Radar Engineering

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RADAR ENGINEERING

Dr. Pramod R. Bokde


Assistant Professor
Priyadarshini Bhagwati College of Engineering, Nagpur

March 23, 2021


2

DISCLAIMER

This document does not claim any originality


and cannot be used as a substitute for prescribed
textbooks. The information presented here is merely a
collection by the teacher for his respective teaching
assignments. Various sources as mentioned at the end
of the document as well as freely available material
from internet were consulted for preparing this
document. The ownership of the information lies with
the respective authors or institutions.
Contents

1 BASICS OF RADAR & RADAR EQUATION 7

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.2 Range to a target . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.3 Maximum Unambiguous Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.4 Radar Range Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.5 Radar Block Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.6 Applications of Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.7 Prediction of Range Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.8 Minimum Detectable Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1.9 Receiver Noise and Signal to Noise Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1.10 Integration of Radar Pulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

1.11 Radar Cross Section of Target . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1.12 Transmitter Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

1.13 Pulse Repetition Frequency and Range Ambiguities . . . . . . . . 29

1.14 System Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

1.14.1 Types of Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

1.14.2 Losses in Doppler processing radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2 CW and Frequency Modulated Radar 35

3
4 CONTENTS

2.1 Doppler Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.2 CW Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

2.3 Isolation between Transmitter and Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2.4 Intermediate Frequency Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

2.5 Receiver Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

2.6 Application of CW Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

2.7 Frequency Modulated CW Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.8 Range and Doppler Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

2.9 FMCW altimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

2.10 Multiple Frequency CW Radar (MFCW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

3 MTI and Pulse Doppler Radar 51

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3.2 MTI Radar (Principle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

3.3 MTI Radar with Power Oscillator Transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3.3.1 Butterfly effect in MTI Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

3.4 Delay Line Cancellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.4.1 Block Diagram of Delay Line Cancellers . . . . . . . . . . . 57

3.4.2 Types of Delay Line Cancellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

3.4.3 Response of the Delay Line Canceller (Filter Characteristics 60

3.4.4 Double Delay Line Canceller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

3.5 Blind Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

3.6 Multiple or staggered Pulse Repetation Frequencies . . . . . . . . 64

3.7 Range Gated Doppler Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

4 Tracking with Radar 69


CONTENTS 5

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

4.2 Canonical Scan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

4.3 Sequential Lobbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

4.4 Mono Pulse Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4.4.1 Amplitude Comparison of Mono-pulse . . . . . . . . . . . 76

4.4.2 Phase Comparison Mono-pulse Tracking . . . . . . . . . . 78

4.5 Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

5 Radar Receivers 83

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

5.2 Types of Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

5.3 Duplexers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

5.3.1 Branch Type Duplexers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

5.3.2 Balanced Duplexer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

5.3.3 Circulator Duplexer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

5.4 Phased Array Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

5.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

5.4.2 Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

5.4.3 Radiation Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

5.4.4 Beem Stearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

5.4.5 Change of Beam width with Steering Angle . . . . . . . . 95

5.4.6 Series Vs Parallel Feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

5.4.7 Applications of Array in Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

5.4.8 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6 CONTENTS
Chapter 1

BASICS OF RADAR & RADAR


EQUATION

1.1 Introduction

1 Radar is an acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging.

2 The term “radio” refers to the use of electromagnetic waves


with wavelength in so called radio wave portion of the
spectrum, which covers a wide range from 104 Km to 1 cm.
3 It is a system used to detect, range (determine the distance)
and map objects such as aircraft and rain. Strong radio waves
are transmitted, and a receiver listen for reflected echoes.
4 By analyzing the reflected signal, the reflector can be located,
and sometimes identified. Although the amount of returned
is tiny, radio signal can easily be detected and amplified. It
can operate in darkness, haze, fog, rain and show, it has
ability to measure distance with high accuracy in all-weather
conditions.
5 The electronics principal on which radar operates is very
similar to the principle of sound wave reflection. If you
shout in the direction of sound-reflecting object (like a rocky
canon or cave), you will hear an echo.

7
8 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF RADAR & RADAR EQUATION

6 If you know the speed of sound in air, you can estimate the
distance and general direction of the object. The time
required for a return echo can roughly converted in to
distance if the speed of sound is known.

7 The radio frequency energy is transmitted to and reflects from


the reflecting object. A small portion of the energy is reflected
and return to the radar set. This returned energy is called
ECHO.

8 Radar uses electromagnetic energy pulses in the same way, as


shown in figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1:

1.2 Range to a target

1 The most common radar waveform is a train of narrow,


rectangular-shape pulses modulating a sine wave carrier.
The distance, or range, to the target is determined by
measuring the time TR taken by the pulse to travel to the
target and return. Since electromagnetic energy propagates
at the speed of light c = 3 × 108 m/s, the range R is

cTR
R= (1.1)
2
1.3. MAXIMUM UNAMBIGUOUS RANGE 9

2 The factor 2 appears in the denominator because of the two-


way propagation of radar. With the range in kilometers or
nautical miles, and TR in microseconds, Eq. above becomes

R(Km) = 0.15TR (µsec) R(nmi ) = 0.081TR (µsec) (1.2)

1.3 Maximum Unambiguous Range

1. Once the transmitted pulse is emitted by the radar, a sufficient


length of time must elapse to allow any echo signals to return
and be detected before the next pulse may be transmitted.

2. Therefore the rate at which the pulses may be transmitted is


determined by the longest range at which targets are expect

3. If the pulse repetition frequency is too high, echo signals from


some targets might arrive after the transmission of the next
pulse, and ambiguities in measuring range might result.

4. Echoes that arrive after the transmission of the next pulse are
called second-time-around or multiple-time-around echoes.
Such an echo would appear to be at a much shorter range
than the actual and could be misleading if it were not known
to be a second-time-around echo.

5. The range beyond which targets appear as


second-time-around echoes is called the maximum
unambiguous range and is given by

cTp c
Runamb = = (1.3)
2 2 fp

where, f p = pulse repetition frequency, in Hz.


10 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF RADAR & RADAR EQUATION

1.4 Radar Range Equation

1 The radar equation relates the range of a radar to the


characteristics of the transmitter, receiver, antenna, target,
and environment. It is useful not just as a means for
determining the maximum distance from the radar to the
target, but it can serve both as a tool for understanding radar
operation and as a basis for radar design.

2 If the power of the radar transmitter is denoted by Pt , and if


an isotropic antenna is used (one which radiates uniformly
in all directions), the power density (Watts per unit area) at
a distance R from the radar is equal to the transmitter power
divided by the surface area 4πR2 of an imaginary sphere of
radius R , or
PT
Power density at range R from an isotropic antenna =
4πR2
(1.4)
3 Radars employ directive antennas to channel, or direct, the
radiated power Pt into some particular direction. The gain G
of an antenna is a measure of the increased power radiated in
the direction of the target as compared with the power that
would have been radiated from an isotropic antenna.

4 It may be defined as the ratio of the maximum radiation


intensity from the subject antenna to the radiation intensity
from a lossless, isotropic antenna with the same power
input. (The radiation intensity is the power radiated per unit
solid angle in a given direction.) The power density at the
target from an antenna with a transmitting gain G is
PT G
Power density at range R from a directive antenna =
4πR2
(1.5)
5 The target intercepts a portion of the incident power and
reradiates it in various directions.
1.4. RADAR RANGE EQUATION 11

6 The measure of the amount of incident power intercepted by


the target and reradiated back in the direction of the radar is
denoted as the radar cross section σ, and is defined by the
relation
PT G σ
Reradiated power density back at the radar =
4πR2 4πR2
(1.6)

7 The radar cross section σ has units of area. It is a characteristic


of the particular target and is a measure of its size as seen by
the radar. The radar antenna captures a portion of the echo
power. If the effective area of the receiving antenna is denoted
Ae , the power Pr , received by the radar is;
PT G σ
Pr = Ae (1.7)
4πR2 4πR2

8 The maximum radar range Rmax is the distance beyond


which the target cannot be detected. It occurs when the
received echo signal power P, just equals the minimum
detectable signal Smin ,
PT GσAe
Rmax = (1.8)
(4π )2 Smin

9 This is the fundamental form of the radar equation. Note that


the important antenna parameters are the transmitting gain
and the receiving effective area.

10 Antenna theory gives the relationship between the


transmitting gain and the receiving effective area of an
antenna as;
4πAe
G= (1.9)
λ2

11 Since radars generally use the same antenna for both


transmission and reception, Eq. can be substituted into Eq.
12 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF RADAR & RADAR EQUATION

above, first for Ae , then for G, to give two other forms of the
radar equation;
 41
PT G2 σλ2

Rmax = (1.10)
(4π )3 Smin

12 Similarly,
Gλ2
Ae = (1.11)

Then,
  14
PT Ae 2σ
Rmax = (1.12)
(4π 3 )Smin λ2

13 The Radar range is proportional to λ1/2 in Case 1 & it is


proportional to in λ−1/2 Case 2. So we can conclude that the
Radar range is independent of wavelength.

1.5 Radar Block Diagram

1 The operation of a typical pulse radar may be described with


the aid of the block diagram shown in Fig 1.2

Figure 1.2: Block diagram of a simple pulse radar


1.5. RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM 13

2 Transmitter : The transmitter may be an oscillator, such as a


magnetron, that is ”pulsed” (turned on and on) by the
modulator to generate a repetitive train of pulses. The
magnetron has probably been the most widely used of the
various microwave generators for radar. A typical radar for
the detection of aircraft at ranges of 100 or 200 nmi might
employ a peak power of the order of a megawatt, an average
power of several kilowatts, a pulse width of several
microseconds, and a pulse repetition frequency of several
hundred pulses per second.

3 Pulse Modulator : The radar modulator is a device, which


provides the high power to the transmitter tube to transmit
during transmission period. It makes the transmitting tube
ON and OFF to generate the desired waveform. Modulator
allows the storing the energy in a capacitor bank during rest
time.

4 The stored energy then can be put into the pulse when
transmitted. It provides rectangular voltage pulses which act
as the supply voltage to the output tube such as magnetron,
thus switching it ON and OFF as required.

5 Duplexer : The receiver must be protected from damage


caused by the high power of the transmitter. This is the
function of the duplexer. The duplexer also serves to channel
the returned echo signals to the receiver and not to the
transmitter. The duplexer might consist of two gas-discharge
devices, one known as a TR (transmit-receive) and the other
an ATR (anti-transmit-receive). The TR protects the receiver
during transmission and the ATR directs the echo signal to
the receiver during reception. Solid-state ferrite circulators
and receiver protectors with gas-plasma TR devices and/or
diode limiters are also employed as duplexers.

6 Antenna : The antenna takes the radar pulse from the


transmitter and puts it into the air. Furthermore, the antenna
14 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF RADAR & RADAR EQUATION

must focus the energy into a well-defined beam which


increase the power and permits a determination of the
direction of the target.

7 Receiver: The receiver is usually of the super-heterodyne


type whose function is to detect the desired signal in the
presence of noise, interference and clutter. The receiver in
pulsed radar consists of low noise RF amplifier, mixer, local
oscillator, IF amplifier, detector, video amplifier and radar
display.

8 Low Noise RF Amplifier: Low noise amplifier is the first


stage of the receiver. It is low noise transistor amplifier or a
parametric amplifier or a TWT amplifier. Silicon bipolar
transistor is used at lower radar frequencies (below L-band
1215 to 1400 MHz) and the GaAs FET is preferred at higher
frequencies. It amplifies the received weak echo signal.

9 Mixer and Local Oscillator: These convert RF signal output


from RF amplifier to comparatively lower frequency level
called Intermediate Frequency (IF). The typical value for
pulse radar is 30 MHz or 60 MHz.

10 IF Amplifier: IF Amplifier consist of a cascade of tuned


amplifier, these can be synchronous, that is all tuned to the
same frequency and having identical band pass
characteristics. If Aa really large bandwidth is needed, the
individual IF may be staggered tuned. The typical value for
pulse radar is 30 MHz or 60MHz.

11 Detector: Detector is often a schottky-barrier diode which


extract the pulse modulation from the IF amplifier output.
The detector output is then amplified by the video amplifier
to a level where it can be properly displayed on screen
directly or via DSP.

12 Display Unit: The received video signal are display on the


1.6. APPLICATIONS OF RADAR 15

CRT for further observation and actions. Different types of


display system which are used in radar

1.6 Applications of Radar

1 Radar has been employed on the ground, in the air, on the


sea, and in space.

2 Ground-based radar has been applied chiefly to the detection,


location, and tracking of aircraft or space targets.

3 Shipboard radar is used as a navigation aid and safety device


to locate buoys, shore lines, and other ships as well as for
observing aircraft.

4 Airborne radar may be used to detect other aircraft, ships, or


land vehicles, or it may be used for mapping of land, storm
avoidance, terrain avoidance, and navigation.

