Biology 11/10/2024

Topics
Adaptation

Adaptation refers to the process through which organisms develop features or behaviors that
allow them to survive and reproduce in their environment.

Adaptations can be structural, such as the sharp claws of a predator, or behavioral, such as
the migration patterns of birds.
Adaptations are the result of natural selection acting on heritable traits within a population.
Adaptations can occur over both short and long periods of time.
Successful adaptations increase an organism's fitness and chances of survival and
reproduction.

Autotrophs

Autotrophs are organisms that can produce their own food using sunlight or inorganic
substances.

Autotrophs are also known as producers as they are able to synthesize organic compounds
from inorganic sources.
Photosynthesis is the main process by which autotrophs convert sunlight into usable energy.
Some autotrophs, like plants and algae, use photosynthesis to convert sunlight into glucose.
Other autotrophs, like certain bacteria, use chemosynthesis to obtain energy from inorganic
compounds.

Cellular respiration

Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose into ATP, releasing energy. It
consists of three stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

During glycolysis, glucose is broken down into pyruvate molecules, generating a small
amount of ATP and NADH.
The citric acid cycle takes place in the mitochondria and generates high-energy molecules
such as NADH and FADH2.
Oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane and involves the
transfer of electrons from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen, producing a large amount of ATP.
Cellular respiration is an aerobic process, meaning it requires oxygen to produce ATP
efficiently.

Circulatory Systems
Circulatory systems are vital for transporting nutrients and oxygen to cells while removing waste
products. They consist of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.

Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart, while veins transport deoxygenated
blood back to the heart.
Capillaries are tiny blood vessels where gas exchange and nutrient delivery to tissues occur.
The heart pumps blood, with the right side receiving deoxygenated blood and the left side
pumping oxygen-rich blood to the body.
Blood is composed of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets, each with
specific roles in maintaining health.

Digestion in small intestine

The small intestine is where most digestion and absorption of nutrients occur. Enzymes break
down food particles for absorption into the bloodstream.

The small intestine is lined with villi to increase surface area for nutrient absorption.
Peristalsis helps move food along the small intestine.
Bile from the liver neutralizes stomach acid before further digestion.
Digestive enzymes from the pancreas also aid in the breakdown of food.

Double Circulation of Blood in Heart

In the double circulation of blood in the heart, blood passes through the heart twice in one
complete cycle, separating oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.

System involving two separate circuits: pulmonary circulation (lungs) and systemic
circulation (body).
Pulmonary circulation carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs for oxygenation.
Systemic circulation delivers oxygenated blood from the heart to the body's tissues and
organs.
Maintains a high-pressure system to ensure efficient oxygen exchange and delivery
throughout the body.

Excretion in human beings

Excretion is the process by which waste products are eliminated from the body to maintain
internal balance and the removal of metabolic wastes.

Kidneys filter blood to remove waste and excess substances.

Skin excretes sweat, containing water and salts.
The lungs eliminate carbon dioxide and water vapor during exhalation.
The liver processes waste and releases bile for digestion.
Excretion in plants

Excretion in plants refers to the process of elimination of waste materials, such as gases, water,
and metabolic byproducts, that are no longer needed by the plant.

Plants excrete excess water through transpiration, which is the loss of water vapor through
the stomata.
Plants excrete gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide through stomata during photosynthesis
and respiration.
Metabolic byproducts, such as nitrogenous compounds, are excreted in the form of dissolved
substances in sap or as crystals in specialized cells.
In some plants, excretion occurs through specialized structures like glands, bladder cells, or
glandular trichomes.

Formation of urine

Formation of urine is a complex process that involves filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and
excretion, occurring in the kidneys through nephrons.

Glomerular filtration filters blood to form a filtrate that enters the renal tubules.
Tubular reabsorption reclaims essential substances like water, ions, and nutrients from the
filtrate back into the body.
Tubular secretion involves moving additional substances like toxins and excess ions from the
blood into the filtrate for disposal.
Concentration of urine occurs in the collecting ducts, influenced by hormones like ADH and
aldosterone.

