MCT 312

Electric Circuit Theory II

Engr. Dr. Aderonke Akinwumi

Department of Mechatronics Engineering
Afe Babablola University, Ado-Ekiti
[email protected]
 Electric Circuit Theory II
 Networks;
 Node, loop analysis,
 Reliability of transfer functions,
 Foster and Cauers methods of synthesis.
 Filters: design, operation, low, high, Band pass.
 Butterworth, Chebychev, filters,
 Non-linear circuit analysis Locus diagrams.

 TEXT BOOKS
 John Bird, ―Electrical Circuit Theory and technology, Newnes, 2nd Edition, 2003
 C L Wadhwa, ―Electrical Circuit Analysis including Passive Network Synthesis, New
Age
 M E Van Valkenberg, ―Network Analysis‖, PHI, 3rd Edition, 2014.
 Pre-requisite: ENG 224 Engr. Dr. Aderonke Akinwumi
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 INTRODUCTION

• In electric network analysis, the fundamental rules

are Ohm‘s Law and Kirchhoff‘s Laws.

• There are shortcut methods/theorems.

• As with any theorem of geometry or algebra, these

network theorems are derived from fundamental
rules.
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 TELLEGEN’S THEOREM

•Tellegen‘s theorem states algebraic sum of all

delivered power must be equal to sum of all
received powers.

•According to Tellegen‘s theorem, the summation

of instantaneous powers for the n number of
branches in an electrical network is zero.
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 TELLEGEN’S THEOREM

•Suppose n number of branches in an electrical

network have i1, i2, i3…. in respective
instantaneous currents through them. These
currents satisfy Kirchhoff's Current Law.

•Again, suppose these branches have

instantaneous voltages across them are v1, v2,
v3, ...... vn respectively.
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 TELLEGEN’S THEOREM

•If these voltages across these elements satisfy

Kirchhoff Voltage Law then,
𝑛
• σ𝑘=1 𝑣𝑘 . 𝑖𝑘 =0

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 TELLEGEN‟S THEOREM

•Tellegen’s theorem is applicable mainly in

general class of lumped networks that consist of
linear, non-linear, active, passive, time variant
and time variant elements.

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 TELLEGEN’S THEOREM

Engr. Dr. Aderonke Akinwumi

Figure 1.1 8
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 SUPER-POSITION THEOREM

• DC: “In an any linear, bi-lateral network consisting number of sources,

response in any element (resistor) is given as sum of the individual
Reponses due to individual sources, while other sources are non-
operative”
• AC: “In an any linear, bi-lateral network consisting number of sources,
response in any element(impedance) is given as sum of the individual
Reponses due to individual sources, while other sources are non-
operative’

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 SUPER-POSITION THEOREM

• Follow these steps in order to find the response in a particular branch

using superposition theorem.
• Step 1 − Find the response in a particular branch by considering one
independent source and eliminating the remaining independent
sources present in the network.
• Step 2 − Repeat Step 1 for all independent sources present in the
network.
• Step 3 − Add all the responses in order to get the overall response in a
particular branch when all independent sources are present in the
network.
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 SUPER-POSITION THEOREM

• Figure 1.2 Engr. Dr. Aderonke Akinwumi

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 RECIPROCITY THEOREM

DC & AC: ― In any linear bi-lateral network; the ratio of voltage in one
mesh to current in other mesh is same even if their positions are inter-
changed.

Figure 1.3
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 THEVENIN’S THEOREM
• DC
– A complex network consisting of number voltage and current
sources and be replaced by simple series circuit consisting of
equivalent voltage source in series with equivalent resistance,
where equivalent voltage is called as open circuit voltage and
equivalent resistance is called as Thevenin‘s resistance calculated
across open circuit terminals while all energy sources are non
operative.

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 THEVENIN’S THEOREM
• AC
– An complex network consisting of number voltage and current
sources and be replaced by simple series circuit consisting of
equivalent voltage source in series with equivalent impedance,
where equivalent voltage is called as open circuit voltage and
equivalent impedance is called as Thevenin‘s impedance calculated
across open circuit terminals while all energy sources are non-
operative.