5 In space, radar has assisted in the guidance of spacecraft and


for the remote sensing of the land and sea.

6 Air Traffic Control (ATC): Radars are employed throughout


the world for the purpose of safely controlling air traffic en
route and in the vicinity of airports. Aircraft and ground
vehicular traffic at large airports are monitored by means of
high-resolution radar. Radar has been used with GCA
(ground-control approach) systems to guide aircraft to a safe
landing in bad weather. In addition, the microwave landing
system and the widely used ATC radar-beacon system are
based in large part on radar technology.

7 Aircraft Navigation: The weather-avoidance radar used on


aircraft to outline regions of precipitation to the pilot is a
classical form of radar. Radar is also used for terrain
avoidance and terrain following. Although they may not
16 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF RADAR & RADAR EQUATION

always be thought of as radars, the radio altimeter (either


FM/CW or pulse) and the Doppler navigator are also radars.
Sometimes ground-mapping radars of moderately high
resolution are used for aircraft navigation purposes.

8 Ship Safety: Radar is used for enhancing the safety of ship


travel by warning of potential collision with other ships, and
for detecting navigation buoys, especially in poor visibility.
In terms of numbers, this is one of the larger applications of
radar, but in terms of physical size and cost it is one of the
smallest. It has also proven to be one of the most reliable
radar systems. Automatic detection and tracking
equipment’s (also called plot extractors) are commercially
available for use with such radars for the purpose of
collision avoidance. Shore-based radar of moderately high
resolution is also used for the surveillance of harbors as an
aid to navigation.

9 Space: Space vehicles have used radar for rendezvous and


docking, and for landing on the moon. Some of the largest
ground-based radars are for the detection and tracking of
satellites. Satellite-borne radars have also been used for
remote sensing as mentioned below.

10 Remote Sensing: All radars are remote sensors; however, as


this term is used it implies the sensing of geophysical objects,
or the ”environment.” For some time, radar has been used as
a remote sensor of the weather. It was also used in the past
to probe the moon and the planets (radar astronomy). The
ionospheric sounder, an important adjunct for HF (short
wave) communications, is a radar. Remote sensing with
radar is also concerned with Earth resources, which includes
the measurement and mapping of sea conditions, water
resources, ice cover, agriculture, forestry conditions,
geological formations, and environmental pollution. The
platforms for such radars include satellites as well as aircraft.
1.7. PREDICTION OF RANGE PERFORMANCE 17

11 Law Enforcement: In addition to the wide use of radar to


measure the speed of automobile traffic by highway police,
radar has also been employed as a means for the detection of
intruders.

12 Military: Many of the civilian applications of radar are also


employed by the military. The traditional role of radar for
military application has been for surveillance, navigation,
and for the control and guidance of weapons. It represents,
by far, the largest use of radar.

1.7 Prediction of Range Performance

1 The simple form of the radar equation expressed the


maximum radar range Rmax, in terms of radar and target
parameters -
 1
Pt GAe σ 4
Rmax = (1.13)
(4π )2 Smin
where, Pt = Transmitted power in watts
G = Gain of an antenna
Ae = Antenna Effective aperture, m2
σ = Radar cross section, m2
Smin = Minimum detectable signal, watts

2 All the parameters are to some extent under the control of the
radar designer, except for the target cross section σ.

3 The radar equation states that if long ranges are desired, the
transmitted power must be large, the radiated energy must be
concentrated into a narrow beam (high transmitting antenna
gain), the received echo energy must be collected with a large
antenna aperture (also synonymous with high gain), and the
receiver must be sensitive to weak signals.
18 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF RADAR & RADAR EQUATION

4 In practice, however, the simple radar equation does not


predict the range performance of actual radar equipment’s to
a satisfactory degree of accuracy. The predicted values of
radar range are usually optimistic. In some cases the actual
range might be only half that predicted. Part of this
discrepancy is due to the failure of Eq. above to explicitly
include the various losses that can occur throughout the
system or the loss in performance usually experienced when
electronic equipment is operated in the field rather than
under laboratory-type conditions.

5 Another important factor that must be considered in the radar


equation is the statistical or unpredictable nature of several of
the parameters. The minimum detectable signal Smin and the
target cross section σ are both statistical in nature and must
be expressed in statistical terms.

6 Other statistical factors which do not appear explicitly in Eq.


but which have an effect on the radar performance are the
meteorological conditions along the propagation path and the
performance of the radar operator, if one is employed.

7 The statistical nature of these several parameters does not


allow the maximum radar range to be described by a single
number. Its specification must include a statement of the
probability that the radar will detect a certain type of target
at a particular range.

1.8 Minimum Detectable Signal

1 The ability of a radar receiver to detect a weak echo signal is


limited by the noise energy that occupies the same portion of
the frequency spectrum as does the signal energy.

2 The weakest signal the receiver can detect is called the


minimum detectable signal.
1.8. MINIMUM DETECTABLE SIGNAL 19

3 The specification of the minimum detectable signal is


sometimes difficult because of its statistical nature and
because the criterion for deciding whether a target is present
or not may not be too well defined.

Figure 1.3: Typical envelop of tile radar receiver output as a function of time,
A and B and C represent signal plus noise. A and B would be valid detections,
but C is a mixed detection.

4 Detection is based on establishing a threshold level at the


output of the receiver. If the receiver output exceeds the
threshold, a signal is assumed to be present. This is called
threshold detection.
5 Consider the output of a typical radar receiver as a function of
time Fig. This might represent one sweep of the video output
displayed on an A-scope.

6 The envelope has a fluctuating appearance caused by the


random nature of noise. If a large signal is present such as at
A in Fig. it is greater than the surrounding noise peaks and
can be recognized on the basis of its amplitude.

7 Thus, if the threshold level were set sufficiently high, the


envelope would not generally exceed the threshold if noise
alone were present, but would exceed it if a strong signal
were present.

8 If the signal were small, however, it would be more difficult


to recognize its presence. The threshold level must be low if
weak signals are to be detected, but it cannot be so low that
20 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF RADAR & RADAR EQUATION

noise peaks cross the threshold and give a false indication of


the presence of targets.
9 The voltage envelope of Fig. is assumed to be from a
matched-filter receiver. A matched filter is one designed to
maximize the output peak signal to average noise (power)
ratio. It has a frequency-response function which is
proportional to the complex conjugate of the signal
spectrum. (This is not the same as the concept of
”impedance match of circuit theory).

10 The ideal matched-filter receiver cannot always be exactly


realized in practice, but it is possible to approach it with
practical receiver circuits. A matched filter for a radar
transmitting a rectangular-shaped pulse is usually
characterized by a bandwidth B approximately the
reciprocal of the pulse width τ, or Bτ ≈ 1. The output of a
matched-filter receiver is the cross correlation between the
received waveform and a replica of the transmitted
waveform.
11 Hence it does not preserve the shape of the input waveform.
(There is no reason to wish to preserve the shape of the
received waveform so long as the output signal-to-noise
ratio is maximized.)

1.9 Receiver Noise and Signal to Noise Ratio

1 Since noise is the chief factor limiting receiver sensitivity, it is


necessary to obtain some means of describing it
quantitatively.
2 Noise is unwanted electromagnetic energy which interferes
with the ability of the receiver to detect the wanted signal. It
may originate within the receiver itself, or it may enter via the
receiving antenna along with the desired signal.
1.9. RECEIVER NOISE AND SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO 21

3 If the radar were to operate in a perfectly noise-free


environment so that no external sources of noise
accompanied the desired signal, and if the receiver itself
were so perfect that it did not generate any excess noise,
there would still exist an unavoidable component of noise
generated by the thermal motion of the conduction electrons
in the ohmic portions of the receiver input stages.
4 This is called thermal noise, or Johnson noise, and is
directly proportional to the temperature of the ohmic
portions of the circuit and the receiver bandwidth.
5 The available thermal-noise power generated by a receiver of
bandwidth Bn, (in hertz) at a temperature T (degrees Kelvin)
is equal to,
Available thermal noise power = kTBn (1.14)

6 Where k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 × 10−23 J/deg. If the


temperature T is taken to be 290 K, which corresponds
approximately to room temperature (62o F), the factor Kt is
4 × 10−21 W/Hz of bandwidth. If the receiver circuitry were
at some other temperature, the thermal-noise power would
be correspondingly different.
7 A receiver with a reactance input such as a parametric
amplifier need not have any significant ohmic loss. The
limitation in this case is the thermal noise seen by the
antenna and the ohmic losses in the transmission line.
8 For radar receivers of the superheterodyne type (the type of
receiver used for most radar applications), the receiver
bandwidth is approximately that of the
intermediatefrequency stages.
9 It should be cautioned that the bandwidth B, of Eq. is not the
3-dB, or half-power, bandwidth commonly employed by
electronic engineers. It is an integrated bandwidth and is
given by
22 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF RADAR & RADAR EQUATION

10
R∞ 2
−∞ | F ( f )| d f
Bn = 2
(1.15)
| H ( f 0 )|

11 Where H(f) = frequency-response characteristic of IF


amplifier (filter) and f o = frequency of maximum response
(usually occurs at mid band). When H ( f ) is normalized to
unity at mid band (maximum-response frequency),
H ( f o ) = 1.

12 The bandwidth Bn is called the noise bandwidth and is the


bandwidth of an equivalent rectangular filter whose
noise-power output is the same as the filter with
characteristic H ( f ).

13 The 3-dB bandwidth is defined as the separation in hertz


between the points on the frequency-response characteristic
where the response is reduced to 0.707 (3 dB) from its
maximum value.

14 The exact origin of the extra noise components is not


important except to know that it exists. No matter whether
the noise is generated by a thermal mechanism or by some
other mechanism, the total noise at the output of the receiver
may be considered to be equal to the thermal-noise power
obtained from an” ideal” receiver multiplied by a factor
called the noise figure. The noise figure Fn of a receiver is
defined by the equation;

No Noise output of practical receiver


Fn = =
kTo Bn Ga Noise out of ideal receiver at std. temp To
(1.16)

15 Where No = noise output from receiver, and Ga = available


gain. The standard temperature T is taken to be 290 K
1.10. INTEGRATION OF RADAR PULSES 23

16 The receiver bandwidth Bn is that of the IF amplifier in most


receivers. The available gain Ga is the ratio of the signal out So
to the signal in Si , and kTo Bn is the input noise Ni in an ideal
receiver. Equation above may be rewritten as
Si /Ni
Fn = (1.17)
So /No

17 If the minimum detectable signal Smin , is that value of Si


corresponding to the minimum ratio output (IF)
signal-to-noise ratio (So /No )min necessary for detection,
 
So
Smin = kTo Bn Fn (1.18)
No min

18 Substituting Eq. discussed above into Eq. earlier results in


the following form of the
Pt GAe σ
R4max = 2
(1.19)
(4π ) kTo Bn Fn (So /No )min

1.10 Integration of Radar Pulses

1 Many pulses are usually returned from any particular target


on each radar scan and can be used to improve detection. The
number of pulses nB returned from a point target as the radar
antenna scans through its beam width.

2 Typical parameters for a ground-based search radar might


be pulse repetition frequency, 1.5o beam width, and antenna
scan rate 5 rpm (30o /s). These parameters result in 15 hits
from a point target on each scan.

3 The process of summing all the radar echo pulses for the
purpose of improving detection is called integration.
24 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF RADAR & RADAR EQUATION

4 Many techniques might be employed for accomplishing


integration. All practical integration techniques employ
some sort of storage device. Perhaps the most common radar
integration method is the cathode-ray-tube display
combined with the integrating properties of the eye and
brain of the radar operator.

5 Integration may be accomplished in the radar receiver either


before the second detector (in the IF) or after the second
detector (in the video). A definite distinction must be made
between these two cases.

6 Integration before the detector is called pre-detection, or


coherent, integration, while integration after the detector is
called post-detection, or non-coherent, integration. Pre-
detection integration requires that the phase of the echo
signal be preserved if full benefit is to be obtained from the
summing process.

7 On the other hand, phase information is destroyed by the


second detector; hence post-detection integration is no
concerned with preserving RF phase. For this convenience,
post-detection integration is not as efficient as pre-detection
integration.

8 If n pulses, all of the same signal-to-noise ratio, were


integrated by an ideal pre-detection integrator, the resultant,
or integrated, signal-to-noise (power) ratio would be exactly
n times that of a single pulse.

9 If the same n pulses were integrated by an ideal


post-detection device, the resultant signal-to-noise ratio
would be less than n times that of a single pulse.

10 This loss in integration efficiency is caused by the nonlinear


action of the second detector, which converts some of the
signal energy to noise energy in the rectification process.
1.11. RADAR CROSS SECTION OF TARGET 25

11 The comparison of pre-detection and post-detection


integration may be briefly summarized by stating that
although post-detection integration is not as efficient as
pre-detection integration, it is easier to implement in most
applications.

