Article

Effect of Various Thermal Processing Methods on the Sensory,

Textural, and Physicochemical Characteristics of Foal Meat
Renata Stanisławczyk 1, *, Jagoda Żurek 2 , Mariusz Rudy 1 , Marian Gil 1 , Anna Krajewska 3
and Dariusz Dziki 3, *

1 Department of Agricultural Processing and Commodity Science, Institute of Food and Nutrition Technology,
College of Natural Sciences, University of Rzeszow, Zelwerowicza 4, 35-601 Rzeszów, Poland;
[email protected] (M.R.); [email protected] (M.G.)
2 Department of Finance and Accounting, Institute of Economics and Finance, College of Social Sciences,
University of Rzeszow, Cwiklinskiej 2, 35-601 Rzeszów, Poland; [email protected]
3 Department of Thermal Technology and Food Process Engineering, University of Life Sciences in Lublin,
Gł˛eboka 31, 20-612 Lublin, Poland; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] (R.S.); [email protected] (D.D.);
Tel.: +48-(0)-17-785-52-62 (R.S.); +48-81-445-61-25 (D.D.)

Abstract: Previous research on the impact of various heat treatment methods on meat has primarily
focused on conventional meats from common livestock animals, with limited studies on the effects
of different heat treatments on foal meat. The aim of this study was to evaluate how different heat
treatments, including sous-vide, affect the sensory, textural, and physicochemical characteristics
of foal meat. This allowed for the identification of the most effective heat treatment method to
preserve the optimal quality attributes of foal meat while enhancing sensory and textural qualities
preferred by consumers. Samples of m. longissimus thoracis were subjected to traditional cooking
in two variants: in water at 100 ◦ C in a foil bag for 1.5 h, and cooked to a core temperature of
85 ◦ C (16 half-carcasses × 2 traditional heat treatment methods = 32 samples). Additionally, m.
longissimus thoracis was subjected to sous-vide at 55 ◦ C and 65 ◦ C for 4 and 24 h (16 half-carcasses
× 2 temperature settings × 2 time settings = 64 samples). Chemical composition, physicochemical
Citation: Stanisławczyk, R.; Żurek, J.; properties, color parameters, hem pigment levels, texture characteristics, and sensory properties
Rudy, M.; Gil, M.; Krajewska, A.; were analyzed. Compared to sous-vide samples, traditionally cooked foal meat exhibited higher
Dziki, D. Effect of Various Thermal
weight loss (p = 0.002), higher fat content (p = 0.003), and lower water content (p = 0.03). Significant
Processing Methods on the Sensory,
improvements in tenderness were observed in sous-vide samples, with the lowest shear force values
Textural, and Physicochemical
(52.86 N/cm2 at 55 ◦ C and 48.39 N/cm2 at 65 ◦ C; p = 0.001) and meat hardness (102.44 N and 101.27 N,
Characteristics of Foal Meat. Molecules
respectively; p = 0.015) after 24 h of thermal processing. Moreover, sous-vide cooking significantly
2024, 29, 5464. https://doi.org/
10.3390/molecules29225464
improved sensory properties of foal meat, particularly juiciness (p = 0.002), tenderness (p = 0.002),
and flavor desirability (p = 0.03), which were highly rated by consumers.
Academic Editors: Maria Bellumori
and Lorenzo Cecchi
Keywords: chemical composition; foal meat; physicochemical properties; sensory profile; sous-vide;
Received: 14 October 2024 textural profile
Revised: 16 November 2024
Accepted: 18 November 2024
Published: 20 November 2024
1. Introduction
In 2022, Poland slaughtered 16,000 horses, yielding a total of 9.3 thousand tons of
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
horse meat. Of these, 12,800 horses were designated for industrial slaughter, producing
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
7.3 thousand tons of live weight [1]. The production of foal meat in Poland is limited, as
This article is an open access article these animals are primarily bred for reproduction. Meat from this age group is considered
distributed under the terms and scarce on global markets and commands premium prices. In Poland, foals make up
conditions of the Creative Commons about 10% of the slaughter stock, providing high-quality meat that is largely exported as
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// carcasses or cuts. Countries like Italy, France, and Belgium have a strong preference for
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ foal meat over other types of meat [2]. Foal meat is recognized for its excellent flavor and
4.0/).