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 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

– Figure 1.4

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 NORTON’S THEOREM

• DC
– An complex network consisting of number voltage and current
sources and be replaced by simple parallel circuit consisting of
equivalent current source in parallel with equivalent resistance,
where equivalent current source is called as short circuit current
and equivalent resistance is called as Norton‘s resistance
calculated across open circuit terminals while all energy sources
are non-operative

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 NORTON’S THEOREM

• AC
– A complex network consisting of number voltage and current
sources and be replaced by simple parallel circuit consisting of
equivalent current source in parallel with equivalent impedance,
where equivalent current source is called as short circuit current
and equivalent impedance is called as Norton‘s impedance
calculated across open circuit terminals while all energy sources
are non-operative‖

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 NORTON’S THEOREM

– Figure 1.5 Engr. Dr. Aderonke Akinwumi

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 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

• AC
– In linear bi-lateral network maximum
power can be transferred from source to
load if load impedance is equal to
complex conjugate of source or
thevenin‘s or internal impedances
• DC
– In linear bi-lateral network maximum
power can be transferred from source to Figure 1.6
load if load resistance is equal to source
or thevenin‘s or internal resistances Engr. Dr. Aderonke Akinwumi
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 MILLIMAN’S THEOREM
• A complex network consisting of number of parallel branches , where
each parallel branch consists of voltage source with series resistance,
can be replaced with equivalent circuit consisting of one voltage source
in series with equivalent resistance

Figure 1.7
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 COMPENSATION THEOREM

• Compensation theorem states that

any element in the network can be
replaced with Voltage source whose
value is product of current through
that element and its value.
• It is useful in finding change in
current when there is a sudden Figure 1.8
change in resistance value
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 EXAMPLE

• Find VTH, RTH and the load current flowing through and
load voltage across the load resistor in by using
Thevenin’s Theorem.

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Nodal and Loop Analysis

Figure 1.9
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 Kirchhoff's Laws

• Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)

• Kirchhoff current law states that the algebraic sum of all

currents entering a node of a circuit is always zero. A node
in a circuit is the place where circuit elements are connected
together. The direction of the current must be considered
during the analysis.
• If the current is entering the node, the current should be
subtracted from the algebraic sum.
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 Kirchhoff's Laws

• Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)

• 𝑖𝐴 + 𝑖𝐷 = 𝑖𝐵 + 𝑖𝐶

Figure 1.9: KCL Analysis of a Circuit

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 Kirchhoff's Laws

• Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

• Kirchhoff's voltage law states that the algebraic sum of the

voltages around any loops in a circuit is always zero. A loop
in a circuit is any closed path along a circuit that does not
encounter the same node more than once.

• The polarity of a voltage across an element changes the sign

of the voltage in the sum of a loop.
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 Kirchhoff's Laws

• Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

−𝑣𝐴 + 𝑣𝐵 + 𝑣𝐷 =0

Figure 1.10: KVL Analysis of a Circuit Engr. Dr. Aderonke Akinwumi

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 Methods of Analysis

• Nodal Analysis
• We use nodal analysis on circuits to obtain multiple KCL
equations which are used to solve for voltage and current in
a circuit. The number of KCL equations required is one less
than the number of nodes that a circuit has. The extra node
may be referred to as a reference node.
• Usually, if a circuit contains a ground, whichever node the
ground is connected to is selected as the reference node.
This is used to find the voltage differences at each other
node in the circuit with respect to the reference.
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 Methods of Analysis- Nodal Analysis

Figure 1.11: DC circuit showing nodes.

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 Methods of Analysis- Nodal Analysis

• Ideally we set the voltage to 0 V at the reference node to

simplify calculations, however it can be set to any value as
long as the other nodes account for the different reference
voltage.

• Solving the node equations can provide us with the node

voltages.

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 Methods of Analysis- Nodal Analysis

• The node equations are obtained by completing two things:

– Express the current through an element in terms of the node
voltages.
– With the exception of the reference node, apply KCL to each other
node in the circuit.

• Figure 1.12 shows an example of a DC circuit with current

and voltage sources. It contains 3 nodes a, b and c, as well as
the reference node at the grounded connection.
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 Methods of Analysis- Nodal Analysis

Figure 1.12: DC circuit with Voltage and Current Sources

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 Methods of Analysis- Nodal Analysis

• Here, node c is an example of a super-node which is a connection

between two nodes via an independent or dependent voltage source.
Because super-nodes are connected to a voltage source we can find
their voltage immediately.

• In this case, with the ground at 0V, the voltage across the source will
be 12 = 0 − 𝑣𝑐 .

• Similarly, node a is related to node b as a super-node 𝑣𝑎 = 𝑣𝑏 + 8𝑉.