12 Post detection integration is therefore preferred, even though


the integrated signal-to-noise ratio may not be as great. An
alert, trained operator viewing a properly designed cathode-
ray tube display is a close approximation to the theoretical
post-detection integrator.

13 The efficiency of post-detection integration relative to ideal


pre-detection integration has been computed by Marcum
when all pulses are of equal amplitude. The integration
efficiency may be defined as follows:
(S/N )i
Ei (n) = (1.20)
n(S/N )o

14 The improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio when n pulses


are integrated post detection is nEi(n) and is the
integration-improvement factor. The radar equation with n
pulses integrated can be written as;
Pt GAe σ
R4max = (1.21)
(4π )2 kTo Bn Fn (S/N )n

1.11 Radar Cross Section of Target

1 Radar cross section is a property of a scattering object or


target that is included in the radar eq. to represent the echo
signal returned to the radar by target.
Pt G σ
Power density of echo signal at radar = (1.22)
4πR2 4πR2
26 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF RADAR & RADAR EQUATION

In other terms,
Power reflected towards source/unit solid angle
σ=
incident power density / 4π
(1.23)
2
2 Er
= lim 4πR (1.24)
R→∞ Ei
where,
R = distance between Radar and target,
Er = Reflected field strength at radar
Ei = Strength of incident field at target.

2 The radar cross section of a target is the (fictional) area


intercepting that amount of power which, when scattered
equally in all directions.

3 Scattering and diffraction are variations of the same physical


process.

4 When an object scatters an electromagnetic wave, the


scattered field is defined as the difference between the total
field in the presence of the object and the field that would
exist if the object were absent (but with the sources
unchanged). On the other hand, the diffracted field is the
total field in the presence of the object.

5 With radar backscatter, the two fields are the same, and one
may talk about scattering and diffraction interchangeably.

6 The scattered field, and hence the radar cross section, can be
determined by solving Maxwell’s equations with the proper
boundary conditions applied.

7 Unfortunately, the determination of the radar cross section


with Maxwell’s equations can be accomplished only for the
most simple of shapes, and solutions valid over a large range
of frequencies are not easy to obtain. The radar cross section
of a simple sphere is shown in Fig.
1.11. RADAR CROSS SECTION OF TARGET 27

8 The region where the size of the sphere is small compared


with the wavelength 2πa/λ  1 is called the Rayleigh
region, after Lord Rayleigh who, in the early 1870 first
studied scattering by small particles.

9 Lord Rayleigh was interested in the scattering of light by


microscopic particles, rather than in radar. The cross section
of objects within the Rayleigh region varies as lambda−4 .

Figure 1.4: Radar cross section of the sphere. a = radius; λ = wavelength

10 Rain and Clouds are essentially invisible to radars which


operate at relatively long wavelengths (low frequencies).The
usual radar targets are much larger than raindrops or cloud
particles, and lowering the radar frequency to the point
where rain or cloud echoes are negligibly small will not
seriously reduce the cross section of the larger desired
targets.

11 On the other hand, if it were desired to actually observe,


rather than eliminate, raindrop echoes, as in a
meteorological or weather-observing radar, the higher radar
frequencies would be preferred.
28 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF RADAR & RADAR EQUATION

12 At the other extreme from the Rayleigh region is the optical


region, where the dimensions of the sphere are large
compared with the wavelength 2πa/λ  1.For large 2πa/λ
the radar cross section approaches the optical cross section
πa2 . In between the optical and the Rayleigh region is the
Mie or resonance, region.

13 The maximum value is 5.6 dB greater than the optical value,


while the value of the first null is 5.5 dB below the optical
value.

1.12 Transmitter Power

1 The power Pt in radar range eq. is called peak power


 1/4
Pt GAe σ
Rmax = (1.25)
(sπ )2 Smin

2 The peak pulse power as used in the radar equation is not the
instantaneous peak power of a sine wave.

3 It is defined as the power averaged over that


carrier-frequency cycle which occurs at the maximum of the
pulse of power.

4 If the transmitted waveform is a train of rectangular pulses of


width τ and pulserepetition period Tp = 1/ f p , the average
Power is related to the peak power. by,
Pt τ
Pav = = Pt τ f p (1.26)
Tp
The ratio Pav /Pt , τ/Tp , or τ f p is called the duty cycle of the
radar.
Pav GAe σnEi (n)
R4max = (1.27)
(4π )2 kTo Fn ( Bn τ )(S/N )1 f p
1.13. PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY AND RANGE AMBIGUITIES 29

Pav
Eτ = (1.28)
fp

Et GAe σnEi (n)


R4max = (1.29)
(4π )2 kTo Fn ( Bn τ )(S/N )1
where, Ei = total energy of the n pulses which is equal to nE p .

1.13 Pulse Repetition Frequency and Range


Ambiguities

1 The pulse repetition freq.(PRF) is determined primarily by


the maximum range at which targets are expected.

2 If the PRF is made too high , the likelihood of obtaining target


echoes from the wrong pulse transmission is increased.

3 Echo signal received after an interval exceeding the


pulse-repetition period are called multiple time around echoes.

4 Now consider the three targets labeled A, B, and C in Fig.1.5

5 Target A is located within the maximum unambiguous range


Runamb of the radar,target B is at a distance greater than Runamb
but less than 2RUnamb while target C is greater the 2Runab but
less than 3RUnamb . The appearance of the three targets on an
A-scope is sketched in Fig. c

6 The multiple-time-around echoes on the A-scope cannot be


distinguished from proper target echoes actually within the
maximum unambiguous range. Only the range measured for
target A is correct; those for B and C are not.

7 One method of distinguishing multiple-time-around echoes


from unambiguous echoes is to operate with a varying pulse
repetition frequency.
Rtrue = f 1 or ( f 1 + Run1 ) or ( f 1 + Run2 )...... (1.30)
30 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF RADAR & RADAR EQUATION

Figure 1.5:

8 The correct range is that value which is the same with the
two PRF, generally three PRF are often use to resolve range
ambiguities.

1.14 System Losses

1 The important factors omitted from the simple radar equation


was the losses that occurs throughout the radar system.
System losses defined by Ls.

2 Loss (number greater than unity) and efficiency (number less


than unity) are used interchangeably. One is simply the
reciprocal of the other.
Losses occurs due to,
(a) Loss due to integration.
(b) Loss due to fluctuating cross section.
(c) Loss due to change in radar cross section of target.
(d) Losses due to transmission line.
1.14. SYSTEM LOSSES 31

(e) Losses due to various mechanical part of radar system

1.14.1 Types of Losses

1 Microwave plumbing loss:-There is always loss in


transmission line that connect Transmitter and Reciever In
addition there can be loss in the various microwave
components such as duplexer, receiver protector, directional
coupler, transmission line connector, bend in transmission
line, etc.

2 Duplexer loss: The loss due to duplexer that is protect


Transmitter and Reciever Eg. Gas duplexer, solid state
duplexer.

3 Beam shape loss : The antenna gain that appears in the radar
equation was assumed to be a constant equal to the maximum
value. But in reality the train of pulses returned from a target
with a scanning radar is modulated in amplitude by the shape
of the antenna beam.

4 Scanning loss: When the antenna scan rapidly enough,


relative to the round trip time of the echo signal, the antenna
gain in the direction of target on transmit might not be the
same as that on receive.This result in an additional loss
called scanning loss.

5 Phased array losses: Some phased array radar have


additional transmission losses due to the distribution n/w
that connects RX and Transmitter to each of the many
element of array.

6 Signal processing loss: Sophisticated signal processing is


prevalent in modern radars and is very important for
detecting target in clutter and in extracting information from
radar echo signals.
32 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF RADAR & RADAR EQUATION

The factor described below can also introduced


significant loss:

1 Matched & Non-matched filter

2 Constant false alarm

3 Automatic integrator

4 Threshold level

5 Limiting loss

6 Sampling loss

1.14.2 Losses in Doppler processing radar

This kind of loss occur due to Doppler frequency.

1 Collapsing loss: If the radar were to integrate additional


noise sample along with signal-pulse-noise pulses, the
added noise would result in a degradation called collapsing
loss.

2 Operator loss: An alert, motivated, and well-trained


operator should perform as well as described by theory.
However, when distracted, tired, overloaded, or not
properly trained, operator performance will decrease.There
is little guidance available on how to account for the
performance of an operator.Based an both empirical and
experimental results, one gives the operator efficiency factor
as

3 Equipment degradation: It is common for radar operated


under field conditions to have performance than when they
left the factory. This loss of performance can be recognized
1.14. SYSTEM LOSSES 33

by regular testing the radar, especially with built in test


equipment that automatically indicating when equipment
deviates from specifications.

4 Transmission loss: The theoretical one way loss in db per


100 feet for standard transmission line. Since the same
transmission line generally is used for transmission and
reception, so the loss to be inserted in the radar eq. is twice
the one-way loss. Flexible waveguide and coaxial line can
have higher loss compare to conventional waveguide. At
lower freq. transmission line introduce less loss
34 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF RADAR & RADAR EQUATION
Chapter 2

CW and Frequency Modulated


Radar

2.1 Doppler Effect

1 A Radar detects the presence of objects and locates their


position in space by transmitting electromagnetic energy
and observing the returned echo. A pulse radar transmits a
relatively short burst of electromagnetic energy, after which
the receiver is turned on to listen for the echo.

2 The echo not only indicates that a target is present, but the
time that elapses between the transmission of the pulse and
the receipt of the echo is a measure of the distance to the
target.

3 Separation of the echo signal and the transmitted signal is


made on the basis of differences in time. The radar
transmitter may be operated continuously rather than
pulsed if the strong transmitted signal can be separated from
the weak echo.

4 The received-echo-signal power is considerably smaller than


the transmitter power; it might be as little as 10-18 that of the
transmitted power-sometimes even less. Separate antennas

35
36 CHAPTER 2. CW AND FREQUENCY MODULATED RADAR

for transmission and reception help segregate the weak echo


from the strong leakage signal, but the isolation is usually not
sufficient.

5 A feasible technique for separating the received signal from


the transmitted signal when there is relative motion between
radar and target is based on recognizing the change in the
echo-signal frequency caused by the Doppler effect.

6 It is well known in the fields of optics and acoustics that if


either the source of oscillation or the observer of the
oscillation is in motion, an apparent shift in frequency will
result. This is the Doppler Effect and is the basis of CW
radar.

7 If R is the distance from the radar to target, tile total number


of wavelengths λ contained in the two-way path between the
radar and the target is 2R
λ .

8 The distance R and the wavelength λ are assumed to be


measured in the same units. Since one wavelength
corresponds to an angular excursion of 2π radians, the total
angular excursion v made by the electromagnetic wave
during its transit to and from the target i s 4πR
λ radians.

9 If the target is in motion, R and the phase v are continually


changing. A change in v with respect to time is equal to a
frequency.

10 This is the Doppler angular frequency ωd given by;

dv
ωd = 2π f d = (2.1)
dt
4π dR 4πvr
= (2.2)
λ dt λ
Here, f d is doppler frequency shift and vr is relative or radial
velocity of the target with to radar.
2.2. CW RADAR 37

2.2 CW Radar

Figure 2.1: (a) Simple CW radar block diagram; (b) response characteristic of
beat-frequency amplifier

1 Consider the simple CW radar as illustrated by the block


diagram of Fig. The transmitter generates a continuous
(unmodulated) oscillation of frequency fo, which is radiated
by the antenna.

2 A portion of the radiated energy is intercepted by the target


and is scattered, some of it in the direction of the radar,
where it is collected by the receiving antenna. If the target is
in motion with a velocity vr, relative to the radar, the
received signal will be shifted in frequency from the
transmitted frequency f o by an amount ± f d as given by -
2vr
fd = (2.3)
λ
3 The plus sign associated with the doppler frequency applies
if the distance between target and radar is decreasing (closing
38 CHAPTER 2. CW AND FREQUENCY MODULATED RADAR

target), that is, when the received signal frequency is greater


than the transmitted signal frequency.

4 The minus sign applies if the distance is increasing (receding


target). The received echo signal at a frequency f 0 ± f d enters
the radar via the antenna and is heterodyned in the detector
(mixer) with a portion of the transmitter signal fo to produce
a doppler beat note of frequency f d . The sign of f d is lost in
this process.

5 The purpose of the doppler amplifier is to eliminate echoes


from stationary targets and to amplify the doppler echo
signal to a level where it can operate an indicating device. It
might have a frequency-response characteristic similar to
that of Fig 2.1.

6 The low-frequency cutoff must be high enough to reject tile


d-c component caused by stationary targets, but yet it might
be low enough to pass the smallest doppler frequency
expected. Sometimes both conditions cannot be met
simultaneously and a compromise is necessary. The upper
cutoff frequency is selected to pass the highest doppler
frequency expected.