Growth and development

Growth and development refers to the process through which an organism increases in size and
complexity over time.

Growth is the increase in size of an organism, typically achieved through cell division and
enlargement.
Development is the process through which an organism attains its mature form, including the
differentiation of cells and tissues.
Growth and development are controlled by various internal and external factors, including
genetics, hormones, and environmental cues.
The stages of growth and development vary among different species and can be influenced
by age, nutrition, and other factors.

Heart diagram

A diagram illustrating the structure of the heart, including chambers, valves, major blood vessels,
and direction of blood flow.
 Labels such as atria, ventricles, aorta, pulmonary artery, and vena cava are key to
understanding the diagram.
The heart diagram typically shows the flow of oxygen-rich blood (red) and oxygen-poor blood
(blue).
It may also depict coronary arteries responsible for supplying blood to the heart muscle.
Understanding the heart diagram is crucial for learning about circulation, the cardiac cycle,
and heart function.

Holozoic Nutrition

Holozoic nutrition is a type of nutrition in which organisms, such as animals, consume complex
organic substances, such as other organisms or their parts, to obtain energy and nutrients.

Holozoic nutrition is commonly found in animals.

This type of nutrition involves the ingestion of food through specialized structures, such as
mouths or beaks.
Digestive enzymes break down the ingested food into simpler molecules.
Absorption of nutrients occurs in the digestive system.

Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the self-regulating process by which biological systems maintain stability while
adjusting to changing external conditions.

Involved in maintaining body temperature, fluid balance, and blood pH levels.

Disruptions can lead to diseases such as diabetes and hyperthyroidism.
Regulated largely by the endocrine and nervous systems.
Feedback mechanisms, both negative and positive, play a key role in homeostasis.

Human Digestive System

The human digestive system is a complex system that breaks down food into nutrients that the
body can use for energy, growth, and repair.

The process involves the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and
other accessory organs.
Digestive enzymes and stomach acid play crucial roles in the breakdown of food.
Nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine and waste products are eliminated through the
rectum and anus.
Maintaining a healthy balance of gut bacteria is essential for proper digestion and overall
health.

Importance of Double Circulation in Humans

Double circulation in humans is essential for efficient oxygenation and nutrient delivery. It
maintains a separate circuit for oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.

System ensures that oxygen-rich blood does not mix with oxygen-poor blood, optimizing
distribution throughout the body.
Helps in preventing the mixing of high-pressure oxygenated blood with low-pressure
deoxygenated blood.
Efficient delivery of oxygen to tissues and elimination of waste products are facilitated by the
dual circuit system.
Separate pathways for pulmonary and systemic circulation allow for more precise regulation
of blood flow and pressure.

Large Intestine

The large intestine is the final section of the digestive system where water is absorbed from the
remaining food matter before being eliminated from the body.

The large intestine is also known as the colon.

It is approximately 1.5 meters long.
It consists of four parts: ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and sigmoid
colon.
The large intestine is responsible for storing and eliminating waste material from the body.

lymph

Lymph is a clear fluid that circulates throughout the body, carrying white blood cells and
removing waste products from tissues.

Lymph is derived from blood plasma and helps maintain fluid balance in the body.
Lymph nodes are small bean-shaped structures that filter lymph and help fight off infections.
Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell found in lymph and play a key role in the immune
system.
Lymphatic vessels are similar to blood vessels, but they transport lymph instead of blood.

Metabolism

Metabolism refers to all chemical processes occurring in a living organism to maintain life,
including converting food to energy and building or replacing cellular components.

It's categorized into catabolism (breaking down) and anabolism (building up).
Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions by lowering activation energy.
Some factors affecting metabolism are age, sex, weight, and genes.
Metabolic rates vary across individuals and species.

Modes of nutrition
Modes of nutrition refer to the methods by which organisms obtain energy and nutrients for
growth and metabolism.

Autotrophic organisms produce their own food through processes like photosynthesis.
Heterotrophic organisms rely on other organisms for food.
Saprophytic organisms feed on decaying matter.
Parasitic organisms obtain nutrients from a host organism.

