Radar Engineering
Radar Engineering
Radar Engineering
DISCLAIMER
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3
4 CONTENTS
2.2 CW Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.5 Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5 Radar Receivers 83
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.3 Duplexers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.4.8 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6 CONTENTS
Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction
7
8 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF RADAR & RADAR EQUATION
6 If you know the speed of sound in air, you can estimate the
distance and general direction of the object. The time
required for a return echo can roughly converted in to
distance if the speed of sound is known.
Figure 1.1:
cTR
R= (1.1)
2
1.3. MAXIMUM UNAMBIGUOUS RANGE 9
4. Echoes that arrive after the transmission of the next pulse are
called second-time-around or multiple-time-around echoes.
Such an echo would appear to be at a much shorter range
than the actual and could be misleading if it were not known
to be a second-time-around echo.
cTp c
Runamb = = (1.3)
2 2 fp
above, first for Ae , then for G, to give two other forms of the
radar equation;
41
PT G2 σλ2
Rmax = (1.10)
(4π )3 Smin
12 Similarly,
Gλ2
Ae = (1.11)
4π
Then,
14
PT Ae 2σ
Rmax = (1.12)
(4π 3 )Smin λ2
4 The stored energy then can be put into the pulse when
transmitted. It provides rectangular voltage pulses which act
as the supply voltage to the output tube such as magnetron,
thus switching it ON and OFF as required.
2 All the parameters are to some extent under the control of the
radar designer, except for the target cross section σ.
3 The radar equation states that if long ranges are desired, the
transmitted power must be large, the radiated energy must be
concentrated into a narrow beam (high transmitting antenna
gain), the received echo energy must be collected with a large
antenna aperture (also synonymous with high gain), and the
receiver must be sensitive to weak signals.
18 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF RADAR & RADAR EQUATION
Figure 1.3: Typical envelop of tile radar receiver output as a function of time,
A and B and C represent signal plus noise. A and B would be valid detections,
but C is a mixed detection.
10
R∞ 2
−∞ | F ( f )| d f
Bn = 2
(1.15)
| H ( f 0 )|
3 The process of summing all the radar echo pulses for the
purpose of improving detection is called integration.
24 CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF RADAR & RADAR EQUATION
In other terms,
Power reflected towards source/unit solid angle
σ=
incident power density / 4π
(1.23)
2
2 Er
= lim 4πR (1.24)
R→∞ Ei
where,
R = distance between Radar and target,
Er = Reflected field strength at radar
Ei = Strength of incident field at target.
5 With radar backscatter, the two fields are the same, and one
may talk about scattering and diffraction interchangeably.
6 The scattered field, and hence the radar cross section, can be
determined by solving Maxwell’s equations with the proper
boundary conditions applied.
2 The peak pulse power as used in the radar equation is not the
instantaneous peak power of a sine wave.
Pav
Eτ = (1.28)
fp
Figure 1.5:
8 The correct range is that value which is the same with the
two PRF, generally three PRF are often use to resolve range
ambiguities.
3 Beam shape loss : The antenna gain that appears in the radar
equation was assumed to be a constant equal to the maximum
value. But in reality the train of pulses returned from a target
with a scanning radar is modulated in amplitude by the shape
of the antenna beam.
3 Automatic integrator
4 Threshold level
5 Limiting loss
6 Sampling loss
2 The echo not only indicates that a target is present, but the
time that elapses between the transmission of the pulse and
the receipt of the echo is a measure of the distance to the
target.
35
36 CHAPTER 2. CW AND FREQUENCY MODULATED RADAR
dv
ωd = 2π f d = (2.1)
dt
4π dR 4πvr
= (2.2)
λ dt λ
Here, f d is doppler frequency shift and vr is relative or radial
velocity of the target with to radar.
2.2. CW RADAR 37
2.2 CW Radar
Figure 2.1: (a) Simple CW radar block diagram; (b) response characteristic of
beat-frequency amplifier
effect.
2 In practice, it is not possible to eliminate completely the
transmitter leakage. However, transmitter leakage is not
always undesirable.
5 It has also seen application for intruder alarms and for the
measurement of the velocity of missiles, ammunition, and
baseballs.
f b (up) = f r − f d (2.4)
f b (up) = f r − f d (2.5)
f b (down) = f r + f d (2.6)
f r = [ f b (up) + f b (down)] /2 (2.7)
2 × 2R f m 4R f m f
fr = = (2.9)
c c
4 The band from 4.2 to 4.4 GHz is reserved for radio altimeters,
although they have in the past operated at UHF.
10 The filter selects the lower sideband f o (t) − f IF and rejects the
carrier and the upper sideband.
4 The o/p given by the phase detector, which will compare the
50 CHAPTER 2. CW AND FREQUENCY MODULATED RADAR
4ν = 2π f t (2.10)
4ν = 2π f t(2R/c) (2.11)
4π f R
4ν = (2.12)
c
c4ν
R= (2.13)
4π f
λ4ν
R= (2.14)
4π
3.1 Introduction
2 These echoes are called clutter, since they tend to clutter the
radar display with unwanted information’s.