Molecules 2024, 29, 5464. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29225464 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/molecules

Molecules 2024, 29, 5464 2 of 14

nutritional qualities. With a low fat content, it serves as a dietary option and contains anti-
atherosclerotic substances [3,4]. Importantly, this type of meat has a lower cholesterol level
compared to lean cuts of beef or pork, with values of 62 and 71 mg/100 g, respectively [5].
As a result, the regular consumption of horse meat may contribute to lowering total
cholesterol and LDL cholesterol levels in healthy individuals [6]. Moreover, this meat
demonstrates good water retention, good juiciness, and a bright color [2]. The protein
content in meat from foal carcasses is notably high and includes a comprehensive array of
essential amino acids, exceeding that of beef in lysine, leucine, tryptophan, phenylalanine,
and methionine levels [3,4,7,8].
Among various thermal processing methods for food, sous-vide (SV) cooking is consid-
ered the optimal technique for achieving desirable technological and functional attributes in
food products [9]. This method enhances high nutritional value, improved tenderness, and
juiciness in the finished products [10,11]. Recognized as a contemporary culinary technique,
SV establishes new trends in gastronomic technology. The term “sous-vide” is derived from
French, meaning “in vacuum” [12,13]. The SV method is a cooking technique performed
in a water bath that involves heating high-quality food products (primarily meat) at a
precisely regulated temperature for a specified period while they are vacuum-sealed in
thermally stable, multi-layer barrier bags made from PA/PE film [13–16]. After cooking,
the products undergo rapid cooling before being stored under refrigeration [17–19], which
allows for a shelf life of 3 to 5, and even up to 7 weeks prior to reheating and consump-
tion [17]. The pressure created during sous-vide cooking with saturated steam ensures that
the meat does not come into direct contact with the heat source, helping to maintain cellular
structure, reduce protein–protein interactions and gelation, and improve water retention
capabilities [9,20]. This method enhances the sensory qualities and texture of the meat
but also extends its shelf life by inhibiting the growth of aerobic bacteria and preventing
lipid oxidation [19]. Consequently, the literature consistently identifies sous-vide cooking
as one of the most effective thermal processing methods for producing high-quality meat
products, particularly when compared to traditional techniques such as grilling, frying,
and roasting [21]. In the case of meat, sous-vide thermal processing is based on various
combinations of time and temperature. Generally, culinary experts recommend tempera-
ture and time settings for sous-vide preparation of beef, pork, or lamb that range from 58
to 63 ◦ C for about 10 to 48 h [22].
Research indicates that sous-vide cooking has been shown to enhance the quality of
beef [23], lamb [24], poultry [25], and pork [26]. It is noteworthy that earlier studies focus-
ing on the impact of various thermal processing methods have predominantly examined
conventional meats from primary livestock species, such as swine, bovine, and poultry. In
contrast, there is limited comprehensive research comparing the effects of different heat
treatment methods on the quality of foal meat. Hence, this study aimed to investigate
how different heat treatment, including sous-vide, affect the sensory and textural profile,
chemical composition, and physical properties of foal meat. This research will help identify
the most effective thermal processing method that preserves the optimal quality character-
istics of this meat while achieving the sensory and textural properties that consumers find
most appealing.

2. Results and Discussion

2.1. Chemical Composition
Table 1 presents the chemical composition of foal meat based on the applied thermal
processing methods. Foal meat, regardless of the sous-vide cooking technique, exhibited
a notably lower fat content (p = 0.003) and a significantly higher water content (p = 0.03)
compared to traditional cooking. The choice of thermal treatment had no significant impact
on the protein content (p = 0.25) in the tested material. The increased water content in
meat processed using the sous-vide method can be attributed to the vacuum packaging,
which acts as a physical barrier against water loss [27,28]. Conversely, the increased
water loss observed in samples subjected to conventional heat treatment leads to a higher
Molecules 2024, 29, 5464 3 of 14

concentration of fat. This may be a consequence of the high temperatures causing protein
denaturation in muscle tissue during cooking, resulting in a reduction in water retained
within the protein structures [29]. This phenomenon refers to chemical composition data of
horse meat discussed in this study.

Table 1. Chemical composition of foal meat as influenced by different thermal processing methods
(means ± SE).

