Fundamental of GIS 2023

UNIT FOUR
4. Spatial Data Referencing
Spatial data referencing is the process of assigning a location or position to spatial data. This is done by
using a coordinate system that defines the location of an object or point in space. The coordinate system
can be either a geographic coordinate system or a projected coordinate system.

Spatial data referencing is important in GIS because it allows for accurate analysis and visualization of
spatial data. It enables users to compare and overlay different datasets, perform spatial analysis, and
create maps and visualizations.

In addition, spatial data referencing allows for interoperability between different GIS software and data
sources. By using the same coordinate system, datasets from different sources can be easily integrated
and analyzed together.

4.1. Coordinate systems for Spatial data Referencing

A coordinate system is a reference framework that defines the location of an object or point in space. In
GIS, coordinate systems are used to locate, analyze, and display spatial data. The two main types of
coordinate systems used in GIS are geographic coordinate systems and projected coordinate systems.

Geographic Coordinate System (GCS)

A GCS uses latitude and longitude to define the location of an object or point on the earth's surface. The
latitude and longitude are measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds, and are referenced to the earth's
equator and prime meridian.

GCS uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to define locations on the earth. It is a reference system
that uses latitude and longitude to define the locations of points on the surface of a sphere or spheroid.
A GCS is often incorrectly called a datum, but a datum is only one part of a GCS. A GCS includes an
angular unit of measure, a prime meridian, and a datum (based on a spheroid).

A point is referenced by its longitude and latitude values. Longitude and latitude are angles measured
from the earth’s center to a point on the earth’s surface. The angles often are measured in degrees (or
in grads). The following illustration shows the world as a globe with longitude and latitude values.

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Figure 4.1 the world as a globe with longitude and latitude

In the spherical system, horizontal lines, or east–west lines, are lines of equal latitude, or parallels.
Vertical lines, or north–south lines, are lines of equal longitude, or meridians. These lines encompass
the globe and form a gridded network called a graticule.

The line of latitude midway between the poles is called the equator. It defines the line of zero latitude.
The line of zero longitude is called the prime meridian. For most geographic coordinate systems, the
prime meridian is the longitude that passes through Greenwich, England. The origin of the graticule (0,
0) is defined by where the equator and prime meridian intersect. The globe is then divided into four
geographical quadrants that are based on compass bearings from the origin. North and south are above
and below the equator, and west and east are to the left and right of the prime meridian.

How is the real world represented in GIS?

Latitude and longitude: One method for describing the position of a geographic location on the earth's
surface is using spherical measures of latitude and longitude. They are measures of the angles (in
degrees) from the center of the earth to a point on the earth's surface.

Latitude angles are measured in a north-south direction. The equator is at an angle of 0. Often, the
northern hemisphere has positive measures of latitude and the southern hemisphere has negative
measures of latitude. Longitude measures angles in an east-west direction. Longitude measures are
imaginary lines running from the North Pole through Greenwich, England to the South Pole. This angle
is Longitude 0. West of the Prime Meridian is often recorded as negative Longitude and east is recorded
as positive.

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Figure 4.2 Latitudes, longitudes and graticular network

Although longitude and latitude can locate exact positions on the surface of the globe, they are not
uniform units of measure. Only along the equator does the distance represented by one degree of
longitude approximate the distance represented by one degree of latitude. This is because the equator is
the only parallel as large as a meridian. (Circles with the same radius as the spherical earth are called
great circles. The equator and all meridians are great circles.)

Above and below the equator, the circles defining the parallels of latitude get gradually smaller until
they become a single point at the North and South Poles where the meridians converge. As the
meridians converge toward the poles, the distance represented by one degree of longitude decreases to
zero. On the Clarke 1866 spheroid, one degree of longitude at the equator equals 111.321 km, while at
60° latitude, it is only 55.802 km. Since degrees of latitude and longitude don't have a standard length,
you can't measure distances or areas accurately or display the data easily on a flat map or computer
screen. Performing GIS analysis and mapping applications requires a more stable coordinate
framework, which is provided by projected coordinate systems. To overcome measurement difficulties,
data is often transformed from three-dimensional geographic coordinates to two-dimensional projected
coordinates.

