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Chapter 8

EXPEDITION TRAINING

SECTION 1. — INTRODUCTION

General

0801. Expedition Training involves potentially dangerous situations when errors of

judgement can lead to accidents. It is therefore essential that a cadet has had suffi-
cient training beforehand in the subjects below, so that the risks are reduced to a min-
imum. The standard he must have reached will vary according to the standard of the
expedition to be undertaken. A short expedition in ordinary country will require less
training than a long and exhausting expedition in rough country demanding a high
standard of mental and physical effort. Knowledge will be required of the following in
all cases:

a. The Country Code — so that the cadet understands how to treat with
respect the land and property over which he moves.

b. Campcraft — so that he knows the basic techniques of how to live and

move in a strange environment during an expedition.

c. Emergency Aid — so that he can manage an incident and give immediate

help (Casaid) to a casualty until a qualified first aider is available.

d. Use of Map and Compass — so that he can find his way.

e. Skill at Arms — so that he knows how to handle and look after his personal
weapon when it is taken on an expedition.

f. Fieldcraft — so that he can cope with any military situation which may be
included in an expedition.

0802. Because emergency aid, skill at arms, use of map and compass and field-
craft are dealt with in other chapters, this chapter deals primarily with the Country
Code and Campcraft.

Safety

0803. The safety rules which must be adhered to during this type of training are
given in the appropriate sections of the booklet Cadet Training Safety Precautions
(Army Code No. 70768), a copy of which is to be carried by all instructors when in
charge of cadets on training.

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Country Code

0804. As can be seen in Section 2, the Country Code is comparatively easy to

learn. The most important thing to remember, however, is to put it into practice dur-
ing an expedition, particularly when wet, cold, tired and hungry.

Campcraft

0805. Campcraft is the name given to a collection of skills which must be learnt
before undertaking self reliance training during which the cadet will live and move in
a strange environment.

References

0806. All aspects of the elementary stage of expedition training are included in
detail. At the more advanced stages, only the essentials are included in this chapter
because equipment required, techniques and experience must be of a higher stan-
dard. The attention of those responsible for, and taking part in, such expeditions is
directed to the following references for further study as appropriate:

a. Army General Administrative Instructions (AGAI): Volume I, Chapter 11,

Annex N ‘Mountaineering and Rock Climbing’, and Chapter 18 ‘Safety
Precautions in Training: The Hazards of Water’.

b. The Highway Code — HMSO.

c. The Code for Water Safety — ROSPA.

d. In the Water On the Water — ROSPA.

e. Safety on Mountains — CCPR.

f. Mountain Rescue and Cave Rescue — Mountain Rescue Committee.

g. Expedition Guide — Duke of Edinburgh’s Award Scheme.

h. Survival Against the Elements — Army Code No. 70499.

i. Camping and Education — HMSO.

j. Notes on Exposure — British Mountaineering Council and Association of

Scottish Climbing Clubs.

k. ‘Know the Game’ Series.

l. Mountain Leadership Handbook — Longmuir.

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m. Mountaineering — Alan Blackshaw.

0807 – 0810. Reserved.

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SECTION 2. — THE COUNTRY CODE

0811. The Country Code has been written to promote country manners by helping
to reduce or prevent the unintentional damage which occurs every year, particularly
at public holidays. Too many visitors to the countryside are unfamiliar with its ways.
They forget that a single careless act — a gate left open, a fence or hedge weak-
ened, a dropped cigarette end — can mean a lot of extra work and expense for farm-
ers, foresters and other country folk.

0812. The Country Code is a series of ten reminders based on common sense —
and common failings. It applies just as much to soldiers and cadets on training as it
does to holidaymakers and others; in fact, it is even more important to cadets who
may be forbidden to use adventurous and other training areas by the owners if the
provisions of the code are not complied with. The reminders are (see Fig 193):
a. Guard against every risk of fire.
Plantations, woodlands and heaths
are highly inflammable; every year
acres burn because of casually
dropped matches, cigarette ends
and pipe ash.

Fig 193a.

b. Fasten all gates, even if you

find them open. Animals cannot be
told to stay where they are put. A
gate left open invites them to cross
the road and wander, a danger to
themselves and to traffic.

Fig 193b.