Type of Thermal Processing

p-Value
Specification Cooking * Cooking ** Sous-Vide Method 55 ◦ C Sous-Vide Method 65 ◦ C
85 ◦ C 100 ◦ C/1.5 h 4h 24 h 4h 24 h
a a b b b
Fat (%) 6.85 ± 0.77 6.65 ± 0.19 3.60 ± 0.33 4.40 ± 0.07 4.95 ± 0.58 4.93 b ± 0.55 0.003
a
70.60 ± 0.28 a
70.85 ± 0.14 b b b b
Water (%) 73.85 ± 0.16 73.76 ± 0.35 73.50 ± 0.41 73.10 ± 0.20 0.030
Protein (%) 20.86 ± 0.98 20.95 ± 0.07 19.90 ± 0.49 19.95 ± 0.07 20.05 ± 0.98 20.20 ± 0.55 0.250
a,b —Values marked with different letters differ significantly in relation to the type of thermal processing—p < 0.05;
*—cooking until the internal temperature at the geometric center reached 85 ◦ C, **—cooking in vacuum-sealed
foil bag in water at 100 ◦ C for 1.5 h.

The study by Sujiwo et al. [30] on horse meat found no significant differences in water
and fat content between the control group (meat cooked at 72 ◦ C for 40 min) and samples
subjected to sous-vide cooking (65 ◦ C and 70 ◦ C for 12, 18, and 24 h). However, sous-vide
samples generally had a significantly higher protein content compared to the control group
(26.38%), except for those cooked at 65 ◦ C for 12 h (28.14%). The protein content was
shown to be influenced by the cooking temperature. A study by Głuchowski et al. [31]
on chicken breast (musculus pectoralis major) found that thermal processing methods
decreased water content while increasing protein and fat levels. Samples cooked in a pot to
a core temperature of 70 ◦ C, steamed to 75 ◦ C, and those processed under higher sous-vide
conditions at temperature 66 ◦ C and 75 had lower water content compared to those treated
at the lowest evaluated temperature (SV64).
The aforementioned research results [30,31] indicate an increase in protein content in
heat-treated meat. However, the results presented in this study do not show a significant
effect of the applied heat treatment on the protein content in the tested meat.

2.2. Physicochemical Properties

The evaluation of substances that react with 2-thiobarbituric acid to produce a color
change is a common technique for assessing lipid oxidation levels in meat. The findings
are expressed as malondialdehyde content, used as an indicator of TBARS. This study
indicated that the method of thermal processing had a significant impact on the malondi-
aldehyde levels (p = 0.03) in the studied samples (Table 2). Foal meat samples cooked at
100 ◦ C for 1.5 h exhibited the highest levels of malondialdehyde, surpassing 1 MDA/kg in
comparison to all other meat samples analyzed. When traditional thermal processing was
applied to achieve an internal temperature of 85 ◦ C in the meat samples, the TBARS values
obtained were similar to those of samples processed using sous-vide methods, regardless
of the specific temperature or duration of treatment. Increasing the duration of sous-vide
thermal processing from 4 to 24 h led to an elevation in the value of the analyzed indica-
tor across both temperature variants; however, this trend was not statistically validated
(p = 0.1). It is important to emphasize that the distribution of results presented in this
study is significantly affected by the type of raw material under investigation. Foal meat
is characterized by a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) [32,33], which
are particularly prone to oxidation [34,35]. Mild lipid oxidation during the initial phases
of cooking meat can enhance desirable aromas; however, lipid autooxidation may lead to
off-flavors and rancidity, frequently described as “warmed-over flavor” [36]. As a result,
oxidation reactions play a vital role during thermal processing because they influence the
characteristics of this type of meat. A previous study [37] indicated that the value of the
Molecules 2024, 29, 5464 4 of 14

analyzed indicator increased with higher temperatures and longer durations of sous-vide
cooking. Haghighi et al. [38] found that raising the sous-vide cooking temperature from
60 ◦ C to 100 ◦ C for chicken breast fillets led to a significant increase in TBARS values,
which rose from 0.29 mg MDA kg−1 to 2.91 mg MDA kg−1 . Additionally, the same authors
reported that prolonging the sous-vide cooking time from 60 min to 150 min resulted in
an increase in TBARS values from 0.29 mg MDA kg−1 to 0.94 mg MDA kg−1 , even when
maintaining a constant temperature of 60 ◦ C. Sánchez del Pulgar et al. [28] found greater
TBARS values in cooked pork cheeks samples at 60 ◦ C for 12 h; however, lower values
were observed in samples subjected to 80 ◦ C for the same duration.

Table 2. Physicochemical characteristics of foal meat based on the type of thermal processing
(means ± SE).