Nutrition

Nutrition is the process of obtaining and consuming food for growth, energy, and maintaining
overall health.

Nutrients are important substances found in food that provide energy, promote growth, and
support bodily functions.
Macronutrients include carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, while micronutrients include
vitamins and minerals.
The digestive system breaks down food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed into the
bloodstream.
A balanced diet consists of a variety of foods and nutrients to meet the body's nutritional
needs.

Nutrition in Amoeba

Amoeba obtains nutrition through phagocytosis, where it engulfs food particles like bacteria and
algae using pseudopods for ingestion and digestion.

Amoeba relies on pseudopods for capturing and engulfing food particles.

Once engulfed, food vacuoles form in Amoeba for digestion.
The nutrients from digested food are absorbed into the cytoplasm for energy and growth.
Excess waste materials are eliminated through exocytosis.

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process where green plants convert sunlight into chemical energy, using
water, carbon dioxide and chlorophyll.

It occurs in chloroplasts within plant cells.

Light-dependent and light-independent reactions form the two stages.
The end products are glucose and oxygen.
The process is crucial for life on Earth, as it releases oxygen and serves as a primary energy
source.
Reproduction

Reproduction refers to the process where living organisms produce new individuals of the same
species, ensuring continuity of life.

Two main types are Sexual (involves two individuals) and Asexual (involves one individual
only).
In sexual reproduction, offspring are genetically diverse due to the process of genetic
recombination.
Asexual reproduction, such as budding or fission, generates offspring identical to the parent,
creating clones.
Examples include: Budding in Hydra, Binary fission in Amoeba, and Sexual reproduction in
higher animals.

Respiration in humans

Respiration in humans involves the intake of oxygen and release of carbon dioxide through the
process of breathing and cellular respiration.

Human respiration occurs in the lungs and involves the exchange of gases between the blood
and external environment.
Oxygen is transported by red blood cells to body tissues, while carbon dioxide is transported
back to the lungs for exhalation.
Respiration provides cells with the necessary oxygen for energy production through aerobic
respiration.
The diaphragm is a key muscle involved in respiration, contracting and relaxing to facilitate
breathing and air exchange.

Response to stimuli

Response to stimuli refers to the ability of an organism to respond to changes in its environment
by adjusting its behavior or physiological processes.

The response can be immediate and instinctive, such as flinching from a touch.
It can also be a more complex learned behavior, like salivating in anticipation of food.
The stimulus can be external, such as temperature or light, or internal, like hormone levels.
Organisms have different types of receptors that detect specific stimuli and initiate the
appropriate response.

Stomach digestion

Stomach digestion is the process by which food is broken down in the stomach through the
action of enzymes and acids.
 Stomach acid, primarily hydrochloric acid, helps denature proteins and kill bacteria.
Protein-digesting enzymes like pepsin break down proteins into smaller peptides.
Gastric glands in the lining of the stomach secrete digestive juices containing enzymes and
acids.
Peristalsis in the stomach helps mix and churn food with digestive juices for thorough
digestion.

Transportation in humans

Transportation in humans involves the circulatory system, where the heart pumps blood through
blood vessels to deliver oxygen and nutrients to cells while removing waste products.

The circulatory system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood away from the heart, while veins return oxygen-poor blood
back to the heart.
Capillaries are tiny blood vessels where gas exchange and nutrient transfer with tissues
occur.
Red blood cells contain hemoglobin, a protein that binds with oxygen for transport throughout
the body.

transportation in plants

Transportation in plants involves the movement of water, nutrients, and other substances
throughout the plant's tissues to support growth and maintain function.

Xylem vessels transport water and minerals from roots to leaves.

Phloem carries sugars produced in the leaves to other parts of the plant.
Transpiration helps to create a pull that assists in the movement of water through the plant.
The structure of plant tissues, like roots, stems, and leaves, is adapted for efficient
transportation.

Types of Respiration

Respiration can be aerobic, requiring the presence of oxygen, or anaerobic, occurring without the
use of oxygen.