• We can substitute 𝑣𝑎 and𝑣𝑐 into our KCL equations to solve for 𝑣𝑏 .
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 Methods of Analysis- Nodal Analysis

• The KCL equation for node a is

3 = 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑖𝑐

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 Methods of Analysis- Nodal Analysis

• The current across the 40 ohms resistor represented by the

node voltages is found through Ohm's law as the potential
across the element divided by the resistance.
• Note the assumed direction of the current to ensure the
correct polarity of the difference in potential.
𝑣𝑏 −0 𝑣𝑏
• 𝑖𝑏 = =
40 40

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 Methods of Analysis- Nodal Analysis

• The current through node c will be equivalent to the

potential across the resistor divided by the resistance.
𝑣𝑎 −𝑣𝑐
• 𝑖𝑐 =
10
• Substituting in the currents 𝑖𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑐 and using the
equations for 𝑣𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑐 and , the KCL equation at node A is
found to be
𝑣𝑏 𝑣𝑏 +8 − −12
• 3= 40
+ 10
• Solving shows the voltage is 8 volts.
• Finally, the voltage at a is 16 volts. Engr. Dr. Aderonke Akinwumi
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 Methods of Analysis- Loop/Mesh Analysis

• Loop analysis is a special application of KVL on a circuit. We

use a special kind of loop called a 'mesh' which is a loop that
does not have any other loops inside of it.
• A mesh starts at a node and traces a path around a circuit,
returning to the original node without hitting any nodes
more than once.
• We can only apply mesh analysis to planar circuits, that is
circuits without crossover connections. If a circuit cannot be
redrawn without the intersecting disconnected lines then
we cannot use mesh analysis. 37
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 Methods of Analysis- Loop/Mesh Analysis

• Similar to nodal analysis, we want to obtain the mesh

equations to be able to interpret the circuit. The mesh
equations are obtained by
– Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL) to each mesh in the
circuit.
– Expressing the voltages of elements in terms of the mesh
currents.
• The current along a mesh may not be uniform but this is
accounted for by considering the current imposed by other
meshes. Observe the circuit shown below. Engr. Dr. Aderonke Akinwumi
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Methods of Analysis- Loop/Mesh Analysis

Figure 1.13: Mesh circuit

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 Methods of Analysis- Loop/Mesh Analysis

• This circuit has 2 meshes in it, outlined in green and blue

dotted lines.
• The currents i1 and i2 are the currents around a mesh.
• In places where the currents affect each other, such as R3 in
Figure 1.13, take the sum of the currents but consider the
directions.
• Here, if we examine the green mesh, the current through R3
will be i1-i2 because i2 is going in the opposite direction as i1.

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 Methods of Analysis- Loop/Mesh Analysis

• The method behind mesh analysis is to examine the mesh in

terms of the voltages of each element and express that with
the mesh currents.
• Using Ohm's law, we can express the voltage across as.
• Use this approach across a circuit applying KVL to find the
mesh equations, then you can use these equations to solve
for unknown current.

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 Methods of Analysis- Loop/Mesh Analysis

• In the case where a dependent source is present in a circuit,

the controlled current or voltage of that source must also be
expressed by the mesh currents.
• Examine the circuit and find which part of the circuit
controls the dependent source and express that voltage or
current with the mesh currents that affect it.

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Methods of Analysis- Loop/Mesh Analysis

Figure 1.14: Circuit with dependent source

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 Methods of Analysis- Loop/Mesh Analysis

• In this circuit, a dependent source generates voltage

depending on the current at va.
• We want to express this in terms of the mesh currents.
• Examining the circuit shows that the current ia is equal to
the mesh current i2.
• Therefore the dependent source will force 3v2 volts into the
system, and now mesh analysis can be performed to solve
for the remaining unknowns.

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 Methods of Analysis- Loop/Mesh Analysis

• Both analyses are appropriate in most cases. Mesh analysis

should not be used in instances where the circuit has a
crossover.
• In this case, the nodal method should be used.
• A reliable way to determine which method to use comes
from the number of equations that each will generate. It
would be a better choice to use mesh analysis if the circuit
contained more nodes than meshes, and if the opposite is
true then use nodal analysis.
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 Example 1

• Determine the node voltages for the circuit in the figure

below.

Figure 1.15: Circuit diagram for node analysis

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 Example 2
• Consider the circuit below. A voltmeter reads -7.2 volts across the
dependent source. Find the gain A of the current-controlled voltage source

Figure 1.16: Mesh analysis of a circuit

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