Type of Thermal Treatment

Specification Cooking * Cooking ** Sous-Vide Method 55 ◦ C Sous-Vide Method 65 ◦ C
p-Value
85 ◦ C 100 ◦ C/1.5 h 4h 24 h 4h 24 h
TBARS
0.88 b ± 0.01 1.04 a ± 0.01 0.87 b ± 0.01 0.89 b ± 0.01 0.88 b ± 0.01 0.92 b ± 0.01 0.030
[mg MDA/kg]
Oxidation–
reduction 392.20 ± 6.99 356.20 ± 7.24 360.00 ± 8.76 339.50 ± 7.55 357.20 ± 8.20 357.30 ± 6.76 0.370
potential [mV]
Water activity 0.995 ± 0.01 0.998 ± 0.02 0.997 ± 0.02 0.990 ± 0.01 0.994 ± 0.02 0.997 ± 0.02 0.290
a
41.19 ± 1.23 a
39.04 ± 1.09 b b b a
32.72 ± 1.02
Weight loss [%] 12.95 ± 0.67 18.04 ± 0.88 20.18 ± 0.87 0.002
a,b —Values
designated with distinct letters exhibit significant differences across the various methods of thermal
treatment—p < 0.05; *—cooking until the internal temperature at the geometric center reached 85 ◦ C, **—cooking
in vacuum-sealed foil bag in water at 100 ◦ C for 1.5 h.

The results presented in Table 2 indicate that the type of thermal treatment applied
does not significantly affect the oxidation–reduction potential (ORP) or water activity in
foal meat. The ORP values ranged from 339.50 to 392.20 mV, while water activity levels
were between 0.990 and 0.998. Stanisławczyk et al. [37] reported ORP values ranging from
342.30 to 392.40 mV for sous-vide-processed horse meat, showing that these values are
independent of the cooking temperature and time. Similarly, the water activity of sous-
vide-cooked horse meat samples ranged from 0.978 to 0.995, with values for this parameter
also remaining unaffected by the cooking conditions.
Cooking loss is determined by the mass transfer occurring during thermal processing,
indicating that different cooking techniques will yield varying degrees of loss [39]. Table 2
presents the percentage weight loss of foal meat samples subjected to various thermal
processing methods, including both water-based cooking and sous-vide technology. The
highest weight losses, ranging from 39.04% to 41.19%, were observed in meat cooked
using traditional methods in water pots. In this study, the weight loss of meat prepared
using sous-vide technology was statistically significantly lower than that observed for
traditionally cooked meat (p = 0.002). The least weight loss, approximately 13%, was noted
in samples subjected to lower temperatures (55 ◦ C) for 4 h. As the temperature and cooking
time increased during sous-vide preparation, the percentage of weight loss also increased.
These findings can be attributed to elevated temperatures that induced the denaturation
of myofibrillar proteins and the actomyosin complex, leading to muscle contraction. This
denaturation process not only causes structural alterations but also promotes the release of
fluids from muscle fibers, diminishing water-holding capacity and consequently increasing
cooking losses. The sous-vide process, involving vacuum-sealed foal meat, resulted in
reduced weight loss. The increased weight loss observed during conventional cooking
is attributed to evaporation. Vacuum packaging effectively inhibited water evaporation
from the meat samples, acting as a physical barrier that retained moisture within the
packaging while also limiting liquid discharge due to constrained space. Increasing the
Molecules 2024, 29, 5464 5 of 14

temperature and duration during sous-vide cooking leads to greater weight losses due to
the pressure differential between the meat product and its surroundings [40]. The obtained
research findings are consistent with the results of other studies regarding the impact of
thermal treatment on weight loss in equine meat [30,37], poultry [11,38,41], beef [24,27],
and pork [28].

2.3. Color Parameters and the Level of Heme Pigments

Table 3 presents the color parameters and heme pigment levels in foal meat as affected
by the type of thermal processing applied. The analysis of lightness (L*) reveals that the
thermal treatment method significantly influenced this parameter (p = 0.02). Traditional
cooking methods led to a significant decrease in lightness of the meat samples, while sous-
vide cooking notably increased lightness compared to traditional methods. The highest
L* values for foal meat were observed in samples cooked sous-vide for 4 h, across all
temperature ranges tested in this study. There were no statistically significant differences
between any of the sous-vide treatments.

Table 3. Color parameters and the level of pigments in foal meat depending on the type of thermal
treatment (means ± SE).