7 The indicator might be a pair of earphones or a frequency


meter. If exact knowledge of the doppler frequency is not
necessary, earphones are especially attractive provided the
doppler frequencies lie within the audio-frequency response
of the ear. Earphones are not only simple devices. but the ear
acts as a selective bandpass filter with a passband of the
order of 50 Hz centered about the signal frequency.

2.3 Isolation between Transmitter and Receiver

1 Isolation between the transmitted and the received signals is


achieved via separation in frequency as a result of the doppler
2.4. INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY RECEIVER 39

effect.
2 In practice, it is not possible to eliminate completely the
transmitter leakage. However, transmitter leakage is not
always undesirable.

3 A moderate amount of leakage entering the receiver along


with the echo signal supplies the reference necessary for the
detection of the doppler frequency shift.

4 There are two practical effects which limit the amount of


transmitter leakage power which can be tolerated at the
receiver. These are
(a) The maximum amount of power the receiver input
circuitry can withstand before it is physically damaged
or its sensitivity reduced (burnout) and
(b) The amount of transmitter noise due to hum, micro
phonics, stray pick-up, and instability which enters the
receiver from the transmitter.
5 The additional noise introduced by the transmitter reduces
the receiver sensitivity.The amount of isolation required
depends on the transmitter power and the accompanying
Transmitter noise as well as the ruggedness and the
sensitivity of the receiver.

6 The transmitter noise that enters the radar receiver via


backscatter from the clutter is sometimes called transmitted
clutter.

2.4 Intermediate Frequency Receiver

1 CW type receivers are called homodyne receivers, or super


heterodyne receivers with zero IF.The function of the local
oscillator is replaced by the leakage signal from the
transmitter.
40 CHAPTER 2. CW AND FREQUENCY MODULATED RADAR

Figure 2.2: Block diagram of Doppler radar with IF receiver (sideband


superheterodyne)

2 The simpler receiver is not as sensitive because of increased


noise at the lower intermediate frequencies caused by flicker
effect.

3 Flicker-effect noise occurs in semiconductor devices such as


diode detectors and cathodes of vacuum tubes.

4 The noise power produced by the flicker effect varies as 1/ f α


where alpha is approximately unity.This is in contrast to shot
noise or thermal noise, which is independent of frequency.

5 Generally flicker noise would be high at lower freq. Due to


flicker noise receiver sensitivity decreases. The effects of
flicker noise overcome in the normal super heterodyne
receiver by using an intermediate frequency high enough,
increase Transmitter power, or increase antenna aperture.

6 Instead of the usual local oscillator found in the conventional


super heterodyne receiver, the local oscillator (or reference
signal) is derived in the receiver from a portion of the
transmitted signal mixed with a locally generated signal of
2.5. RECEIVER BANDWIDTH 41

frequency equal to that of the receiver IF.

7 Since the output of the mixer consists of two sidebands on


either side of the carrier plus higher harmonics, a
narrowband filter selects one of the sidebands as the
reference signal.

8 The improvement in receiver sensitivity with an


intermediate-frequency super heterodyne might be as much
as 30 dB over the simple receiver.

2.5 Receiver Bandwidth

1 One of the requirements of the doppler-frequency amplifier


in the simple CW radar or the IF amplifier of the sideband
super heterodyne is that it be wide enough to pass the
expected range of doppler frequencies.

2 In most cases of practical interest the expected range of


doppler frequencies will be much wider than the frequency
spectrum occupied by the signal energy.

3 The use of a wideband amplifier covering the expected


doppler range will result in an increase in noise and a
lowering of the receiver sensitivity.

4 If the frequency of the doppler-shifted echo signal were


known beforehand, A narrowband filter-one just wide
enough to reduce the excess noise without eliminating a
significant amount of signal energy-might be used. Also
matched filter could be specified as per requirement.

5 If the received waveform were a sine wave of infinite


duration, its frequency spectrum would be a delta function
and the receiver bandwidth would be infinitesimal.
42 CHAPTER 2. CW AND FREQUENCY MODULATED RADAR

Figure 2.3: Frequency spectrum

6 But a sine wave of infinite duration and an infinitesimal


bandwidth cannot occur in nature.

7 The more normal situation is an echo signal which is a sine


wave of finite rather than infinite duration.

8 The frequency spectrum of a finite-duration sine wave has a


shape of the form

9 sin π ( f – f 0 )4/π ( f – f 0 ) where, f 0 and are the frequency and


duration of the sine wave, respectively, and f is the frequency
variable over which the spectrum is plotted

10 In many instances, the echo is not a pure sine wave of finite


duration but is perturbed by fluctuations in cross section,
target accelerations, scanning fluctuations, etc., which tend
to broaden the bandwidth still further. Some of these
spectrum-broadening effects are considered below.

11 Assume a CW radar with an antenna beamwidth of θ B deg.


scanning at the rate of θs deg/s.

12 The time on target (duration of the received signal) is = θ B /θs


sec. Thus the signal is of finite duration and the bandwidth of
the receiver must be of the order of the reciprocal of the time
on target θ B /θs .

13 Although this is not an exact relation, it is a good enough


approximation for purposes of the present discussion.
2.6. APPLICATION OF CW RADAR 43

14 If the antenna beamwidth were 20 and if the scanning rate


were 360/s (6 rpm), the spread in the spectrum of the received
signal due to the finite time on target would be equal to 18 Hz,
independent of the transmitted frequency.

2.6 Application of CW Radar

1 Measurement of the relative velocity of a moving target, as


in the police speed monitor or in the rate-of-climb meter for
vertical-take-off aircraft.

2 Suggested for the control of traffic lights, regulation of toll


booths, vehicle counting, as a replacement for the
“fifth-wheel” speedometer in vehicle testing, as a sensor in
antilock braking systems, and for collision avoidance.

3 For railways, CW radar can be used as a speedometer

4 CW radar is also employed for monitoring the docking speed


of large ships.

5 It has also seen application for intruder alarms and for the
measurement of the velocity of missiles, ammunition, and
baseballs.

6 In industry this has been applied to the measurement of


turbine-blade vibration, the peripheral speed of grinding
wheels, and the monitoring of vibrations in the cables of
suspension bridges.

7 High-power CW radars for the detection of aircraft and


other targets have been developed and have been used in
such systems as the Hawk missile systems.
44 CHAPTER 2. CW AND FREQUENCY MODULATED RADAR

Figure 2.4: Block diagram of FMCW radar

2.7 Frequency Modulated CW Radar

1 A portion of the transmitter signal acts as the reference


signal required to produce the beat frequency. It is
introduced directly into the receiver via a cable or other
direct connection.

2 Ideally the isolation between transmitting and receiving


antennas is made sufficiently large so as to reduce to a
negligible level the transmitter leakage signal which arrives
at the receiver via the coupling between antennas.

3 The beat frequency is amplified and limited to remove any


amplitude fluctuations. The frequency of the
amplitude-limited beat note is measured with a
cycle-counting frequency meter calibrated in distance.

4 The target was assumed to be stationary. If this assumption


is not applicable, a doppler frequency shift will be
superimposed on the FM range beat note and an erroneous
range measurement results.

5 The doppler frequency shift causes the frequency-time plot


of the echo signal to be shifted up or down. On one portion
2.7. FREQUENCY MODULATED CW RADAR 45

of the frequency-modulation cycle the heat frequency is


increased by the doppler shift, while on the other portion it
is decreased.
6 If for example, the target is approaching the radar, the beat
frequency f b (up) produced during the increasing, or up,
portion of the FM cycle will be the difference between the
beat frequency due to the range f r , and the doppler
frequency shift f d . Similarly, on the decreasing portion, the
beat frequency, f b (down) is the sum of the two.

f b (up) = f r − f d (2.4)

7 The target was assumed to be stationary. If this assumption


is not applicable, a doppler frequency shift will be
superimposed on the FM range beat note and an erroneous
range measurement results.

8 The doppler frequency shift causes the frequency-time plot


of the echo signal to be shifted up or down. On one portion
of the frequency-modulation cycle the heat frequency is
increased by the doppler shift, while on the other portion it
is decreased.
9 If for example, the target is approaching the radar, the beat
frequency f b (up) produced during the increasing, or up,
portion of the FM cycle will be the difference between the
beat frequency due to the range f r , and the doppler
frequency shift f d . Similarly, on the decreasing portion, the
beat frequency, f b (down) is the sum of the two.

f b (up) = f r − f d (2.5)
f b (down) = f r + f d (2.6)
f r = [ f b (up) + f b (down)] /2 (2.7)

10 If f b (up) and f b (down) are measured separately, for example,


by switching a frequency counter every half modulation
46 CHAPTER 2. CW AND FREQUENCY MODULATED RADAR

cycle, one-half the difference between the frequencies will


yield the doppler frequency. This assumes f r > f d . 11. If, on
the other hand, f r < f d such as might occur with a
high-speed target at short range, the roles of the averaging
and the difference-frequency measurements are reversed; the
averaging meter will measure Doppler velocity, and the
difference meter, range.

11 If it is not known that the roles of the meters are reversed


because of a change in the inequality sign between fr and fd
an incorrect interpretation of the measurements may result.

2.8 Range and Doppler Measurement

1 The frequency-modulated CW radar (abbreviated as


FM-CW), the transmitter frequency is changed as a function
of time in a known manner. Assume that the transmitter
frequency increases linearly with time, as shown by the solid
line in Fig. 2.5

2 If there is no doppler frequency shift, the beat note


(difference frequency) is a measure of the target’s range and
f b = f r where f r is the beat frequency due only to the target’s
range.

3 If the rate of change of the carrier frequency is f 0 , the beat


frequency is
2R f 0
fr = f0 T = (2.8)
c

4 In any practical CW radar, the frequency cannot be


continually changed in one direction only. Periodicity in the
modulation is necessary, as in the triangular
frequency-modulation waveform shown in Fig.2.5
2.8. RANGE AND DOPPLER MEASUREMENT 47

Figure 2.5: Frequency-time relationships in FM-CW radar. Solid curve


represents transmitted signal, dashed curve represents echo. (a) Linear
frequency modulation; (b) triangular frequency modulation; (c) beat note of
(b)

5 The modulation need not necessarily be triangular; it can be


sawtooth, sinusoidal, or some other shape. The resulting
beat frequency as a function of time is shown in Fig. 2.5 for
triangular modulation.

6 The beat note is of constant frequency except at the


turn-around region. If the frequency is modulated at a rate
f m over a range f , the beat frequency is

2 × 2R f m 4R f m f
fr = = (2.9)
c c

7 Thus the measurement of the beat frequency determines the


range R.
48 CHAPTER 2. CW AND FREQUENCY MODULATED RADAR

2.9 FMCW altimeter

1 The FM-CW radar principle is used in the aircraft radio


altimeter to measure height above the surface of the earth.

2 The large backscatter cross section and the relatively short


ranges required of altimeters permit low transmitter power
and low antenna gain.

3 Since the relative motion between the aircraft and ground is


small, the effect of the Doppler frequency shift may usually
be neglected.

4 The band from 4.2 to 4.4 GHz is reserved for radio altimeters,
although they have in the past operated at UHF.

5 The transmitter power is relatively low and can be obtained


from a CW magnetron, a backward-wave oscillator, or a
reflex klystron, but these have been replaced by the solid
state transmitter.

6 The altimeter can employ a simple homodyne receiver, but


for better sensitivity and stability the superheterodyne is to
be preferred whenever its more complex construction can be
tolerated.

7 A block diagram of the FM-CW radar with a sideband


superheterodyne receiver shown in Fig. 2.4.A portion of the
frequency-modulated transmitted signal is applied to a
mixer along with the oscillator signal.

8 The selection of the local-oscillator frequency is a bit


different from that in the usual superheterodyne receiver.
The local-oscillator frequency f IF should be the same as the
intermediate frequency used in the receiver, whereas in the
conventional superheterodyne the LO frequency is of the
same order of magnitude as the RF signal.
2.10. MULTIPLE FREQUENCY CW RADAR (MFCW) 49

9 The output of the mixer consists of the varying transmitter


frequency f o (t) plus two sideband frequencies, one on either
side of f o (t) and separated from f o (t) by the local-oscillator
frequency f IF .

10 The filter selects the lower sideband f o (t) − f IF and rejects the
carrier and the upper sideband.

11 The sideband that is passed by the filter is modulated in the


same fashion as the transmitted signal.

2.10 Multiple Frequency CW Radar (MFCW)

1 CW radar does not measure range, it is possible under some


circumstances to do so by measuring the phase of the echo
signal relative to the phase of the transmitted signal.

2 The variation of phase with freq. is the fundamental basis of


radar measurement of time delay or range measurement.It is
easier to analysis the pulse radar and FMCW radar in term of
time domain.