51
52 CHAPTER 3. MTI AND PULSE DOPPLER RADAR
5 The stalo, coho, and the mixer in which they are combined
plus any low-level amplification are called the receiver exciter
because of the dual role they serve in both the receiver and the
transmitter.
6 The characteristic feature of coherent MTI radar is that the
transmitted signal must be coherent (in phase) with the
reference signal in the receiver. The function of the stalo is to
provide the necessary frequency translation from the IF to
the transmitted (RF) frequency.
8 The reference signal from the coho and the IF echo signal are
both fed into a mixer called the pulse detector The phase
detector differs from the normal amplitude detector since its
output is proportional to the phase difference between the
two input signals.
Figure 3.1: Block diagram of MTI radar with power amplifier transmitter
Figure 3.2: Block diagram of MTI radar with power oscillator transmitter
Figure 3.3: Figure (a-e) Successive sweeps of an MTI radar A-scope display
(echo amplitude as a function of time); (f) superposition of many sweeps;
arrows indicate position of moving targets
7 The use of digital delay lines requires that the output of the
MTI receiver phase-detector be quantized into a sequence of
digital words.
2 Quartz Crystal
It has a high Q device with an inherently small bandwidth.
However, when transducer is coupled to a delay medium,
the medium has a damping effect, which broadens the
bandwidth. Consequently, acoustic delay lines are relatively
broadband device.
3 Liquid Mercury
Figure 3.8: (a) Double delay line canceller (b) Three pulse canceller
Figure 3.9: Frequency response of single & double delay line canceller
nλ nλ f p
Vn = = (3.4)
2T 2
Where, Vn is the nth blind speed.
nλ f p
Vn = (3.5)
1.02
2 So, if we use single radar but having different PRF than the
same affect can be achieved. When the PRF is changing pulse
to pulse than it may be called as staggered PRF. Staggering of
PRF is generally employed in Air Traffic Control Radar such
as Surveillance Radar Element (SRE).
Figure 3.11: Block diagram of MTI radar using range gated filter
9 It must be pointed out that the MTI radar using range gates
and filters is more complex than an MTI with single delay
line canceller a better MTI performance is achieved from a
3.7. RANGE GATED DOPPLER FILTERS 67
4.1 Introduction
1 A tracking-radar system
(a) Measures the coordinates of a target and
(b) Provides data which may be used to determine the target
path and to predict its future position.
69
70 CHAPTER 4. TRACKING WITH RADAR
16 Advantages:
3 When the angular error is zero, the target is located along the
reference direction. One method of obtaining the direction
and the magnitude of the angular error in one coordinate is
by alternately switching the antenna beam between two
positions is called lobe switching, sequential switching, or
sequential lobbing.
8 Applications:
Figure 4.5: (a) Overlapping pattern (b) Sum pattern (c) Difference pattern (d)
Error signal
7 Advantages:
78 CHAPTER 4. TRACKING WITH RADAR
Figure 4.7: Wave front phase relationship for phase comparison monopulse
radar
2πd sin θ
4φ = (4.2)
λ
80 CHAPTER 4. TRACKING WITH RADAR
4.5 Acquisition
Figure 4.8: Examples of acquisition search patterns. (a) Trace of helical scanning
beam; (b) Palmer scan; (c) spiral scan; (d) raster, or TV, scan; (e) nodding scan.
8 The Raster, or TV, scan, unlike the Palmer or the spiral scan,
paints the search area in a uniform manner.
11 The helical scan and the nodding scan can both be used to
obtain hemispheric coverage with a pencil beam. The
nodding scan is also used with height-finding radars.
Radar Receivers
5.1 Introduction
83
84 CHAPTER 5. RADAR RECEIVERS
1 Given below are some of the more popular formats that have
been employed by IEEE uses the term ”display” in its
definitions but here we use either ”scope” or ”display”
depending on what is perceived to be the more common
usage.
5.3 Duplexers
Figure 5.2: Balanced duplexer using dual TR tubes and two short-slot hybrid
junctions. (a) Transmit condition and (b) receive condition.
5.4.1 Introduction
φ
φ sin N 2
Ea = sin ωt + ( N − 1) (5.2)
2 sin φ2
sin Nπ λd sin θ
| Ea | = (5.3)
sin π λd sin θ
Figure 5.5: Steering of an antenna beam with variable phase shifters (parallel
fed array)
3 The second term on the right hand side of above equation can
be neglected when it is small , so that
0.886λ
θ B = θ+ − θ− ≈ (5.9)
Nd cos θ0
2 All the phase shifters are identical and introduce the same
amount of phase shift, which is less than radians. In the series
arrangement of (Fig.5.6(a)) where the signal is fed from one
end, the position of the beam will vary with frequency. Thus
it will be more limited in bandwidth than most array feeds.
5.4. PHASED ARRAY ANTENNAS 97
Figure 5.6: Series fed array a) From one end b) From center fed
5.4.8 Limitations