Unit-3

The Non-deterministic Polynomial (NP) problems were a little harder to

understand. In terms of solving a NP problem, the run-time is not polynomial.
It would be something like O(n!) or something larger.

However, this class of problems are given a specific solution, and checking the
solution would have a polynomial run-time.

For example, the Sudoku game.

NP-Hard Problems
A problem is said to be NP-Hard when an algorithm for solving NP Hard can be
translated to solve any NP problem. Then we can say, this problem is at least
as hard as any NP problem, but it could be much harder or more complex.

NP-Complete Problems
NP-Complete (NPC) problems are problems that are present in both the NP
and NP-Hard classes. That is NP-Complete problems can be verified in
polynomial time and any NP problem can be reduced to this problem in
polynomial time.

A problem is in class NPC if it is in NP and is as hard as any problem in NP. A

problem is said to be NP-hard if all problems in NP are polynomial time
reducible to it, even though it may not be in NP itself.

If a polynomial time algorithm exists for any of these types of problems, all
problems in NP can be polynomial time solvable. These problems are called
NP-complete. NPcompleteness is important for both theoretical and practical
reasons.

Definition of NP-Completeness
A language M is NP-complete, if it satisfies the two conditions which are given
below −

 M is in NP.
 Every A in NP is polynomial time reducible to M.
Suppose, if a language satisfies the second property, but not necessarily the
first one, the language M is known as NP-Hard.

Informally, a search problem M is NP-Hard if there exists some NP-Complete

problem A that Turing reduces to M.

NP-Complete Problems
Examples of NP-Complete problems where no polynomial time algorithm is
known are as follows −

 Determining whether a graph has a Hamiltonian cycle

 Determining whether a Boolean formula is satisfactory, etc.

NP-Hard Problems
The following problems are NP-Hard

 The circuit-satisfiability problem

 Set Cover
 Vertex Cover
 Travelling Salesman Problem

NP-Completeness
A decision problem L is NP-Hard if

L' ≤p L for all L' ϵ NP.

Definition: L is NP-complete if

1. L ϵ NP and
2. L' ≤ p L for some known NP-complete problem L.' Given this formal definition,
the complexity classes are:

P: is the set of decision problems that are solvable in polynomial time.

NP: is the set of decision problems that can be verified in polynomial time.

NP-Hard: L is NP-hard if for all L' ϵ NP, L' ≤p L. Thus if we can solve L in polynomial
time, we can solve all NP problems in polynomial time.

NP-Complete L is NP-complete if

1. L ϵ NP and
2. L is NP-hard

If any NP-complete problem is solvable in polynomial time, then every NP-Complete

problem is also solvable in polynomial time. Conversely, if we can prove that any NP-
Complete problem cannot be solved in polynomial time, every NP-Complete problem
cannot be solvable in polynomial time.

Reductions
Concept: - If the solution of NPC problem does not exist then the conversion from
one NPC problem to another NPC problem within the polynomial time. For this, you
need the concept of reduction. If a solution of the one NPC problem exists within the
polynomial time, then the rest of the problem can also give the solution in polynomial
time (but it's hard to believe). For this, you need the concept of reduction.

Example: - Suppose there are two problems, A and B. You know that it is impossible
to solve problem A in polynomial time. You want to prove that B cannot be solved in
polynomial time. So you can convert the problem A into problem B in polynomial
time.

Example of NP-Complete problem

NP problem: - Suppose a DECISION-BASED problem is provided in which a set of
inputs/high inputs you can get high output.

Criteria to come either in NP-hard or NP-complete.

1. The point to be noted here, the output is already given, and you can verify the
output/solution within the polynomial time but can't produce an
output/solution in polynomial time.
2. Here we need the concept of reduction because when you can't produce an
output of the problem according to the given input then in case you have to
use an emphasis on the concept of reduction in which you can convert one
problem into another problem.
 3. Genomic data science is a field of study that enables researchers to use
powerful computational and statistical methods to decode the functional
information hidden in DNA sequences.

4. Estimates predict that genomics research will generate between 2 and

40 exabytes of data within the next decade.

5. Our ability to sequence DNA has far outpaced our ability to decipher the
information it contains, so genomic data science will be a vibrant field of
research for many years to come.

6. Performing genomic data science carries with it a set of ethical

responsibilities, as each person's sequence data are associated with
issues related to privacy and identity.

How it affects you

As biomedical research projects and large-scale collaborations grow rapidly,
the amount of genomic data being generated is also increasing, with roughly 2
to 40 billion gigabytes of data now generated each year. Researchers are
working to extract valuable information from such complicated and large
datasets so they can better understand human health and disease.

What is genomic data science?

Genomic data science is a field of study that enables researchers to use
powerful computational and statistical methods to decode the functional
information hidden in DNA sequence. Applied in the context of genomic
medicine, these data science tools help researchers and clinicians uncover
how differences in DNA affect human health and disease.

Genomic data science emerged as a field in the 1990s to bring together two
laboratory activities:

 Experimentation: Generating genomic information from studying the genomes of

living organisms.

 Data analysis: Using statistical and computational tools to analyze and visualize
genomic data, which includes processing and storing data and using algorithms
and software to make predictions based on available genomic data.
Both activities help researchers acquire and gain insights from the vast
amounts of genomic data.

Why does genomics involve so much data?

Human genomics gained mainstream attention in the early 2000s when the
Human Genome Project successfully generated the first sequence of the
chemical bases (“letters”) — As, Cs, Gs and Ts — in the human genome.
Each of the trillions of cells in the human body contains a complete copy of the
genome, i.e., our DNA blueprint). Most cells actually have two copies of the
genome, which together reflect about 6 billion DNA letters.

Researchers are now generating more genomic data than ever before to
understand how the genome functions and affects human health and disease.
These data are coming from millions of people in various populations across
the world. Data about a single human genome sequence alone would take up
200 gigabytes, or the space of about 200 copies of Jaws. We will need an
estimated 40 exabytes to store the genome- sequence data generated
worldwide by 2025. That’s almost one billion DVDs of Jaws! In comparison,
five exabytes could store all of the words ever spoken by human beings.

Genomic Data Science is the field that applies statistics and data
science to the genome. This Specialization covers the concepts and
tools to understand, analyze, and interpret data from next
generation sequencing experiments.