3 The principal used in multiple freq. CW radar is the


measurement of range by computing the phase difference.A
measurement of range R of stationary target by employing
continuous wave radar transmitting sine waves (2π f t).The
time taken by the sine wave is t = 2R/c

4 The o/p given by the phase detector, which will compare the
50 CHAPTER 2. CW AND FREQUENCY MODULATED RADAR

transmitted signal on the received signal is written as,

4ν = 2π f t (2.10)
4ν = 2π f t(2R/c) (2.11)
4π f R
4ν = (2.12)
c
c4ν
R= (2.13)
4π f
λ4ν
R= (2.14)

5 The maximum error occurs in measure net of phase difference


is 2π radians.If we put the value 4ν = 2π the maximum
ambiguity , in range is ,

6 Block diagram of multiple freq. CW radar is almost as CW


radar except it has got one more channel and measuring
device. The better accuracy in range measurement may be
provided by the large freq. diff. between the two transmitted
signals. Transmitting three or four freq. instead of just two
can make more accurate measurement.
7 The transmitted waveform is assumed to consist of two
continuous sine waves of frequency f 1 and f 2 separated by
an amount 4 f .The voltage waveforms of the two
components of the transmitted signal v1r and v2r , may be
written as

v1r = sin(2π f 1 t − ν1 ) (2.15)


v2r = sin(2π f 2 t − ν2 ) (2.16)

Where ν1 and ν2 are arbitrary (constant) phase angles.


Chapter 3

MTI and Pulse Doppler Radar

3.1 Introduction

1 The radars discussed till now were required to detect target


in the presence of noise. But in practical radar have to deal
with more than receiver noise when detecting target while
they can also receive echoes from the natural environment
such as land, sea, weather etc.

2 These echoes are called clutter, since they tend to clutter the
radar display with unwanted information’s.

3 Clutter echoes signal has greater magnitude then echo signal


receives from the aircraft.

4 When an aircraft echo and a clutter echo appear in the same


radar resolution cell, the aircraft might not be detected.

5 But the Doppler effect permits the radar to distinguish


moving target in the presence of fixed target even the echoes
signal from fixed has comparatively than the moving target
such as aircraft.

51
52 CHAPTER 3. MTI AND PULSE DOPPLER RADAR

3.2 MTI Radar (Principle)

1 The radar which uses the concept of desired moving targets


from stationary (Moving Target Indicator). Doppler
frequency shift for distinguishing objects i.e., clutter is called
as MTI radar
2 The block diagram of MTI radar employing a power
amplifier is shown in Fig. The significant difference between
this MTI configuration and that of Pulse Doppler radar is the
manner in which the reference signal is generated. In Fig.,
the coherent reference is supplied by an oscillator called the
coho, which stands for coherent oscillator. The coho is a
stable oscillator whose frequency is the same as the
intermediate frequency used in the receiver.

3 In addition to providing the reference signal, the output of


the coho f c is also mixed with the local-oscillator frequency
f l . The local oscillator must also be a stable oscillator and is
called stalo, for stable local oscillator.
4 The RF echo signal is heterodyned with the stalo signal to
produce the IF signal, just as in the conventional super
heterodyne receiver.

5 The stalo, coho, and the mixer in which they are combined
plus any low-level amplification are called the receiver exciter
because of the dual role they serve in both the receiver and the
transmitter.
6 The characteristic feature of coherent MTI radar is that the
transmitted signal must be coherent (in phase) with the
reference signal in the receiver. The function of the stalo is to
provide the necessary frequency translation from the IF to
the transmitted (RF) frequency.

7 Although the phase of the stalo influences the phase of the


transmitted signal, any stalo phase shift is canceled on
3.3. MTI RADAR WITH POWER OSCILLATOR TRANSMITTER 53

reception because the stalo that generates the transmitted


signal also acts as the local oscillator in the receiver.

8 The reference signal from the coho and the IF echo signal are
both fed into a mixer called the pulse detector The phase
detector differs from the normal amplitude detector since its
output is proportional to the phase difference between the
two input signals.

9 Any one of a number of transmitting-tube types might be


used as the power amplifier. These include the triode,
tetrode, klystron, traveling-wave tube, and the crossed-field
amplifier.

Figure 3.1: Block diagram of MTI radar with power amplifier transmitter

3.3 MTI Radar with Power Oscillator Transmitter

1 A block diagram of MTI radar using a power oscillator is


shown in Fig. 21.2. A portion of the transmitted signal
mixed with the STALO output to produce an IF beat signal
54 CHAPTER 3. MTI AND PULSE DOPPLER RADAR

Figure 3.2: Block diagram of MTI radar with power oscillator transmitter

whose phase is directly related to the phase of the phase of


the transmitter.
2 This IF pulse is applied to the coherent (COHO) and cause
the phase of the COHOCW oscillation to “lock” in step with
the phase of the IF reference pulse.

3 The phase of the COHO is then related to the phase of the


transmitted pulse and may be used as the reference signal for
echoes received from the particular transmitted pulse.

4 Upon the next transmission another IF locking pulse is


generated relocks the phase of CW COHO until the next
locking pulse comes along.

3.3.1 Butterfly effect in MTI Radar

1 Moving targets may be distinguished from stationary targets


by observing the video output on an A-scope (amplitude vs.
range). A single sweep on an A-scope might appear as in Fig.
??(a).
3.4. DELAY LINE CANCELLERS 55

2 This sweep shows several fixed targets and two moving


targets indicated by the two arrows. On the basis of a single
sweep, moving targets cannot be distinguished from fixed
targets. (It may be possible to distinguish extended ground
targets from point targets by the stretching of the echo pulse.
However, this is not a reliable means of discriminating
moving from fixed targets since some fixed targets can look
like point targets, e.g., a water tower. Also, some moving
targets such as aircraft flying in formation can look like
extended targets.)

3 Successive A scope sweeps (pulse-repetition intervals) are


shown in Fig. (b) to(e). Echoes from fixed targets remain
constant throughout but echoes from moving targets vary in
amplitude from sweep to sweep at a rate corresponding to
the doppler frequency.

4 The superposition of the successive A-scope sweeps is shown


in Fig. (J). The moving targets produce, with time, a butterfly
effect on the A-scope.

3.4 Delay Line Cancellers

1 It act as a filter to eliminate the DC component of fixed target


and pass the ac components of moving target.

2 Two types of delay line cancellers;

(a) Time domain filter / cancellers.


(b) Freq. domain filter / cancellers

3 The simple MTI delay-line canceller shown in Fig 3.4 is an


example of a time-domain filter. The capability of this device
depends on the quality of the medium used is the delay line.
56 CHAPTER 3. MTI AND PULSE DOPPLER RADAR

Figure 3.3: Figure (a-e) Successive sweeps of an MTI radar A-scope display
(echo amplitude as a function of time); (f) superposition of many sweeps;
arrows indicate position of moving targets

4 The Pulse modulator delay line must introduce a time delay


equal to the pulse repetition interval. For typical
ground-based air-surveillance radars this might be several
milliseconds.

5 Delay times of this magnitude cannot be achieved with


practical electromagnetic transmission lines. By converting
the electromagnetic signal to an acoustic signal it is possible
to utilize delay lines of a reasonable physical length since the
velocity of propagation of acoustic waves is about 10-5 that
of electromagnetic waves.

6 After the necessary delay is introduced by the acoustic line,


3.4. DELAY LINE CANCELLERS 57

Figure 3.4: Block diagram of delay line cancellers

the signal is converted back to an electromagnetic signal for


further processing.

7 The use of digital delay lines requires that the output of the
MTI receiver phase-detector be quantized into a sequence of
digital words.

8 The compactness and convenience of digital processing


allows the implementation of more complex delay-line
cancellers with filter characteristics not practical with analog
methods.

9 One of the advantages of a time-domain delay-line canceller


as compared to the more conventional frequency-domain
filter is that a single network operates at all ranges and does
not require a separate filter for each range resolution cell.

10 Frequency-domain doppler filter- banks are of interest in


some forms of MTI and pulse-doppler radar.

3.4.1 Block Diagram of Delay Line Cancellers

1 A block diagram of delay line canceller is shown as fig.. The


bipolar video from the phase detector modulates a carrier
before being applied to the delay lines.
58 CHAPTER 3. MTI AND PULSE DOPPLER RADAR

Figure 3.5: Block diagram of delay line cancellers

2 The radar output is not directly applied to the delay lines as


a video since it would be differentiated by the crystal
transducer that convert the EM energy into acoustic energy,
and vice-versa.The modulated bipolar video is divided
between two channels. In one channel the signal is delayed
by a PRF, while in the other channel it reaches directly i.e.
undelayed.

3 There is considerable attenuation in the signal introduced by


the delay line and must be amplified in order to bring it back
to its original level.

4 Since the introduction of an amplifier into the delay channel


can alter the phase of the delayed waveforms and introduce
a line delay, an amplifier with the same delay characteristics
is also used in the direct channel.

5 An attenuator might also be interested in the direct channel to


make equalizing voltage residue of the order of 1 % or 40db.

6 The output from the delayed and undelayed channels are


detected to remove the carrier and then subtracted. The
uncancelled bipolar video from the sub tractor is rectified in
a full wave rectifier to obtain unipolar video signal for
displaying on the PPI. The purpose of automatic balancing
to detect any amplitude timing differences and generate
3.4. DELAY LINE CANCELLERS 59

AGC error voltage to adjust the amplifier gain and timing


control error voltage to adjust the repetition frequency of the
trigger generator.

3.4.2 Types of Delay Line Cancellers

1 Acoustic Delay Line

Figure 3.6: Elements of an acoustic delay line

The basic elements of an acoustic delay line outlined in fig.


The EM energy is converted into acoustic energy by
piezoelectric transmitting crystal.(like transducer) and at the
o/p side acoustic energy converted back into EM energy.

2 Quartz Crystal
It has a high Q device with an inherently small bandwidth.
However, when transducer is coupled to a delay medium,
the medium has a damping effect, which broadens the
bandwidth. Consequently, acoustic delay lines are relatively
broadband device.

3 Liquid Mercury

(a) One of simplest acoustic delay lines consist of a straight


cylindrical tube filled with liquid mercury. The transit
time of acoustic waves in mercury at room temperature
is approximately 17.5 us./inch.
60 CHAPTER 3. MTI AND PULSE DOPPLER RADAR

(b) To produce a delay of 1000 us the line must be 57 inch in


length exclusively of end cells. This is manageable size in
ground-based radar.
(c) A more compact configuration may be had by folding the
line back itself one or more times. Another method of
obtaining a more compact delay line is of make use of
multiple reflection in a tank filled with liquid.
(d) The alignment of the reflecting surface is a problem, and
it has been difficult to obtain a leak proof construction.
One of the disadvantages of either solid or liquid delay is
the large insertion loss.

3.4.3 Response of the Delay Line Canceller (Filter


Characteristics

1 Filter characteristics of the delay-line canceller. The delay-


line canceller acts as a filter which rejects the d-c component
of clutter. Because of its periodic nature, the filter also rejects
energy in the vicinity of the pulse repetition frequency and its
harmonics.
2 The video signal received from a particular target at a range
R0 is
V1 = k sin(2π f dt − φ0 ) (3.1)
Where, φ0 = phase shift
k = amplitude of video signal.
3 The signal from the previous transmission, which is delayed
by a time T= pulse repetition interval, is
V2 = k sin(2π f d(t − T ) − φ0 ) (3.2)

4 Everything else is assumed to remain essentially constant


over the interval T so that k is the same for both pulses. The
output from the sub tractor is
V = V1 − V2 = 2k sin π f dT cos [2π f (t − T/2) − φ0 ] (3.3)
3.4. DELAY LINE CANCELLERS 61

5 It is assumed that the gain through the delay-line canceller is


unity. The output from the canceller V consists of a cosine
wave at the doppler frequency f d with an amplitude
2k sin π f dT .

6 Thus the amplitude of the canceled video output is a


function of the Doppler frequency shift and the
pulse-repetition interval, or PRF.

7 The magnitude of the relative frequency-response of the


delay-line canceller [ratio of the amplitude of the output
from the delay-line canceller, 2k sin π f dT, to the amplitude
of the normal radar video k j is shown in Fig.3.7.

Figure 3.7: Frequency response of single delay line cancell

3.4.4 Double Delay Line Canceller

1 The frequency response of a single-delay-line canceller does


not always have as broad clutter-rejection null as might be
desired in the vicinity of d-c. The clutter-rejection notches
may be widened by passing the output of the delay-line
canceller through a second delay-line canceller as shown in
Fig 3.8. The output of the two single-delay-line cancellers in
cascade is the square of that from a single canceller.

2 Thus the frequency response is sin 2π f dT. The configuration


of Fig 3.8 is called a double-delay-line canceller, or simply a
double canceller. The relative response of the double
62 CHAPTER 3. MTI AND PULSE DOPPLER RADAR

Figure 3.8: (a) Double delay line canceller (b) Three pulse canceller

canceller compared with that of a single delay line canceller


is shown in Fig. 3.9

Figure 3.9: Frequency response of single & double delay line canceller

3 The finite width of the clutter spectrum is also shown in this


figure so as to illustrate the additional cancellation of clutter
offered by the double canceller.