Aerobic respiration produces significantly more ATP compared to anaerobic respiration.

Anaerobic respiration is less efficient and produces lactic acid in animals.
Plants can undergo anaerobic respiration, with ethanol being produced as a byproduct.
Respiration is a fundamental process that provides cells with the necessary energy to carry
out metabolic activities.

Key Terms
Abiotic factors

Abiotic factors are non-living factors in the environment that can influence living organisms.

Examples include temperature, sunlight, water availability, and soil composition.

They can have a significant impact on the distribution and abundance of organisms in an
ecosystem.
Abiotic factors can interact with each other, creating complex effects on organisms.
They play a crucial role in shaping the characteristics and adaptations of species within an
ecosystem.

Aerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose into energy in the presence of
oxygen, yielding carbon dioxide and water as byproducts.

It occurs in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells.

It is the most efficient way of producing ATP.
The overall reaction of aerobic respiration is C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP.
Aerobic respiration releases a large amount of energy (approximately 36-38 ATP molecules
per glucose molecule).

Anaerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration is a metabolic process that converts glucose into energy without using
oxygen. It occurs in the cytoplasm and produces less energy than aerobic respiration.

Anaerobic respiration is also known as fermentation.

In humans, anaerobic respiration occurs during high-intensity, short-duration activities like
weightlifting or sprinting.
Lactic acid is produced as a byproduct of anaerobic respiration in muscles and causes
muscle fatigue and soreness.
Unlike aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration does not require mitochondria and is less
efficient in terms of ATP production.

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

ATP is a molecule that stores and provides energy for cellular processes in living organisms.

ATP is composed of adenosine and three phosphate groups.

Energy is stored in the ATP molecule by the bonds between the phosphate groups.
ATP is synthesized through cellular respiration in the mitochondria.
ATP can be quickly and easily broken down to release energy when needed.
Biodiversity

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth, including the diversity of species, ecosystems,
and genetic material.

Biodiversity is crucial for maintaining ecological balance and providing essential ecosystem
services.
Biodiversity can be measured at different levels, including genetic diversity, species diversity,
and ecosystem diversity.
Human activities such as habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change are major threats
to biodiversity.
Biodiversity conservation efforts involve preserving endangered species, protecting habitats,
and promoting sustainable practices.

Biotic factors

Biotic factors are living or once-living organisms that directly or indirectly influence an
ecosystem.

Examples of biotic factors include plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria.

Biotic factors play a crucial role in shaping the structure and function of ecosystems.
The interactions between biotic factors can lead to the creation of complex food webs.
Changes in biotic factors, such as the introduction or extinction of a species, can have
significant impacts on an ecosystem.

Cell division

Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells, each
containing a complete set of chromosomes.

Cell division is essential for growth, development, and repair of multicellular organisms.
There are two main types of cell division: mitosis, which produces genetically identical cells
for growth and repair, and meiosis, which produces gametes for sexual reproduction.
During mitosis, a parent cell goes through stages including prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
and telophase.
Meiosis consists of two rounds of division, resulting in four non-identical daughter cells with
half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

Cell membrane

The cell membrane is a semi-permeable barrier encircling cells, regulating molecular traffic to
maintain a stable internal environment and supporting cellular structure.

It's composed of a lipid bilayer interspersed with proteins.

 It's involved in processes like endocytosis, exocytosis, and signal transduction.
Proteins embedded in the membrane fulfill functions like transport and receptor signaling.
Membrane fluidity is influenced by lipid composition and temperature.

Chlorophyll

Chlorophyll is the pigment found in plants and algae that is responsible for capturing light energy
in photosynthesis.

Chlorophyll absorbs light in the blue and red regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
It plays a crucial role in converting sunlight into chemical energy.
There are different types of chlorophyll, such as chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, which have
slightly different absorption spectra.
In autumn, chlorophyll breaks down, revealing other pigments in leaves and causing their
color to change.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

DNA is a molecule found in cells that contains the genetic instructions for the development and
functioning of living organisms.

DNA is composed of a double helix structure made up of nucleotides.