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c. Keep dogs under proper con-

trol. Farmers have good reason to
regard visiting dogs as pests; in the
country a civilised town dog can
become a savage. Keep your dog
on a lead whenever there is live-
stock about, also on country roads.

Fig 193c.
d. Keep to the paths across farm
land. Crops can be ruined by peo-
ple’s feet. Remember that grass is
a valuable crop too, sometimes the
only one on the farm. Flattened
corn or hay is very difficult to har-
vest.

Fig 193d.

e. Avoid damaging fences, hedges

and walls. They are expensive
items in the farm’s economy;
repairs are costly and need labour
which is scarce. Keep to recog-
nised routes, using gates and stiles.

Fig 193e.

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f. Leave no litter. All litter is

unsightly and some is dangerous
as well. Take litter with you for dis-
posal at the end of your exercise.
In the country it costs a lot to collect
it.

Fig 193f.

g. Safeguard water supplies.

Your chosen expedition may cross
a catchment area for the water
supply of millions. Avoid polluting it
in any way. Never interfere with
cattle troughs.

Fig 193g.

h. Protect wild life, plants and

trees. Wild life is best observed,
not collected. To pick or uproot
flowers, carve on trees and rocks,
or disturb wild animals and birds
destroys other people’s pleasure
as well.

Fig 193h.

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i. Go carefully on country roads.

They have special dangers; blind
corners, high banks and hedges,
slow-moving tractors and farm
machinery or animals. Motorists
should reduce speed and take
extra care; walkers should keep to
the right, facing oncoming traffic.

Fig 193i.

j. Respect the life of the country-

side. Set a good example and try to
fit in with the life and work of the
countryside. In this way good rela-
tions are preserved and those who
follow are not regarded as ene-
mies.

Fig 193j.

0813. Pictures and articles from the press, and photographs showing the results of
failure to adhere to this code, are a great help in emphasising the meaning of the
code and making it realistic.

0814 – 0820. Reserved.

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SECTION 3. — CAMPCRAFT

A. INSTRUCTOR’S NOTES

Aim

0821. To train the cadet in the skills of campcraft.

Timings

0822. Four 30 minute periods.

Stores

0823. The following stores are required:

a. A complete set of clothing and equipment as shown in paragraph 0826.

b. A tent and material for an improvised shelter.

c. Cooking equipment.

d. Camp fire equipment/material.

Miscellaneous

0824. To make best use of the instruction time available stores should be prepared
beforehand, displayed as they would be used during an expedition; e.g., a person
wearing clothing and equipment correctly, tent and improvised shelter erected, fire
burning and cooking equipment in use. The instructor can then take each item in turn
and explain them in a short time.

B. CONDUCT OF THE LESSON

The Skills Required

0825. Explain: A definition of the term ‘Campcraft’ is the skills necessary to live
and move in a strange environment during an expedition. To achieve a satisfactory
standard in these skills a cadet must be able to:

a. Prepare, clothe and equip himself correctly beforehand.

b. Understand the emergency procedures which must always be arranged

before an expedition sets out.

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c. Move across country, carrying a load, by a suitable route.

d. Choose a suitable camp site and carry out the essential initial activities on
arrival — pitch a tent, cook a meal and construct a latrine.

Clothing and Equipment

0826. Point out the items listed below being worn or carried by a cadet. Explain:
These will vary according to the circumstances in which the expedition is to be car-
ried out. In many contingents/detachments, lightweight and other specialised cloth-
ing and equipment is often available, and although the general requirement is the
same, more can be carried by each cadet.

a. Clothing and Equipment to be Worn. These are:

(1) Beret or Cap Comforter.

(2) Smock, Combat (with shirt and pullover underneath).

(3) Trousers (Combat Suit type).

(4) Boots (with puttees or anklets).

(5) Socks (thick wool).

(6) Underclothes (loose fitting).

(7) Haversack and Water Bottle.

b. Items to be Carried. These are:

(1) On the Person. Map, compass, whistle on lanyard, matches, elas-

tic adhesive dressings.

(2) In the Haversack. Mess tin, knife, fork and spoon, reserve rations,
mug, towel and washing kit, groundsheet, spare socks, torch.

c. Additional Items. Items which may be carried, or moved independently to

camp sites are:

(1) A kitbag or equivalent per cadet containing blankets or sleeping bag.