4 The two-delay-line configuration of Fig.3.8 has the same


frequency-response characteristic as the double-delay-line
canceller. The operation of the device is as follows. Signal f
(t) is inserted into the adder along with the signal from the
preceding pulse period, with its amplitude weighted by the
factor - 2, plus the signal from two pulse periods previous.
The output of the adder is therefore
f (t)–2 f (t + T ) + f (t + 2T ) Which is the same as the output
3.5. BLIND SPEED 63

from the double-delay-line canceller


f (t)– f (t + T ) − f (t + T ) + f (t + 2T )

3.5 Blind Speed

1 The response of the single-delay-line canceller will be zero


whenever the argument π f dT in the amplitude factor of V =
V1 –V2 = 2k sin π f dT cos[2π f d(t–T/2) − φo ] is 0, π, 2π,., etc.,
or when f d = n/T = n f p Where, n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , f p = pulse
repetition frequency.

2 The delay-line canceller not only eliminates the d-c


component caused by clutter (n = 0), but unfortunately it
also rejects any moving target whose doppler frequency
happens to be the same as the PRF or a multiple thereof.
Those relative target velocities which result in zero MTI
response are called blind speeds and are given by;

nλ nλ f p
Vn = = (3.4)
2T 2
Where, Vn is the nth blind speed.

3 If λ is measured in meters, f p in Hz, and the relative velocity


in knots, the blind speeds are;

nλ f p
Vn = (3.5)
1.02

4 The blind speeds are one of the limitations of pulse MTI


radar which do not occur with CW radar. They are present in
pulse radar because doppler is measured by discrete samples
(pulses) at the PRF rather than continuously. If the first blind
speed is to be greater than the maximum radial velocity
expected from the target, the product λ f p must be large.
64 CHAPTER 3. MTI AND PULSE DOPPLER RADAR

3.6 Multiple or staggered Pulse Repetation


Frequencies

1 If radar is operating at multiples PRFs or its PRF is changed


either pulse to pulse or scan to scan, than the effect of blind
speed can be eliminated from the radar. If two radar
operating at same frequencies but having its different PRF
then if one radar is blind to moving target.

2 So, if we use single radar but having different PRF than the
same affect can be achieved. When the PRF is changing pulse
to pulse than it may be called as staggered PRF. Staggering of
PRF is generally employed in Air Traffic Control Radar such
as Surveillance Radar Element (SRE).

Figure 3.10: Frequency response of two PRF

3 In the Fig. 3.10 above the frequency response of two PRF is


shown. Suppose the first PRF is F1 shown in bold line and
the speed of second PRF is F2 shown in dotted lines. If we
observed the figure, it is clear that at particular position when
2 f 1 = 3 f 2 , both the PRFs have the same blind speed.

4 The multiples PRFs can be obtained by using several


methods. Using the following techniques may vary the
PRFs:
(a) Pulse to pulse (known as staggered PRF)
(b) Scan to scan
3.7. RANGE GATED DOPPLER FILTERS 65

(c) Dwell to dwell.

5 The problems occur in using staggered PRF is that residual


of unconcealed echoes of clutters, which are due to second
time around echoes. So to minimize the second time around
echoes affect, if we use unstaggered PRF in the sector where
second time around are expected more and rest of the sector
used staggered PRFs.

3.7 Range Gated Doppler Filters

Figure 3.11: Block diagram of MTI radar using range gated filter

1 In order to separate moving targets from stationary clutter,


the delay line canceller has been widely used in MTI radar.
Quantizing the time in to small interval can eliminate the
loss of range information and collapsing loss. This process is
known as the range gating where width depends on range
accuracy desired. After quantizing the radar return interval,
the output from each gate is applied to narrow band filter.
66 CHAPTER 3. MTI AND PULSE DOPPLER RADAR

2 A block diagram of the video of an MTI radar using multiple


range gates followed by clutter rejection filter is shown in Fig
3.11. Here the range gates sample the output of the phase
detector sequentially range interval.

3 Each range open in sequence just long enough to sample the


voltage of the video waveform corresponding to a different
range interval in space or it acts as a switch/gate which open
and close at a proper time.

4 The output of the range gate is given to a circuit known as


box car generator. Its function is to aid in the filtering and
detection process enhancing the fundamental of the
modulation frequency and eliminating harmonics of the PRF.

5 The clutter rejection filter is nothing but a band pass filter


whose bandwidth depends on the extent of the excepted
clutter spectrum. The filtered output from the Doppler filter
is further fed to a full wave linear detector which convert the
bipolar video.

6 A low pass filter or integrator passes these unipolar video to


the threshold detection circuit. Any signal crosses the
threshold level is treated as a target. The outputs from each
range channels are combined for display on the PPI or any
other display unit.

7 The presentation of this type of MTI radar is far better than


the display from normal MTI radar.

8 The frequency response characteristics of an MTI radar using


range gates and filter is shown in fig. the shape of the
rejection band is mainly determined by the shape of the
band pass filter.

9 It must be pointed out that the MTI radar using range gates
and filters is more complex than an MTI with single delay
line canceller a better MTI performance is achieved from a
3.7. RANGE GATED DOPPLER FILTERS 67

better match between clutter filter characteristics and clutter


spectrum.
68 CHAPTER 3. MTI AND PULSE DOPPLER RADAR
Chapter 4

Tracking with Radar

4.1 Introduction

1 A tracking-radar system
(a) Measures the coordinates of a target and
(b) Provides data which may be used to determine the target
path and to predict its future position.

2 All or only part of the available radar data-range, elevation


angle, azimuth angle, and Doppler frequency shift may be
used in predicting future position; that is, a radar might track
in range, in angle, in Doppler, or with any combination.

3 Almost any radar can be considered a tracking radar


provided its output information is processed properly. But,
in general, it is the method by which angle tracking is
accomplished that distinguishes what is normal normally
considered a tracking radar from any other radar.

4 It is also necessary to distinguish between a continuous


tracking radar and a track-while-scan (TWS) radar.

5 The continuous tracking radar supplies continuous tracking


data on a particular target, while the track-while-scan

69
70 CHAPTER 4. TRACKING WITH RADAR

supplies sampled data on one or more targets. In general,


the continuous tracking radar and the TWS radar employ
different types of equipment.

6 The antenna beam in the continuous tracking radar is


positioned in angle by a servomechanism actuated by an
error signal.

7 The various methods for generating the error signal may be


classified as sequential lobbing, conical scan, and
simultaneous lobbing or monopulse.

8 The range and Doppler frequency shift can also be


continuously tracked, if desired, by a servo control loop
actuated by an error signal generated in the radar receiver.

4.2 Canonical Scan

1 The logical extension of the sequential lobbing technique is


to rotate continuously an offset antenna beam rather than
discontinuously step the beam between four discrete
positions. This is known as conical scanning (Fig. ?? ). The
angle between the axis of rotation (which is usually, but not
always, the axis of the antenna reflector) and the axis of the
antenna beam is called the squint angle.

2 Consider a target at position A. The echo signal will be


modulated at a frequency equal to the rotation frequency of
the beam. The amplitude of the echo-signal modulation will
depend upon the shape of the antenna pattern, the squint
angle and the angle between the target line of sight and the
rotation axis.

3 The phase of the modulation depends on the angle between


the target and the rotation axis. The conical scan modulation
is extracted from the echo signal and applied to a
4.2. CANONICAL SCAN 71

servo-control system which continually positions the


antenna on the target. When the antenna is on target, as in B
of Fig. ??, the line of sight to the target and the rotation axis
coincide, and the conical-scan modulation is zero.

Figure 4.1: Conical scan track

4 The logical extension of the sequential lobbing technique is


to rotate continuously an offset antenna beam rather than
discontinuously step the beam between four discrete
positions. This is known as conical scanning (Fig. ). The
angle between the axis of rotation (which is usually, but not
always, the axis of the antenna reflector) and the axis of the
antenna beam is called the squint angle.

5 Consider a target at position A. The echo signal will be


modulated at a frequency equal to the rotation frequency of
the beam. The amplitude of the echo-signal modulation will
depend upon the shape of the antenna pattern, the squint
angle and the angle between the target line of sight and the
rotation axis.
6 The phase of the modulation depends on the angle between
the target and the rotation axis. The conical scan modulation
is extracted from the echo signal and applied to a
servo-control system which continually positions the
antenna on the target. When the antenna is on target, as in B
of Fig. , the line of sight to the target and the rotation axis
coincide, and the conical-scan modulation is zero.
72 CHAPTER 4. TRACKING WITH RADAR

Figure 4.2: Block diagram of Canonical Scan

7 A block diagram of the angle-tracking portion of a typical


conical-scan tracking radar is shown in Fig.. The antenna is
mounted so that it can be positioned in both azimuth and
elevation by separate motors, which might be either electric-
or hydraulic-driven. The antenna beam is offset by tilting
either the feed or the reflector with respect to one another.

8 One of the simplest conical-scan antennas is a parabola with


an offset rear feed rotated about the axis of the reflector. If the
feed maintains the plane of polarization fixed as it rotates, it
is called a nutating feed.

9 A rotating feed causes the polarization to rotate. The latter


type of feed requires a rotary joint. The nutating feed
requires a flexible joint. If the antenna is small, it may be
easier to rotate the dish, which is offset, rather than the feed,
thus avoiding the problem of a rotary or flexible RF joint in
the feed.
10 A typical conical-scan rotation speed might be 30 r/s. The
4.2. CANONICAL SCAN 73

same motor that provides the conical-scan rotation of the


antenna beam also drives a two phase reference generator
with two outputs 90o apart in phase. These two outputs
serve as a reference to extract the elevation and azimuth
errors.

11 The received echo signal is fed to the receiver from the


antenna via two rotary joints (not shown in the block
diagram). One rotary joint permits motion in azimuth, the
other, in elevation.

12 The receiver is a conventional super heterodyne except for


features peculiar to the conical scan tracking radar. One
feature not found in other radar receivers is a means of
extracting the conical-scan modulation, or error signal. This
is accomplished after the second detector in the video
portion of the receiver.

13 The error signal is compared with the elevation and azimuth


reference signals in the angle-error detectors, which are
phase-sensitive detectors. A phase sensitive detector is a
nonlinear device in which the input signal (in this case the
angle-error signal) is mixed with the reference signal.

14 The input and reference signals are of the same frequency.


The output d-c voltage reverses polarity as the phase of the
input signal changes through 180o . The magnitude of the d-
c output from the angle-error detector is proportional to the
error, and the sign (polarity) is an indication of the direction
of the error. The angle-error detector outputs are amplified
and drive the antenna elevation and azimuth servo motors.

15 The angular position of the target may be determined from


the elevation and azimuth of the antenna axis. The position
can be read out by means of standard angle transducers such
as synchronous, potentiometers, or analog-to-digital-data
converters
74 CHAPTER 4. TRACKING WITH RADAR

16 Advantages:

(a) It require a minimum no. of hardware so inexpensive.


(b) It is used in mobile system AAA or a mobile SAM sites.

17 Disadvantages: It is not able to see target outside their


narrow scan patterns.

4.3 Sequential Lobbing

1 A simple pencil-beam antenna is not suitable for tracking


radars unless means are provided for determining the
magnitude and direction of the target’s angular position
with respect to some reference direction, usually the axis of
the antenna.
2 The difference between the target position and the reference
direction is the angular error.

3 When the angular error is zero, the target is located along the
reference direction. One method of obtaining the direction
and the magnitude of the angular error in one coordinate is
by alternately switching the antenna beam between two
positions is called lobe switching, sequential switching, or
sequential lobbing.

4 There are total four switching position (up-down, right-left)


are needed (two additional) to obtain angular error in
orthogonal coordinate.

5 The difference in amplitude between the voltages obtained


in the two switched positions is a measure of the angular
displacement of the target from the switching axis.

6 The sign of the difference determines the direction the


antenna must be moved in order to align the switching axis
4.4. MONO PULSE TRACKING 75

Figure 4.3: Dual beam polar pattern in sequential lobbing

with the direction of the targetWhen the voltages in the two


switched positions are equal, the target is on axis and, its
position may be determined from the axis direction.

7 Advantage: Target position accuracy can be better than the


size of antenna beam width.

8 Applications:

(a) They were used in airborne-interception radar.


(b) They were used in ground-based antiaircraft fire-control
radars.

4.4 Mono Pulse Tracking

1 There are two disadvantages in conical scanning and


sequential lobbing.

(a) The motion of the antenna is more complex in both.


(b) In conical scan a min. of four pulse is required.
76 CHAPTER 4. TRACKING WITH RADAR

2 Due to the effect of target cross section and the effect of


fluctuating echo sometimes need of no. of pulses to
extracting error. This problem Can be overcome by using
only one pulse.