Projected Coordinate System (PCS)

A PCS uses x and y coordinates to define the location of an object or point on a two-dimensional plane.
The x and y coordinates are based on a mathematical projection of the earth's surface onto a flat plane.
PCSs are often used for mapping and visualization purposes.

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There are many different types of coordinate systems within these two main categories, each with its
own specific properties and uses. Some common examples include the Universal Transverse Mercator
(UTM) system, the State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS), and the World Geodetic System (WGS).

MAP PROJECTION

BASICS OF MAP PROJECTION

What are map projections?

Because we need to produce a map of Earth on a flat surface, some methods of transforming earth’s
graticule of geographical coordinates from the three dimensions to two dimensions are required.

A map projection is a systematic representation of all or part of a round body, especially earth on a plane
surface. It can be perspective or non-perspective.

A perspective projection is strictly geometric in nature, characterized by the use of a point of origin
(view point) and a surface of projection. The view point is chosen to suit a particular requirement and
can be in the center of the globe, at an infinite distance, or in the surface of the globe. The surface of
the projection can be a plane, a cylinder, or a cone, each a developable surface, i.e., one that can unfold
or unrolled to a plane without distortion.

A non-perspective projection is obtained by modifying the perspective projection so that certain desired
properties can be maintained, such as equal area, equal distance, or correct shape. A good example is
Mercator projection

A projected coordinate system is defined on a flat, two-dimensional surface. Unlike a geographic

coordinate system, a projected coordinate system has constant lengths, angles, and areas across the two
dimensions. A projected coordinate system is always based on a geographic coordinate system that is
based on a sphere or spheroid.

Sphere:

Sphere is a three-dimensional shape whose center is equidistant from every point on its surface made
by revolving a circle around its diameter.

Spheroid:

1. A three-dimensional shape obtained by rotating an ellipse about its minor axis, resulting in an oblate
spheroid, or about its major axis, resulting in a prolate spheroid.

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2. When used to represent the earth, a three-dimensional shape obtained by rotating an ellipse about its
minor axis, with dimensions that either approximate the earth as a whole, or with a part that
approximates the corresponding portion of the geoid.

In a projected coordinate system, locations are identified by x, y coordinates on a grid, with the origin
at the center of the grid. Each position has two values that reference it to that central location. One
specifies its horizontal position and the other its vertical position. The two values are called the x-
coordinate and y-coordinate. Using this notation, the coordinates at the origin are x = 0 and y = 0.

On a gridded network of equally spaced horizontal and vertical lines, the horizontal line in the center is
called the x-axis and the central vertical line is called the y-axis. Units are consistent and equally spaced
across the full range of x and y. Horizontal lines above the origin and vertical lines to the right of the
origin have positive values; those below or to the left have negative values. The four quadrants represent
the four possible combinations of positive and negative X and Y coordinates.

When working with data in a geographic coordinate system, it is sometimes useful to equate the
longitude values with the X axis and the latitude values with the Y axis.

Figure 4.3 shining a light through the earth onto a surface.

Whether you treat the earth as a sphere or a spheroid, you must transform its three-dimensional surface
to create a flat map sheet. This mathematical transformation is commonly referred to as a map
projection. One easy way to understand how map projections alter spatial properties is to visualize
shining a light through the earth onto a surface, called the projection surface. Imagine the earth’s surface
is clear with the graticule drawn on it. Wrap a piece of paper around the earth. A light at the center of
the earth will cast the shadows of the graticule onto the piece of paper. You can now unwrap the paper

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and lay it flat. The shape of the graticule on the flat paper is different from that on the earth. The map
projection has distorted the graticule.

Projected coordinates mean a measurement of locations on the earth's surface expressed in a two-
dimensional system that locates features based on their distance from an origin (0,0) along two axes, a
horizontal x-axis representing east-west and a vertical y-axis representing north-south. Projected
coordinates are transformed from latitude and longitude to x, y coordinates using a map projection.