(2) Spare clothing and footwear.

(3) Bivouac type tents.

(4) Food and water.

(5) Cooking equipment.

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Emergency Procedures

0827. Explain: Emergency procedures are those which must be arranged before
an expedition sets out. They must be practical and known to all concerned. They
must include:

a. The construction of a route card showing the intended route to be taken,

together with certain definite places and times at which the expedition intends
to reach them. A copy of this must be left at base with the officer organising the
training and/or the local police or rescue organisation.

b. A knowledge of the telephone numbers and locations of the police and res-
cue authority in the locality.

c. The length of time after the non-arrival of the expedition at a pre-arranged

place before search parties should be sent out.

d. Checking of frequencies and times of routine calls if a radio is being used.

Because of the difficulties of reception in certain types of country, radio contact
only should not be relied upon.

Movement Across Country

0828. Explain: The ability of a cadet to move across country carrying a load, is
judged by his skill in following a suitable route without losing direction. Also that his
load is packed and adjusted so that it does not slip or move in any other way and pro-
duce discomfort which affects his performance.

Load Carrying

0829. Explain: The type of load carrier used by a cadet will vary from the 37
Pattern web equipment haversack, or fixing a kit bag securely to a man-pack carrier,
to the more specialised camping pack which counties and some contingents may
have purchased for use on a pool basis. The principles below apply to all types of
carrier:

a. A load is best supported by the human frame when it is applied vertically

down the length of the spine or upon the hips, rather than hanging out from the
shoulders.

b. Packing a load should be done to a system (see Fig 194):

(1) Heavy items (tent, groundsheet, food) and items needed first at the
next site should be packed at the top and light kit at the bottom. The tent
and its items are then ready to be erected quickly in rain.

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(2) Equipment needed en route should also be readily available.

(3) Paraffin, if carried, should be kept away from food. A polythene bag
makes a good inner lining.

(4) The load must be evenly balanced.

(5) The contents should be firmly arranged with no movement inside or

items swinging loose outside.

Choosing a Camp Site

0830. Explain: The choice of an ideal camp site should take account of the fol-
lowing points:

a. Shelter from the prevailing wind, on a well drained fairly level site facing the
morning sun.

b. Away from houses.

c. Close to a good water supply.

d. In the open rather than under trees.

0831. Explain: Having chosen a site (see Fig 195) the camp should be laid out in
accordance with the following principles:

a. Tents to be correctly pitched in a sheltered area.

b. Cooking area to be conveniently close to tents but not too close in case of
fire.

c. Latrines to be downwind and away from the tent site and the cooking area,
and well concealed.

d. Where there is running water, a drinking water point upstream from a

washing water point.

e. Vehicle access available if possible.

Initial Activities at a Camp Site

0832. Explain: The essential initial activities to be undertaken at a camp site are
listed below, normally in the order of priority shown. When there are a number of
cadets on the expedition, some of these activities may be done simultaneously on a
group basis, i.e., one cadet prepares a meal, one cadet fetches water whilst two oth-
ers construct a latrine and refuse pit respectively (see Fig 196):

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Fig 194. — Correctly Packed Load

Fig 195. — Principles of Laying Out a Camp Site

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a. Erection of tents.

b. Construction of a fire.

c. Preparation and cooking of a meal.

d. Construction of a latrine.

e. Construction of a refuse pit.

Fig 196. — Activities on a Group Basis

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Examples of Some Camp Activities

0833. Explain: Some examples of camp activities are as follows (see Fig 197):
a. Tent Erection.

(1) Tent poles upright and

secure.

(2) Tent sides extended to full

width. Ropes in line with poles.
Tent pegs securely in the
ground and sufficiently inclined
to avoid ropes slipping off.

(3) If the weather is very wet

a channel round the tent to
prevent water entering the
tent, to be filled in before leav-
ing the site.
b. Construction of Improvised Shelters for use when tents are not available.

(1) A shelter with two ground

sheets constructed on the
same principle as the tent
above for two cadets.

(2) A groundsheet shelter

against a fallen tree trunk for
one cadet. The ground sheet
must be on the side of the
trunk away from the prevailing
wind.

(3) Another groundsheet

type of shelter for one cadet.
The rope must be strong and
the open side of the ground-
sheet away from the prevailing
wind.