3 The tracking technique which derives angle error information


on the basis of single pulse is known as a mono pulse tracking
or simultaneous lobbing more than one antenna beam is used
simultaneously where as in conical scanning and sequential
lobbing one antenna beam is used on the time shared base.

4.4.1 Amplitude Comparison of Mono-pulse

1 In this four feeds are used with one parabolic reflector.There


are four horn antennas are used. 2. The receiver received
three types of signal
Sum signal (A+B+C+D)
Azimuth error signal=(A+C)-(B+D)
Elevation error signal=(A+B)-(C+D)

Figure 4.4: Mono pulse Radar Beam Pattern

2 this technique it is important that the signal arriving at


various feeds are in phase.In case of array where the antenna
4.4. MONO PULSE TRACKING 77

Figure 4.5: (a) Overlapping pattern (b) Sum pattern (c) Difference pattern (d)
Error signal

surface is very large signals arriving from different off -axis


angles present different phases.

3 So their phases need to be equalized before error signal are


developed. Sum signal is used for transmission and
difference signals are used in reception.

4 The receiver has three separate input channel consisting of


three mixers, common local oscillator, three IF amplifiers and
three detector.
5 The elevation and azimuth error signals are used to drive a
servo amplifier and a motor in order to position the antenna
in the direction of target.

6 The output of sum channel is used to provide the data


generally obtain from a radar receiver so that it can be used
to provide the data generally obtain from a radar receiver so
that it can be used for application like automatic control of
the firing weapon.

7 Advantages:
78 CHAPTER 4. TRACKING WITH RADAR

Figure 4.6: Block diagram of amplitude comparison mono-pulse tracking radar

(a) Only one pulse is require to obtain all the information


regarding the target and able to locate target in less time
comparing other methods.
(b) In this generally error is not occur due to the variation in
target cross section.

8 Disadvantage: Two extra Rx channel is required and more


complex duplexer feeding arrangement, which makes system
bulky and more complex and also expensive.

9 Application: Automatic control of the firing weapon

4.4.2 Phase Comparison Mono-pulse Tracking

1 The measurement of angle of arrival by comparison of the


phase relationships in the signals from the separated
antennas of a radio interferometer has been widely used by
the radio astronomers for precise measurements of the
positions of radio stars.
4.4. MONO PULSE TRACKING 79

Figure 4.7: Wave front phase relationship for phase comparison monopulse
radar

2 The interferometer as used by the radio astronomer is a


passive instrument, the source of energy being radiated by
the target itself. A tracking radar which operates with phase
information is similar to an active interferometer and might
be called an interferometer radar. It has also been called
Simultaneous phase comparison radar, or phase-comparison
monopulse.

3 In Fig two antennas are shown separated by a distance d.


The distance to the target is R and is assumed large
compared with the antenna separation d. The line of sight to
the target makes an angle θ to the perpendicular bisector of
the line joining the two antennas. The distance from antenna
1 to the target is
d sin θ
R1 = R + (4.1)
2

4 The phase difference between the echo signals in the two


antennas is approximately

2πd sin θ
4φ = (4.2)
λ
80 CHAPTER 4. TRACKING WITH RADAR

5. For small angles where sin θ = 0, the phase difference


is a linear function of the angular error and may be used to
position the antenna via a servo-control loop.

5 In the early versions of the phase-comparison monopulse


radar, the angular error was determined by measuring the
phase difference between the outputs of receivers connected
to each antenna.

6 The output from one of the antennas was used for


transmission and for providing the range information. With
such an arrangement it was difficult to obtain the desired
aperture illuminations and to maintain a stable bore sight.

7 A more satisfactory method of operation is to form the sum


and difference patterns in the RF and to process the signals as
in conventional amplitude-comparison mono pulse radar

4.5 Acquisition

1 Most tracking radars employ a narrow pencil-beam antenna.


Examples of the common types of scanning patterns
employed with pencil-beam antennas are illustrated in Fig.??

2 In the Helical scan, the antenna is continuously rotated in


azimuth while it is simultaneously raised or lowered in
elevation. It traces a helix in space.

3 Helical scanning was employed for the search mode of the


SCR-584 fire-control radar, developed during World War II
for the aiming of antiaircraft-gun batteries.

4 The SCR-584 antenna was .rotated at the rate of 6 rpm and


covered a 20” elevation angle in 1 min. The Palmer scan
derives its name from the familiar penmanship exercises of
grammar school days
4.5. ACQUISITION 81

Figure 4.8: Examples of acquisition search patterns. (a) Trace of helical scanning
beam; (b) Palmer scan; (c) spiral scan; (d) raster, or TV, scan; (e) nodding scan.

5 It consists of a rapid circular scan (conical scan) about the axis


of the antenna, combined with a linear movement of the axis
of rotation. When the axis of rotation is held stationary, the
Palmer scan reduces to the conical scan.

6 The Palmer scan is suited to a search area which is larger in


one dimension than another.

7 The Spiral scan covers an angular search volume with circular


symmetry. Both the spiral scan and the Palmer scan suffer
from the disadvantage that all parts of the scan volume do not
receive the same energy unless the scanning speed is varied
during the scan cycle.

8 The Raster, or TV, scan, unlike the Palmer or the spiral scan,
paints the search area in a uniform manner.

9 The raster scan is a simple and convenient means for


searching a limited sector, rectangular in shape.

10 The nodding scan produced by oscillating the antenna beam


82 CHAPTER 4. TRACKING WITH RADAR

rapidly in elevation and slowly in azimuth. Although it may


be employed to cover a limited sector-as does the raster
scan-nodding scan may also be used to obtain hemispherical
coverage, that is, elevation angle extending to 90o and the
azimuth scan angle to 360o .

11 The helical scan and the nodding scan can both be used to
obtain hemispheric coverage with a pencil beam. The
nodding scan is also used with height-finding radars.

12 The Palmer, spiral, and raster scans are employed in


fire-control tracking radars to assist in the acquisition of the
target when the search sector is of limited extent.
Chapter 5

Radar Receivers

5.1 Introduction

1 Originally the radar display had the important purpose of


visually presenting the output of the radar receiver in a form
such that an operator could readily and accurately detect the
presence of a target and extract information about its
location.
2 The display had to be designed so as not to degrade the
radar information and to make it easy for the operator to
perform with effectiveness the detection and information
extraction function.
3 When the display is connected directly to the output of the
radar receiver without Further processing, the output is
called raw video. When the receiver output is first processed
by an automatic detector or an automatic detector and
tracker before display, it is called synthetic video or
processed video.

4 The requirements for the display differ somewhat


depending whether raw or processed video is displayed.
Some radar operators prefer to see on a display the raw
video lightly superimposed on the processed video.

83
84 CHAPTER 5. RADAR RECEIVERS

5 The radar display is now more like the familiar television


monitor or computer display that shows the entire scene
continuously rather than just indicates the echoes from the
region currently illuminated by the narrow antenna beam.
Thus the role of the display has changed as the need for
operator interpretation has decreased.

5.2 Types of Displays

1 Given below are some of the more popular formats that have
been employed by IEEE uses the term ”display” in its
definitions but here we use either ”scope” or ”display”
depending on what is perceived to be the more common
usage.

2 A-scope : A deflection-modulated rectangular display in


which the vertical deflection is proportional to the amplitude
of the receiver output and the horizontal coordinate is
proportional to range (or time delay). This display is well
suited to a staring or manually tracking radar, but it is not
appropriate for continually scanning surveillance radar since
the ever-changing background scene makes it difficult to
detect targets and interpret what the display is seeing.

3 B-scope : An intensity-modulated rectangular display with


azimuth angle indicated by one coordinate (usually
horizontal) and range by the orthogonal coordinate (usually
vertical). It has been used in airborne military radar where
the range and angle to the target are more important than
concern about distortion in the angle dimension.

4 C-scope : A two-angle intensity-modulated rectangular


display with azimuth angle indicated by the horizontal
coordinate and elevation angle by the vertical coordinate.
One application is for airborne intercept radar since the
5.3. DUPLEXERS 85

display is similar to what a pilot might see when looking


through the windshield. It is sometimes projected on the
windshield as a heads-up display. The range coordinate is
collapsed on this display so a collapsing loss might occur,
depending how the radar information is processed.

5 D-scope : A C-scope in which the blips extend vertically to


give a rough estimate of distance

6 E Scope : An intensity-modulated rectangular display with


range indicated by the horizontal coordinate and elevation
angle by the vertical coordinate. The E-scope provides a
vertical profile of the radar coverage at a particular azimuth.
It is of interest with 3D radars and in military airborne
terrain-following radar systems in which the radar antenna
is scanned in elevation to obtain vertical profiles of the
terrain ahead of the aircraft. The E-scope is related to the
RHI display.

5.3 Duplexers

1 Pulsed radar can time share a single antenna between the


transmitter and receiver by employing a fast-acting
switching device called a duplexer. On transmission the
duplexer must protect the receiver from damage or burnout,
and on reception it must channel the echo signal to the
receiver and not to the transmitter. Furthermore it must
accomplish the switching rapidly, in microseconds or
nanoseconds, and it should be of low loss.

2 For high power applications, the duplexer is a gas-discharge


device called a TR.
86 CHAPTER 5. RADAR RECEIVERS

5.3.1 Branch Type Duplexers

1 The branch-type duplexer, diagrammed in Fig. 5.1 was one


of the earliest duplexer configurations employed. It consists
of a TR (transmit-receive) switch and an ATR (anti-transmit
receive) switch, both of which are gas-discharge tubes. When
the transmitter is turned on, the TR and the ATR tubes ionize;
that is, they break down, or fire.

2 The TK in the fired condition acts as a short circuit to prevent


transmitter power from entering the receiver. Since the TR is
located a quarter wavelength from the main transmission
line, it appears as a short circuit at the receiver but as an
open circuit at the transmission line so that it does not
impede the flow of transmitter power. Since the ATR is
displaced a quarter wavelength from the main transmission
line, the short circuit it produces during the fired condition
appears as an open circuit on the transmission line and thus
has no effect on transmission.

3 During reception, the transmitter is off and neither the TR


nor the ATR is fired. The open circuit of the ATR, being a
quarter wave from the transmission line, appears as a short
circuit across the line. Since this short circuit is located a
quarter wave from the receiver branch-line, the transmitter is
effectively disconnected from the line and the echo signal
power is directed to the receiver. The diagram is a parallel
configuration. Series or series-parallel configurations are
possible.

4 The branch-type duplexer is of limited bandwidth and


power-handling capability, and has generally been replaced
by the balanced duplexer and other protection devices. It is
used, inspite of these limitations, in some low-cost radars.
5.3. DUPLEXERS 87

Figure 5.1: Branch Type Duplexer

5.3.2 Balanced Duplexer

1 The balanced duplexer shown in Fig.5.2(a), is based on the


short slot hybrid junction which consists of two sections of
waveguides joined along one of their narrow walls with a
slot cut in the common wall to provide coupling between the
two(The short-slot hybrid junction may be thought of as a
broadband directional coupler with a coupling ratio of 3 dB.)
Two TR tubes are used, one in each section of waveguide.

2 In the transmit condition, Fig.5.2(a), power is divided


equally into each waveguide by the first hybrid junction (on
the left). Both gas-discharge TR tubes break down and reflect
the incident power out the antenna arm as shown. The
short-slot hybrid junction has the property that each time
power passes through the slot in either direction, its phase is
advanced by 90o .

3 The power travels as indicated by the solid lines. Any power


that leaks through the TR tubes (shown by the dashed lines)
is directed to the arm with the matched dummy load and not
to the receiver. In addition to the attenuation provided by the
TR tubes, the hybrid junctions provide an additional 20 to 30
dB of isolation.
88 CHAPTER 5. RADAR RECEIVERS

4 On reception the TR tubes do not fire and the echo signals


pass through the duplexer and into the receiver as shown.
The power splits equally at the first junction and because of
the 90o phase advance on passing through the slot, the signal
recombines in the receiving arm and not in the arm with the
dummy load.

5 The balanced duplexer is a popular form of duplexer with


good power handling capability and wide bandwidth.

Figure 5.2: Balanced duplexer using dual TR tubes and two short-slot hybrid
junctions. (a) Transmit condition and (b) receive condition.

5.3.3 Circulator Duplexer

1 The ferrite circulator is a three- or four-port device that can,


in principle, offer separation of the transmitter and receiver
without the need for the conventional duplexer
configurations. The circulator does not provide sufficient
protection by itself and requires a receiver protector as in
Fig. 5.3
5.3. DUPLEXERS 89

Figure 5.3: Circulator and receiver protector. A four-port circulator is shown


with the fourth port terminated in a matched load to provide greater isolation
between the transmitter and the receiver than provided by a three-port
circulator

2 The isolation between the transmitter and receiver ports of a


circulator is seldom sufficient to protect the receiver from
damage. However, it is not the isolation between transmitter
and receiver ports that usually determines the amount of
transmitter power at the receiver, but the impedance
mismatch at the antenna which reflects transmitter power
back into the receiver.