The four nucleotides in DNA are adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine.
DNA replication is the process by which DNA makes an identical copy of itself during cell
division.
DNA sequencing is the method used to determine the precise order of nucleotides in a DNA
molecule.

Ecosystem

An 'Ecosystem' encompasses a specific interaction of living organisms and their physical

environment, engaging in nutrient cycle and energy flow.

It is categorized into terrestrial and aquatic systems.

It involves various abiotic components such as temperature, light, and soil.
The health of an ecosystem is measured by biodiversity.
Human activities can dramatically affect ecosystem balance.

Electron transport chain

The 'Electron transport chain' is a series of protein complexes and electron carriers within the
mitochondria that generates ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.

The sequence transfers electrons from donors to acceptors while pumping protons.
 It’s integral to both cellular respiration and photosynthesis.
Evidence of impaired electron transport chain function appears in many disorders, such as
mitochondria-related diseases.
The final electron acceptor is molecular oxygen in the electron transport chain.

Enzyme

Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts in biochemical reactions, accelerating reaction rates
by lowering the energy required for the reaction to proceed.

Enzymes remain unaltered after the reaction, allowing them to participate in multiple
reactions.
Every enzyme is specific to a particular substrate due to its unique shape.
Factors such as temperature and pH may alter enzyme activity.
Inhibition of enzymes can regulate reaction rates.

Evolution

Evolution, in essence, refers to the process where organisms develop and diversify from primitive
and ancestral forms through successive generations.

It's driven by mechanisms such as mutation, non-random mating, gene flow, genetic drift, and
natural selection.
Charles Darwin is renowned for establishing the theory through natural selection.
Evolution explains the origin of species and their ancestral lineage.
Genetic evolution and punctuated equilibrium are key concepts within the realm.

Feedback mechanism

Feedback mechanism is a regulatory process in which the output of a system influences its own
operation, either enhancing or inhibiting its activity.

Positive feedback intensifies or amplifies changes, such as the contractions during childbirth.
Negative feedback maintains stability by reducing the output and bringing the system back to
its original state, like regulating body temperature.
Feedback mechanisms are essential for homeostasis, the ability of living organisms to
maintain a stable internal environment.
In molecular biology, feedback mechanisms regulate gene expression through proteins that
bind to DNA and control transcription.

Genetics

Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in living organisms, illustrating how
traits are inherited from parents to offspring.
 Involves study of DNA structure and functions, which codes for proteins
Classifies traits as dominant or recessive based on inheritance patterns
Incorporates methodologies like gene therapy, cloning, and genetic engineering
Also covers population genetics, studying gene frequency changes over time

Glycolysis

Glycolysis is a biochemical pathway responsible for breaking down glucose into two molecules
of pyruvate, releasing energy stored in the glucose molecule.

It occurs in the cytoplasm of all living cells.

During glycolysis, glucose undergoes partial oxidation to form pyruvate.
The process produces ATP and NADH, which are used in other metabolic pathways.
It does not require oxygen, making it an anaerobic process.

Homeostatic regulation

Homeostatic regulation is the process by which an organism maintains internal stability despite
external fluctuations, ensuring optimal conditions for cells and overall function.

Feedback loops play a key role in homeostatic regulation, with sensors detecting changes
and triggers initiating corrective responses.
Temperature, pH levels, and blood glucose are examples of variables that are tightly regulated
through homeostatic mechanisms.
Disruption of homeostasis can lead to diseases and health problems, highlighting the
importance of maintaining balance within the body.
Positive and negative feedback mechanisms work together to regulate homeostasis, with
positive feedback amplifying a response and negative feedback minimizing deviations.

Hormones

Hormones are chemical signals that coordinate different bodily functions via the circulatory
system, crucial in regulating growth, metabolism, and mood.

In organisms, they are typically produced by endocrine glands like the pituitary or adrenal
glands.
Hormones can be proteins, steroids or amines.
Their production is regulated by feedback mechanisms.
Dysfunction in hormonal regulation can lead to disorders like diabetes or hypothyroidism.