Properties of map projection

There are four properties to be considered in map projection: area, shape, distance and direction. These
properties—the map projection (along with Spheroid and Datum), become important parameters in the
definition of the coordinate system for each GIS dataset and each map. By recording detailed
descriptions of these properties for each GIS dataset, computers can re-project and transform the
geographic locations of dataset elements on the fly into any appropriate coordinate system. As a result,
it's possible to integrate and combine information from multiple GIS layers. This is a fundamental GIS
capability. Accurate location forms the basis for almost all GIS operations.

1. Area

A map projection may be designed to be equal area; so that any area measured on the map is the same
as that any area measured on the earth. The map projection is called equal-area or an equivalent
projection. This property can be accomplished by distorting the shape of the graticule. Equal area
projections are best employed to show spatial distributions and relative sizes of spatial features, such as
political units, population, land use and land cover, soils and wetlands, wildlife habitats and natural
resource inventories. The equal area property allows the sizes of real-world features to be visually
compared on the same areal basis. However, the trade-off of preserving true area is that spatial features
on the maps will inevitably be distorted in shapes, distance and occasionally directions.

2. Shape

A map projection can maintain the correct shape of the spatial features represented. This is possible
only by making the scale along the meridian and the parallel the same in both directions. As a result,
the relative local angles about every point on the map are shown correctly. The meridians intersect
parallels at right angles, just as they do on the globe. This type of projection is known as conformal or
orthomorphic (in Greek), and is very important for topographic mapping and navigation purposes. The
need to retain shape inevitably distorts both area and distance.

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3. Distance

The distance between two points measured on the map is equal to that between the same two points
measured on earth’s surface and scaled. Obviously, this property is not possible at all points throughout
the map. It can be achieved only by selecting certain lines along which the scale remains true. These
lines can be along every meridian. In other words, distance can be measured correctly in only one
direction.

These lines of true scale include the central meridians of the cylindrical class of projections, as well as
the standard parallel of the conic classes of projections. This type of map projection is called
equidistant. The property of equidistance is very sensitive to scale change. All measurements made
away from the lines of true scale are subject to distance distortion due to changing scales. It is a useful
compromise between the conformal and equal-area projections because the area scale of an equidistant
map projection is used more often in atlas maps.

4. Direction

Direction measurements made on the map are the same as those made on the ground. This is the property
of the true direction is an inherent property of an azimuthal class of map projections because all
meridians pass through the pole. This particular property can also be retained simultaneously with one
or two of the other three properties described above. Since the conformal map projections preserve
shapes, they naturally preserve direction. However, true direction in many conformal map projections
is not real true direction in the sense that accurate direction measurements are obtainable in only one or
two directions. The most notable exception is the Mercator projection that preserves true direction in
all directions and in all maps of the map. True direction is a useful property for air and sea navigation
charts.

MAP PROJECTION CLASSIFICATIONS

MAP PROJECTION CLASSIFICATIONS (BASED ON THE SPECIFIC PURPOSE).

Map projections can be generally classified according to what spatial attribute they preserve (based on
the specific purpose).

❖ Equal area projections preserve area. Many thematic maps use an equal area projection. Equal area
projections preserve the area of displayed features. To do this, the other properties—shape, angle,
and scale—are distorted. In Equal area projections, the meridians and parallels may not intersect at
right angles. In some instances, especially maps of smaller regions, shapes are not obviously

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distorted, and distinguishing an Equal area projection from a conformal projection is difficult unless
documented or measured.
❖ Conformal projections preserve shape and are useful for navigational charts and weather maps.
Shape is preserved for small areas, but the shape of a large area, such as a continent, will be
significantly distorted. Conformal projections preserve local shape. To preserve individual angles
describing the spatial relationships, a conformal projection must show the perpendicular graticule
lines intersecting at 90-degree angles on the map. A map projection accomplishes this by
maintaining all angles. The drawback is that the area enclosed by a series of arcs may be greatly
distorted in the process. No map projection can preserve shapes of larger regions.

❖ Equidistant projections preserve distances, but no projection can preserve distances from all points
to all other points. Instead, distance can be held true from one point (or a few points) to all other
points or along all meridians or parallels. If you will be using your map to find features that are
within a certain distance of other features, you should use an equidistant map projection. Scale is
not maintained correctly by any projection throughout an entire map. However, there are in most
cases, one or more lines on a map along which scale are maintained correctly. Most Equidistant
projections have one or more lines in which the length of the line on a map is the same length (at
map scale) as the same line on the globe, regardless of whether it is a great or small circle, or straight
or curved. Such distances are said to be true. Keep in mind that no projection is equidistant to and
from all points on a map.