3 The VSWR is a measure of the amount of power reflected by


the antenna. For example, a VSWR of 1.5 means that about 4
percent of the transmitter power will be reflected by the
antenna mismatch in the direction of the receiver, which
corresponds to an isolation of only 14 dB. About 11 percent
of the power is reflected when the VSWR is 2.0,
corresponding to less than 10 dB of isolation.

4 Thus, a receiver protector is almost always required. It also


reduces to a safe level radiations from nearby transmitters.
The receiver protector might use solid-state diodes for an all
solid-state configuration or it might be a passive TR-limiter
consisting of a radioactive primed TR-tube followed by a
diode limiter.

5 The ferrite circulator with receiver protector is attractive for


90 CHAPTER 5. RADAR RECEIVERS

radar applications because of its long life, wide bandwidth,


and compact design.

5.4 Phased Array Antennas

5.4.1 Introduction

1 The phased array is a directive antenna made up of


individual radiating antennas, or elements, which generate a
radiation pattern whose shape and direction is determined
by the relative phases and amplitudes of the currents at the
individual elements.

2 . By properly varying the relative phases, it is possible to steer


the direction of the radiation. The radiating elements might
be dipoles open-ended waveguides, slots cut in waveguide,
any other type of antenna.

3 The inherent flexibility offered by the phased-array antenna


in steering the beam by means of electronic control is what
has made it of interest for radar. It has been considered in
those radar applications where it is necessary to shift the
beam rapidly from one position in space to another, or where
it is required to obtain information about many targets at a
flexible, rapid data rate.

5.4.2 Basic Concepts

1 An array antenna consists of a number of individual radiating


elements suitably spaced with respect to one another. The
relative amplitude and phase of the signals applied to each
of the elements are controlled to obtain the desired radiation
pattern from the combined action of all the elements.
5.4. PHASED ARRAY ANTENNAS 91

2 Two common geometrical forms of array antennas of interest


in radar are the linear array and the planar array. A linear
array consists of elements arranged in a straight line in one
dimension. A planar array is a two-dimensional
configuration of elements arranged to lie in a plane.

3 The planar array may be thought of as a linear array of linear


arrays. A broadside array is one in which the direction of
maximum radiation is perpendicular, or almost
perpendicular to the line (or plane) of the array. An end fire
array has its maximum radiation parallel to the array.

4 The linear array generates a fan beam when the phase


relationships are such that the radiation is perpendicular to
the array. When the radiation is at some angle other than
broadside, the radiation pattern is a conical-shaped beam.

5 The broadside linear-array antenna may be used where


broad coverage in one plane and narrow beam width in the
orthogonal plane are desired. The linear array can also act as
a feed for a parabolic-cylinder antenna.

6 The combination of the linear-array feed and the parabolic


cylinder generates a more controlled fan beam than is
possible with either a simple linear array or with a section of
a parabola. The combination of a linear array arid parabolic
cylinder can also generate a pencil beam.

7 The endfire array is a special case of the linear or the planar


array when the beam is directed along the array. End fire
linear arrays have not been widely used in radar
applications. They are usually limited to a low or medium
gains since an end fire linear antenna of high gain require
excessively long array. Small end fire arrays are sometimes
used as the radiating element of a broadside array.

8 The two-dimensional planar array is probably the array of


most interest in radar applications since it is fundamentally
92 CHAPTER 5. RADAR RECEIVERS

the most versatile of all radar antennas. A rectangular


aperture can produce a fan-shaped beam. A square or a
circular aperture produces a pencil beam. The array can be
made to simultaneously generate many search and/or
tracking beams with the same aperture.

9 An array in which the relative phase shift between elements


is controlled by electronic devices is called an electronically
scanned array. In an electronically scanned array the antenna
elements, the transmitters, the receivers, and the
data-processing portions of the radar are often designed as a
unit.

10 A given radar might work equally well with a mechanically


positioned array, a lens, or a reflector antenna if they each
had the same radiation pattern, but such a radar could not
be converted efficiently to an electronically scanned array by
simple replacement of the antenna alone because of the
interdependence of the array and the other portions of the
radar.

5.4.3 Radiation Pattern

1 Consider a linear array made up of elements equally spaced


a distance apart (Shown in Fig- 5.4 below). The elements are
assumed to be isotropic point sources radiating uniformly in
all directions with equal amplitude and phase. The outputs
of all the elements are summed via lines of equal length to
give a sum output voltage , Element 1 will be taken as the
reference signal with zero phase.

2 The difference in the phase of the signals in adjacent


elements is , where the direction of the incoming radiation is.
It is further assumed that the amplitudes and phases of the
signals at each element are weighted uniformly.
5.4. PHASED ARRAY ANTENNAS 93

Figure 5.4: N-Element linear array

3 Therefore the amplitudes of the voltages in each element are


the same and, for convenience, will be taken to be unity. The
sum of all the voltages from the individual elements, when
the phase difference between adjacent elements is, can be
written-

Ea = sin ωt + sin(ωt + φ) + ......... + sin [ωt + ( N − 1)φ]


(5.1)
Where is the angular frequency of the signal. The sum can be
written as,

φ
φ sin N 2
 
Ea = sin ωt + ( N − 1) (5.2)
2 sin φ2

The magnitude of field intensity pattern is given by,

sin Nπ λd sin θ
  
| Ea | = (5.3)
sin π λd sin θ
  

4 Therefore an antenna of isotropic elements has a similar


pattern in the rear of the antenna as in the front. The same
would be true for an array of dipoles. To avoid ambiguities,
94 CHAPTER 5. RADAR RECEIVERS

the backward radiation is usually eliminated by placing a


reflecting screen behind the array. Thus only the radiation
over the forward half of the antenna need be considered.

5.4.4 Beem Stearing

1 The beam of an array antenna may be steered rapidly in


space without moving large mechanical masses by properly
varying the phase of the signals applied to each element.

2 Consider an array of equally spaced elements. The spacing


between adjacent elements is d, and the signals at each
element are assumed of equal amplitude. If the same phase
is applied to all elements, the relative phase difference
between adjacent elements is zero and the position of the
main beam will be broadside to the array at an angle . 3. The
main beam will point in a direction other than broadside if
the relative phase difference between elements is other than
zero. The direction of the main beam is at an angle when the
phase difference is .The phase at each element is therefore,
where N = 0, 1, 2, ........( N − 1),and is any constant phase
applied to all elements.

sin2 [ Nπ (d/λ)(sin θ − sin θ0 )]


G (θ ) = (5.4)
N 2 sin2 [π (d/λ)(sin θ − sin θ0 )]

3 Above Equation states that the main beam of the antenna


pattern may be positioned to an angle , by the insertion of
the proper phase shift ,at each element of the array. If
variable, rather than fixed, phase shifters are used, the beam
may be steered as the relative phase between elements is
changed
5.4. PHASED ARRAY ANTENNAS 95

Figure 5.5: Steering of an antenna beam with variable phase shifters (parallel
fed array)

5.4.5 Change of Beam width with Steering Angle

1 The half-power beamwidth in the plane of scan increases as


the beam is scanned off the broadside direction. The
beamwidth is approximately inversely proportional to
Where is the angle measured from the normal to the
antenna.

2 This may be proved by assuming that the sine in the


denominator of Eq.(4) can be replaced by its argument, so
that the radiation pattern is of the form ,where The antenna
pattern is reduced to half its maximum value. Denote by the
angle corresponding to the half power point when , and , the
angle corresponding to the half-power point when ;

sin θ − sin θ0 = sin(θ − θ0 ) cos θ0 − [1 − cos(θ − θ0 )] sin θ0


(5.5)

3 The second term on the right hand side of above equation can
be neglected when it is small , so that

sin θ − sin θ0 ≈ sin(θ − θ0 ) cos θ0 (5.6)

4 Using the above approximation, the two angles


96 CHAPTER 5. RADAR RECEIVERS

corresponding to the 3-dB points of the antenna pattern are


0.443λ 0.443λ
θ+ − θ0 = sin−1 ≈ (5.7)
Nd cos θ0 Nd cos θ0
−0.443λ −0.443λ
θ− − θ0 = sin−1 ≈ (5.8)
Nd cos θ0 Nd cos θ0

5 The half power beamwidth is -

0.886λ
θ B = θ+ − θ− ≈ (5.9)
Nd cos θ0

6 Therefore, when the beam is positioned an angle off


broadside, the beam width in the plane of scan increases.
The change in beam width with angle , as derived above is
not valid when the antenna beam is too far removed from
broadside. It certainly does not apply when the energy is
radiated in the end fire direction.

5.4.6 Series Vs Parallel Feed

1 The relative phase shift between adjacent elements of the


array must be in order to position the main beam of the
radiation pattern at an angle .The necessary phase
relationships between the elements may be obtained with
either a series-fed or a parallel fed arrangement. In the
series-fed arrangement, the energy may be transmitted from
one end of the line (Fig.5.6(a)), or it may be fed from the
center out to each end fig.b. The adjacent elements are
connected by a phase shifter with phase shift .

2 All the phase shifters are identical and introduce the same
amount of phase shift, which is less than radians. In the series
arrangement of (Fig.5.6(a)) where the signal is fed from one
end, the position of the beam will vary with frequency. Thus
it will be more limited in bandwidth than most array feeds.
5.4. PHASED ARRAY ANTENNAS 97

Figure 5.6: Series fed array a) From one end b) From center fed

3 The center-fed feed of (Fig.b) does not have this problem. In


the parallel-fed array of Fig., the energy to be radiated is
divided between the elements by a power splitter. When a
series of power splitters are used to create a tree-like
structure, as in Fig., it is called a corporate feed, since it
resembles (when turned upside down) the organization
chart of a corporation.

4 Equal lengths of line transmit the energy to each element so


that no unwanted phase differences are introduced by the
lines themselves. (If the lines are not of equal length,
compensation in the phase shift must be made.) The proper
phase change for beam steering is introduced by the phase
shifters in each of the lines feeding the elements. When the
phase of the first element is taken as the reference, the phase
shifts required in the succeeding elements are.

5 The maximum phase change required of each phase shifter in


the parallel-fed array is many times radians. Since phase shift
98 CHAPTER 5. RADAR RECEIVERS

is periodic with period , it is possible in many applications to


use a phase shifter with a maximum of radians.

6 However, if the pulse width is short compared with the


antenna response time (if the signal bandwidth is large
compared with the antenna bandwidth), the system
response may be degraded. For example, if the energy were
to arrive in a direction other than broadside, the entire array
would not be excited simultaneously.

7 The combined outputs from the parallel-fed elements will


fail to coincide or overlap, and the received pulse will be
smeared. This situation may be relieved by replacing the
modulo phase shifters with delay lines.

5.4.7 Applications of Array in Radar

1 The array antenna has several unique characteristics that


make it a candidate for consideration in radar application.
However, the attractive features of the array antenna are
sometimes nullified by several serious disadvantages. The
array antenna has the following desirable characteristics not
generally enjoyed by other antenna types. Inertia less rapid
beam steering: The beam from an array can be scanned, or
switched from one position to another, in a time limited only
by the switching speed of the phase shifters. Typically, the
beam can be switched in several microseconds, but it can be
considerably shorter if desired.

2 Multiple, independent beams: A single aperture can


generate many simultaneous independent beams.
Alternatively, the same effect can be obtained by rapidly
switching a single beam through a sequence of positions

3 Potential for large peak and/or average power: If necessary,


each element of the array can be fed by a separate
5.4. PHASED ARRAY ANTENNAS 99

high-power transmitter with the combining of the outputs


made in “space” ”to obtain a total power greater than can be
obtained from a single transmitter.

4 Control of the radiation pattern: A particular radiation


pattern may be more readily obtained with the array than
with other microwave antennas since the amplitude and
phase of each array element may be individually controlled.
Thus, radiation patterns with extremely low sidelobes or
with a shaped main beam may be achieved. Separate
monopulse sum and difference patterns, each with its own
optimum shape, are also possible.

5 Graceful degradation: The distributed nature of the array


means that it can fail gradually rather than all at once
(catastrophically).

6 Convenient aperture shape: The shape of the array permits


flush mounting and it can be hardened to resist blast.

7 Electronic beam stabilization: The ability to steer the beam


electronically can be used to stabilize the beam direction
when the radar is on a platform, such as a ship or aircraft,
that is subject to roll, pitch, or yaw.

5.4.8 Limitations

1 The major limitation that has limited the widespread use of


the conventional phased array in radar is its high cost, which
is due in large part to its complexity.

2 The software for the computer system that is needed to


utilize the inherent flexibility of the array radar also
contributes significantly to the system cost and complexity

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