level using logic gates and
circuits.
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 50

Example Process to Break Down a Code Segment

Example Pseudo Code Segment:

int add(int a, int b) {

return a + b;

int main() {

int x = 5;

int y = 10;

int result = add(x, y);

return 0;

Step-by-Step Breakdown:

Parse the Pseudo Code:

The code is parsed into an AST:

Function: add

Parameters: a, b

Return: a + b

Function: main

Variables: x = 5, y = 10

Call: result = add(x, y)

Return: 0

Identify Fundamental Operations

1. Addition (a + b):

Addition can be represented as:

 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 51

2. Variable Assignment:

Express Operations using Boolean Algebra

Addition (a + b):

At a low level, addition involves bitwise operations and carry propagation. Let's break it down for each
bit position i:

Variable Assignment:

Variable assignment in Boolean algebra can be viewed as direct value transfer, often represented in
assembly language with the MOV instruction.
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 52

Map to CPU Instructions

Addition:

Addition using a Full Adder circuit for each bit can be described as follows:

Example:

For two 4-bit numbers A and B, the addition can be carried out bit by bit using Full Adders:
 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 53

Summary of Formulas

These equations and concepts are foundational in digital logic design and are implemented at the
hardware level using logic gates in arithmetic circuits such as adders.

Pseudo Assembly Code:

; Function: add

add:

MOV EAX, [ESP+4] ; Load a into EAX

ADD EAX, [ESP+8] ; Add b to EAX

RET ; Return result in EAX

; Function: main

main:

MOV EAX, 5 ;x=5

MOV EBX, 10 ; y = 10

PUSH EBX ; Push y onto stack

 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 54

PUSH EAX ; Push x onto stack

CALL add ; Call add function

ADD ESP, 8 ; Clean up the stack

MOV [ESP], EAX ; Store result in result

MOV EAX, 0 ; Return 0

RET

Detailed Boolean Algebra Breakdown:

Addition Using Full Adder:

For each bit position i:

Example:

For a 4-bit addition:

Let A=0101 (5 in decimal) and B=1010 (10 in decimal):

 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 55

The result is S=1111 which is 15 in decimal.

Implementing a Scanner for Low-Level Analysis:

Lexical Analysis:

Tokenize the input code to identify keywords, operators, and operands.

Syntax Analysis:

Parse the tokens into an AST to identify the structure of the code.

Semantic Analysis:

Analyze the AST to understand the operations and their dependencies.

Logic Analysis:

In depth, assembly meta programming.

 Simulating Classical, Quantum and Hardware Processes - 2024 56

Code Generation:

Translate the operations into Boolean expressions and low-level instructions that can be represented with
mathematics to capture time dependencies and operational justifications.