❖ Azimuthal projections preserve direction from one point to all other points. This quality can be
combined with equal area, conformal, and equidistant projections. The shortest route between two
points on a curved surface such as the earth is along the spherical equivalent of a straight line on a
flat surface. That is the great circle on which the two points lie. True-direction or Azimuthal
projections maintain some of the great circle arcs, giving the directions or azimuths of all points on
the map correctly with respect to the center. Some True-direction projections are also conformal,
equal area, or equidistant.

Other projections minimize overall distortion but don't preserve any of the four spatial properties of
area, shape, distance, and direction. The Robinson projection, for example, is neither equal area nor
conformal but is aesthetically pleasing and useful for general mapping. (Refer figure 4.4)

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MAP PROJECTION TYPES (BASED ON DEVELOPABLE SURFACES)

Because maps are flat, some of the simplest projections are made onto geometric shapes that can be
flattened without stretching their surfaces. These are called developable surfaces. Some common
examples are cones, cylinders, and planes. A map projection systematically projects locations from the
surface of a spheroid to representative positions on a flat surface using mathematical algorithms.

The first step in projecting from one surface to another is creating one or more points of contact. Each
contact is called a point (or line) of tangency. A Planar projection is tangential to the globe at one point.
Tangential cones and cylinders touch the globe along a line. If the projection surface intersects the globe
instead of merely touching its surface, the resulting projection is a secant rather than a tangent case.
Whether the contact is tangent or secant, the contact points or lines are significant because they define
locations of zero distortion. Lines of true scale include the central meridian and standard parallels and
are sometimes called standard lines. In general, distortion increases with the distance from the point of
contact.

A projected coordinate system is defined on a flat, two-dimensional surfaces. Projected coordinates can
be defined for both 2D (x,y) and 3D (x,y,z) in which the x,y measurements represent the location on
the earth's surface and z would represent height above or below mean sea level.

Figure 4.4 common map projections, their properties and major uses

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Many common map projections are classified according to the projection surface used:

✓ conic,
✓ cylindrical, or
✓ planar.

Conic projections

The simplest Conic projection is tangent to the globe along a line of latitude. This line is called the
standard parallel. The meridians are projected onto the conical surface, meeting at the apex, or point, of
the cone. Parallel lines of latitude are projected onto the cone as rings. The cone is then "cut" along any
meridian to produce the final conic projection, which has straight converging lines for meridians and
concentric circular arcs for parallels. The meridian opposite the cut line becomes the central meridian.

In general, the further you get from the standard parallel, the more distortion increases. Thus, cutting
off the top of the cone produces a more accurate projection. You can accomplish this by not using the
polar region of the projected data. Conic projections are used for mid-latitude zones that have an east–
west orientation.

Somewhat more complex Conic projections contact the global surface at two locations. These
projections are called Secant projections and are defined by two standard parallels. It is also possible to
define a Secant projection by one standard parallel and a scale factor. The distortion pattern for Secant
projections is different between the standard parallels than beyond them. Generally, a Secant projection
has less overall distortion than a Tangent projection. On still more complex Conic projections, the axis
of the cone does not line up with the polar axis of the globe. These types of projections are called
oblique.

Figure 4.5 Illustration for conical projection

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The representation of geographic features depends on the spacing of the parallels. When equally spaced,
the projection is equidistant north–south but neither conformal nor equal area. An example of this type
of projection is the Equidistant Conic projection. For small areas, the overall distortion is minimal. On
the Lambert Conic Conformal projection, the central parallels are spaced more closely than the parallels
near the border, and small geographic shapes are maintained for both small-scale and large-scale maps.
On the Albers Equal Area Conic projection, the parallels near the northern and southern edges are closer
together than the central parallels, and the projection displays equivalent areas.

The planar projection

Planar projections project map data onto a flat surface touching the globe. A Planar projection is also
known as an Azimuthal projection or a Zenithal projection.