Fig 197. — Improvised Tent

Construction

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c. Preparation and Cooking of a Meal. Points to remember are:

(1) One hot cooked meal a day, normally at the end of a day’s expedi-
tion, is essential.

(2) All cadets must therefore know how to prepare and cook a meal of
fresh, dehydrated and tinned food. This will require them in general terms
to be able to boil water, fry prepared meat such as beefburgers and
sausages and heat up tinned stews, vegetables and puddings.

(3) In the early stages of training, cooking must be done in the open so
that the cadet has plenty of room and the danger of fire, scalding, etc.,
through ignorance and lack of skill is minimal. In the later stages of train-
ing, practice under supervision in cooking inside tents may be given, so
that cadets are proficient before taking part in more advanced training.

(4) When cooking over an open fire watch both pot and fire because
wood gives more heat than coal. Use the fierce flame heat for boiling
then, when the fire is too hot, move the pot and put some damp or green
sticks on to reduce the heat.

(5) Plan cooking on the following lines:

(a) Collect and cut firewood.

(b) Light the fire, and when smoke has dispersed put on potatoes
and vegetables.

(c) Fry or heat up meat.

(d) Heat up pudding.

(e) Boil tea and washing-up water while eating.

d. Camp Fires and Stoves. All cadets should know how to construct an
open wood fire because it may be the only material available. The illustrations
in Fig 198 show a variety of methods. Wood fires are often not acceptable in
the country to landowners and farmers and solid fuel cookers are normally
used.

e. Construction of a Latrine (see Fig 199). Remember:

(1) A latrine will always be constructed in camp.

(2) A hole in the ground not less than 1/2 metre deep is necessary.

(3) Some form of seat or bar is desirable if time permits construction.

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Fig 198. — Camp Fires and Stoves

Fig 199. — Construction of a Latrine

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(4) Earth should be piled to fill in the hole before leaving the site. When
filled the site should be marked ‘Soiled Ground’.

f. Construction of a Refuse Pit. A pit about 600 mm (2 feet) deep and 600
mm (2 feet) square (depending on numbers) should be dug and the excavated
soil piled beside it for infilling. Ensure that all unused food and swill is thrown
into it and that it is filled in before departure. On no account should it be used
for rubbish of any description. This must be placed in a sack or similar container
and either returned to base by vehicle, or deposited in a proper refuse con-
tainer or on a tip.

Safety Rules

0834. Explain: Accidents only occur in camp sites through lack of thought, care-
lessness or untidiness. The following precautions must be taken at all times:

a. Do not light a fire until told by the expedition leader when and where to do
so. This particularly applies in dry weather.

b. Always ensure that a fire is completely out before finally settling down for
the night.

c. When a fire has been lit the camp site must never be completely vacated
even for a short time.

d. Keep a wide area 1.8 metres (6 feet) at least around the fire completely
clear of clothing, equipment, stores and bedding at all times.

e. Do not sleep within 1.8 metres (6 feet) of a fire.

f. Keep away from a fire when eating.

g. Place cooking pots containing boiling water and hot foot on level surfaces
at all times.

h. Ensure that axes and other cutting tools, when not in use, are placed with
their cutting edges in a safe position, i.e., buried in a piece of wood.

i. Do not smoke inside tents or whilst cooking.

j. Whenever possible use solid fuel cookers but if this is quite impossible,
use liquid fuel cookers such as gas or paraffin stoves but never petrol.

k. If, in spite of complying with these rules, clothing should catch fire do not
run away. Lie down where you are and roll over and over whilst others put out
the flames by wrapping a blanket or groundsheet round you.

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Health and Hygiene

0835. Explain: Personal cleanliness is very important during an expedition.

Unless rigidly practised a cadet may suffer physically in many ways, from sore feet
to an upset stomach, which may prevent him from completing the expedition. So:
DO DO NOT

a. Wash face, hands and feet a. Throw dirty washing water

and clean teeth every evening and other refuse anywhere
and the following morning, and except in the refuse pit.
use foot powder regularly.

b. Wash hands after visiting the b. Relieve yourself in any way

latrine and before cooking a meal. except at the latrine.

c. Change wet clothes when c. Keep wet clothes on longer

necessary. than is absolutely necessary. This
may be until the night when you
must have something dry in which
to sleep.

d. Obtain drinking water from d. Obtain drinking water from

the source provided and then stagnant or slow running streams
keep it clean. It may be necessary or from downstream from the
to obtain it from other sources on washing area.
occasions but this is not to be
done except under supervision.

e. Cover cuts and sores after e. Leave cuts and scratches to

washing them. fester.