Krebs cycle

The "Krebs cycle" is a key metabolic pathway involved in cellular respiration that oxidizes acetyl
CoA, producing ATP and releasing carbon dioxide.
 Occurs in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells.
Also known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle.
Encompasses two carbon dioxide molecules, three NADH molecules, one FADH2 molecule,
and one ATP (or GTP) per cycle.
Interacts with other metabolic pathways like glycolysis and the electron transport chain.

Meiosis

Meiosis is a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each having half the number of
chromosomes of the parent nucleus.

It ensures genetic diversity through a process called crossing over.

Meiosis occurs in sexual reproduction, producing gametes.
It involves two rounds of division- Meiosis I and II.
Errors in meiosis can lead to genetic disorders like Down Syndrome.

Mitosis

Mitosis is a process of cell division resulting in two genetically identical daughter cells each
having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus.

Mitosis occurs in somatic (body) cells.

Consists of four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Enables growth, repair, and asexual reproduction in organisms.
Abnormalities in mitosis can lead to cancer.

Natural selection

Natural selection refers to the process by which certain species survive and reproduce more
successfully due to advantageous traits.

It's often described as 'survival of the fittest'.

Based on the theories of Charles Darwin.
Genetic mutations play a critical role.
Environmental factors heavily influence natural selection.

Nutrient Cycling

Nutrient cycling is the movement and exchange of nutrients between living organisms and their
environment.

Nutrient cycling plays a vital role in maintaining the balance of nutrients in ecosystems.
It involves the processes of uptake, digestion, assimilation, release, and recycling of nutrients.
 The main elements involved in nutrient cycling are carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.
Nutrient cycling helps sustain life by ensuring the availability of essential nutrients for
organisms.

Organism

An "Organism" is a complex structure of interdependent and subordinate elements whose

relations and properties are largely determined by their function in the whole.

It can be any life form, from a plant to an animal, including humans.

This entity is capable of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth, and development.
They use metabolism for conversion of food to energy.
Organs and systems work together to perform life functions.

Photosystem

Photosystem is a complex of pigment molecules and proteins found in thylakoid membranes of

chloroplasts that captures and converts light energy into chemical energy.

Photosystems are essential for photosynthesis, the process that converts sunlight into
usable energy.
There are two types of photosystems in plants, photosystem I and photosystem II.
Photosystem II functions first and absorbs light at a peak wavelength of 680nm.
Photosystem I functions second and absorbs light at a peak wavelength of 700nm.

protein synthesis

Protein synthesis is the process by which cells build proteins. It involves transcription and
translation.

Transcription occurs in the nucleus, where DNA is copied into mRNA.

Translation occurs in the cytoplasm, where mRNA is used as a template to build a protein.
During translation, tRNA molecules carry amino acids to ribosomes.
Ribosomes read the mRNA sequence and assemble amino acids into a polypeptide chain.

RNA (ribonucleic acid)

RNA, or ribonucleic acid, is a critical nucleic acid present in all living cells. Its primary role is to
process genetic instructions from DNA, guiding protein synthesis.

RNA is single-stranded, unlike double-stranded DNA.

There are three types of RNA: Messenger RNA (mRNA), Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and Transfer
RNA (tRNA).
mRNA carries genetic codes from DNA, rRNA makes up ribosomes, and tRNA delivers amino
 acids.
RNA viruses, like HIV and COVID-19, carry genetic information as RNA instead of DNA.

Stimulus

A Stimulus is an external cue or event that triggers a physiological or behavioral response in an

organism.

Stimuli can vary greatly, such as light, sound, temperature, or chemical changes.
Responses to stimuli can be voluntary or involuntary.
Stimuli play a key role in homeostasis, keeping an organism's internal conditions stable.
The process of receiving and responding to stimuli is controlled by the nervous system.

Symbiosis

Symbiosis is a close ecological relationship shared between two or more species, often
providing mutual benefits.

There are three types: mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.

Mutualism presents benefit to both organisms involved.
Commensalism benefits one organism, neutral to the other.
Parasitism benefits one organism at the expense of the other.