This type of projection is usually tangent to the globe at one point but may be secant, also. The point of
contact may be the North Pole, the South Pole, a point on the equator, or any point in between. This
point specifies the aspect and is the focus of the projection. The focus is identified by a central longitude
and central latitude. Possible aspects are polar, equatorial, and oblique.

Polar aspects are the simplest form. Parallels of latitude are concentric circles centered on the pole, and
meridians are straight lines that intersect with their true angles of orientation at the pole. In other aspects,
planar projections will have graticular angles of 90 degrees at the focus. Directions from the focus are
accurate.

Great circles passing through the focus are represented by straight lines; thus, the shortest distance from
the center to any other point on the map is a straight line. Patterns of area and shape distortion are
circular about the focus. For this reason, Azimuthal projections accommodate circular regions better
than rectangular regions. Planar projections are used most often to map Polar Regions.

Some Planar projections view surface data from a specific point in space. The point of view determines
how the spherical data is projected onto the flat surface. The perspective from which all locations are
viewed varies between the different Azimuthal projections. The perspective point may be the center of
the earth, a surface point directly opposite from the focus, or a point external to the globe, as if seen
from a satellite or another planet.

Azimuthal projections are classified in part by the focus and, if applicable, by the perspective point.
The Gnomonic projection views the surface data from the center of the earth, whereas the Stereographic
projection views it from pole to pole. The Orthographic projection views the earth from an infinite

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point, as if from deep space. Note how the differences in perspective determine the amount of distortion
toward the equator.

Figure 4.6 Illustration for planar projection

The cylindrical projection

Like Conic projections, cylindrical projections can also have tangent or secant cases. The Mercator
projection is one of the most common cylindrical projections, and the equator is usually its line of
tangency. Meridians are geometrically projected onto the cylindrical surface, and parallels are
mathematically projected. This produces graticular angles of 90 degrees. The cylinder is "cut" along
any meridian to produce the final cylindrical projection. The meridians are equally spaced, while the
spacing between parallel lines of latitude increases toward the poles. This projection is conformal and
displays true direction along straight lines. On a Mercator projection, rhumb lines, lines of constant
bearing, are straight lines, but most great circles are not.

Figure 4.7 Illustration for Cylindrical projection

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4.2. Characteristics of commonly used coordinate systems in GIS

Some of the commonly used coordinate systems in GIS include:

1. State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS): This is a projected coordinate system used in the United
States to define locations within individual states or regions. It uses a combination of projection
methods to accurately represent the earth's surface within each region. SPCS is commonly used for
mapping, surveying, and engineering applications.
2. World Geodetic System (WGS): This is a geographic coordinate system used by GPS and is the
most widely used coordinate system in GIS. This system is used as a reference for GPS and other
global positioning systems. It defines the shape of the earth as an ellipsoid and provides a standard
reference for measuring distances and locations on the earth's surface. It uses latitude and
longitude to define locations on the earth's surface.
3. Albers Equal Area Conic Projection: This projection is commonly used for mapping large areas
that span several degrees of latitude and longitude. It preserves area and shape while sacrificing
directionality, making it useful for thematic mapping applications.
4. Lambert Conformal Conic Projection: This is a projected coordinate system that uses a cone-
shaped projection to represent the earth's surface. This projection is commonly used for mapping
mid-sized areas that span several degrees of latitude and longitude. It preserves shape and
directionality while sacrificing area, making it useful for navigation and flight planning
applications. It is commonly used for mapping large areas such as countries or continents.
5. Mercator Projection: This projection is commonly used for navigation and marine charting
applications. It preserves directionality but distorts areas near the poles, making it unsuitable for
large-scale mapping applications in high latitudes.
6. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM): This is a projected coordinate system that divides the
earth's surface into 60 zones, each 6 degrees wide in longitude. It uses a transverse Mercator
projection to convert latitude and longitude into x and y coordinates. UTM is commonly used for
large-scale mapping and navigation.
UTM - UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATE SYSTEM

The idea of the transverse Mercator projection has its roots in the 18th century, but it did not come into
common usage until after World War II. It has become the most used because it allows precise
measurements in meters to within 1 meter.