Campcraft in More Difficult Conditions

0836. Principles. Explain: The principles of choosing a camp site in a shel-

tered lowlands area are in paragraph 0830. There are, in addition, three classes of
camp site where restrictions are greater and therefore choice is more difficult. They
are:

a. The Upland Site. This is normally on moorlands or hills below about 450
metres. Here a sheltered position is essential but care must be taken to avoid
flooding from rapidly rising streams in wet weather.

b. The Mountain Site in Summer. This is normally on hills above 450 metres
where sheltered positions are difficult to find and where pitching a tent is diffi-
cult because of the slope and stony ground. Small grassy ledges beneath out-
crops of sound rock are the best places, but space is probably restricted.

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c. The Mountain Site in Winter. The conditions here are even more restricted,
but snow can be used to level out a pitching area. Snow walls can be built to
protect tents but they should not be too close. This type of camp site is unlikely
to be used by cadets, but they should be aware of it.

0837. Additional Precautions. Explain: When using these sites the skills of
campcraft are the same but because the conditions of terrain and weather are
adverse, specialised clothing and equipment is necessary, which must be tested for
serviceability and properly fitted beforehand. The following additional precautions are
necessary:

a. Choosing the Site. The weather in rough country (moors and mountains)
can change for the worse in a matter of hours, so it is always best to believe
the worst of the coming weather and decide on a camp site on that basis. It
should, if possible, be:

(1) Protected from the prevailing wind by natural features such as a

rockcrop, a fold in the ground or a stone wall (see Fig 200).

(2) On reasonably level ground of sufficient size to take not only a tent
but also the guy lines.

(3) Free from the danger of sudden surface drainage after heavy rain.

(4) Reasonably close to a clean water supply.

b. Tent Pitching. A tent, with a fly sheet, should be pitched with a storm in
mind, so:

(1) Check the wind direction.

(2) Lay the tent out with the rear towards the wind; fasten the door.

(3) Peg out the corners, then erect the rear end first using the stronger
pegs for the main guys. The tent door may have to be opened again to
insert the poles. Pegs must be inserted into the ground at 45° or secured
using one of the methods shown in Fig 201.

(4) Secure the correct guys and erect the front end of the tent.

(5) Place the ground sheet on top of the sod-cloth so that water cannot
run off the tent onto the groundsheet.

(6) Pile heavy rounded rocks on the snow valance.

c. Living in a Tent. The technique of living inside a tent in conditions likely

to be encountered in an expedition in rough country is only developed by con-
stant practice, but the basic fundamentals are few. Whilst the most likely provi-

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sion is for two cadets to share a tent, many people prefer a larger four man unit
which slightly reduces the individual carrying-load and enables an expedition
group of viable size to live together as one unit.

(1) Economy of Movement.

(a) In wet weather movement in or out of a tent should be kept to

a minimum, for a tent without a flysheet will leak if the wet canvas
is touched from the inside. When erecting a tent in the rain only the
guys should be touched and the material kept as free from folds as
possible.

(b) Frequent trips for water will be avoided if a water bucket is

used and kept from falling over by being tied to a guy line just out-
side the entrance to the tent.

(2) A Systematic Arrangement of Equipment.

(a) Each item of equipment should be stored in the same place.

Those inside the tent should then be able to avoid vigorous searches
or simultaneous movement of bodies.

(b) Wet clothes and boots should be removed in the shelter of the
tent and if there is no chance of drying them in the wind, they should
be put into a plastic bag or kept under the edge of the flysheet.

(c) In very wet and windy conditions cooking may have to be done
inside the tent when safety precautions are vital and only the cook
is allowed to move.

(d) Sleeping head to tail in a tent gives more comfort, while a

small non-absorbent polystyrene mattress, 900 x 600 mm (3 feet by
2 feet), will give excellent insulation.

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Fig 200. — A Well Pitched Tent on a Sheltered Site

Fig 201. — Securing the Guys

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