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A Mercator projection is a ‘pseudo cylindrical’ conformal projection (it preserves shape). What you
often see on poster-size maps of the world is an equatorial mercator projection that has relatively little
distortion along the equator, but quite a bit of distortion toward the poles.

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system is a specialized application of the Transverse Mercator
projection. The globe is divided into 60 north and south zones, each spanning 6° of longitude. Each
zone has its own central meridian. Zones 1N and 1S start at -180° W so zone 2 for example begins at
174°W and extends to 168°W.

The last zone (zone 60) begins at 174°E and extends to the International Date Line. The limits of each
zone are 84° N and 80° S, with the division between north and south zones occurring at the equator.
The Polar Regions use the Universal Polar Stereographic coordinate system. The origin for north-south
values depends on whether you are in the northern or southern hemisphere. In the northern hemisphere,
the origin is the equator and all distances north (or ‘northing’) are measured from the equator. In the
southern hemisphere the origin is the South Pole and all northing are measured from there. Once again,
having separate origins for the northern and southern hemispheres eliminates the need for any negative
values. The average circumference of the earth is 40,030,173 meters, meaning that there are 10,007,543
meters of northing in each hemisphere.

The origin for each zone is its central meridian and the equator. To eliminate negative coordinates, the
coordinate system alters the coordinate values at the origin. The value given to the central meridian is
the false easting, and the value assigned to the equator is the false northing. A false easting of 500,000
meters is applied. A north zone has a false northing of zero, while a south zone has a false northing of
10,000,000 meters.

Any point can then be described by its distance east of the origin (its ‘easting’ value). By definition
the Central Meridian is assigned a false easting of 500,000 meters. Any easting value greater than
500,000 meters indicates a point east of the central meridian. Any easting value less than 500,000 meters
indicates a point west of the central meridian. Distances (and locations) in the UTM system are
measured in meters, and each UTM zone has its own origin for east-west measurements.

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Figure 4.8 UTM zone east-west measurements

UTM coordinates are typically given with the zone first, then the easting, then the northing. Based on
this, you know that you are West or East of the central meridian in the specified zone. The UTM system
may seem a bit confusing at first, mostly because many people have never heard of it, let alone used it.
Once you’ve used it for a little while, however, it becomes an extremely fast and efficient means of
finding exact locations and approximating locations on a map.

The zones are then further subdivided into an eastern and western half by drawing a line, representing
a transverse Mercator projection, down the middle of the zone. This line is known as the ‘central
meridian’ and is the only line within the zone that can be drawn between the poles and is perpendicular
to the equator (in other words, it is the new ‘equator’ for the projection and suffers the least amount of
distortion). For this reason, vertical grid lines in the UTM system are oriented parallel to the central
meridian. The central meridian is also used in setting up the origin for the grid system.

Many topographic maps published in recent years use the UTM coordinate system as the primary grids
on the map.

Generally, the choice of coordinate system depends on the specific application and the geographic area
being mapped or analyzed. It is important to choose a system that accurately represents the location and
characteristics of the data being analyzed or mapped.

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4.3. Spatial data projection and Coordinate transformation

Spatial data projection is the process of converting geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude) to
a two-dimensional map projection. This involves selecting a mathematical formula that can accurately
represent the earth's surface on a flat map. Different map projections are used for different purposes,
depending on the area being mapped, the level of accuracy required, and the intended use of the map.

Coordinate transformation is the process of converting geographic coordinates from one coordinate
system to another. This is necessary when data from different sources are combined, or when data needs
to be converted to a different coordinate system for a specific application. The transformation involves
using mathematical formulas to adjust the latitude and longitude values to match the new coordinate
system. The accuracy of the transformation depends on the quality of the original data and the
mathematical formula used for the transformation.

4.4. Geo-referencing spatial data

Geo-referencing is the process of assigning spatial coordinates to an image or dataset that does not have
any inherent geospatial information. This is done by identifying common points between the image or
dataset and a known geospatial reference dataset, such as a map or satellite image.

The process of geo-referencing involves selecting control points on both datasets, calculating the
transformation between the datasets, and applying the transformation to the image or dataset being geo-
referenced. Once geo-referenced, the spatial data can be used in GIS analysis and visualization.

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