Type of Thermal Treatment

Specification Cooking * Cooking ** Sous-Vide Method 55 ◦ C Sous-Vide Method 65 ◦ C
p-Value
85 ◦ C 100 ◦ C/1.5 h 4h 24 h 4h 24 h
L* 47.93 a ± 1.64 46.51 a ± 1.81 52.06 b ± 1.53 51.88 b ± 0.97 54.22 b ± 1.51 53.92 b ± 1.16 0.020
a
11.53 ± 0.08 a
10.65 ± 0.51 b b c
18.02 ± 0.26 c
14.34 ± 0.81
a* 26.32 ± 1.51 23.25 ± 0.70 0.003
b* 12.70 ± 0.04 13.23 ± 1.29 13.69 ± 0.42 12.51 ± 0.23 13.88 ± 0.29 13.20 ± 0.51 0.500
Mb
49.49 a ± 0.24 48.44 a ± 1.19 35.23 b ± 1.68 38.57 b ± 1.17 42.25 a ± 0.09 47.83 a ± 0.28 0.010
[%]
MMb
29.84 ± 0.99 29.67 ± 3.69 38.23 ± 2.02 37.64 ± 4.16 28.57 ± 0.22 27.09 ± 0.94 0.350
[%]
Mb•O2
20.65 ± 0.74 21.88 ± 4.39 26.52 ± 1.44 26.48 ± 3.00 21.17 ± 0.15 22.06 ± 0.66 0.270
[%]
OZB
585.36 a ± 2.06 528.36 a ± 10.22 305.25 b ± 4.92 410 c ± 1.25 310.69 b ± 0.50 416.38 c ± 4.85 0.0001
[mg/g]
a,b,c —Values
indicated by different letters show statistically significant differences across the types of thermal
treatments—p < 0.05; *—cooking until the internal temperature at the geometric center reached 85 ◦ C, **—cooking
in vacuum-sealed foil bag in water at 100 ◦ C for 1.5 h. Mb—myoglobin; MMb—metmyoglobin; Mb•O2 —
oxymyoglobin; OZB—total heme pigment content.

The higher L values observed in meat cooked sous-vide at lower temperatures, com-
pared to those cooked using conventional methods, may be attributed to the increased
amount of free water on the surface of the sliced sample prior to color measurement [42].
Sous-vide samples cooked at lower temperatures retained more moisture, which resulted in
water being released onto the surface during slicing for color analysis. In contrast, samples
that experienced greater moisture loss during conventional cooking showed lower water
content and visible exudate on the surface [24]. Sujiwo et al. [30] observed significantly
higher L values in horse loin samples treated at 65 ◦ C for 24 h compared to those cooked
at 70 ◦ C for 18 h. The distribution of results was notably influenced by both the cooking
temperature and duration.
The type of thermal treatment applied significantly influenced the variation of the a*
color parameter in foal meat. The highest levels of red color (a*) were observed in samples
subjected to sous-vide cooking at 55 ◦ C. Increasing the sous-vide cooking temperature to
65 ◦ C resulted in a significant decrease in this parameter (p = 0.003) due to more intense
pigment denaturation, indicating that myoglobin degradation increases with cooking
temperature. Denaturation of myoglobin leads to a reduction in the red coloration of meat.
This process typically occurs at approximately 60 ◦ C. Furthermore, prolonging the sous-
Molecules 2024, 29, 5464 6 of 14

vide cooking time resulted in a slight decrease in the average a* color values across all tested
temperature ranges, though these differences were not statistically significant. The lowest
a* color parameter values in foal meat were observed in samples subjected to traditional
cooking at 100 ◦ C in a foil bag for 1.5 h, as well as in those cooked until the geometric center
reached 85 ◦ C. Other research has indicated a reduction in redness corresponding to higher
cooking temperatures for beef [43], pork [28], and lamb [24]. The degree of myoglobin
denaturation has been shown to correlate with cooking temperature, resulting in a greater
extent of myoglobin denaturation and subsequently leading to lower a* values [44,45]. In
the study by Sujiwo et al. [30], both cooking temperature and cooking time significantly
influenced the distribution of a* values in the tested groups of horse meat samples. The
recorded a* values in the group subjected to 70 ◦ C for 18 h (13.84) and 70 ◦ C for 24 h (13.60)
were considerably lower than those in the control groups exposed to 75 ◦ C (16.95) and
65 ◦ C for 12 h (16.29) [30]. It is important to note that the results obtained for the color
parameter a* in this study (Table 3) differ from those reported by Christensen et al. [46].
The authors found that as the temperature in the LTLT cooking method increased from
53 ◦ C to 58 ◦ C, the intensity of the brown color increased, while the pink color diminished
in Semitendinosus (ST) from young bulls (12–14 months), Semitendinosus (ST) from slaughter
pigs, and Pectoralis profundus (PP) from chickens.
The yellow color component (b*) in foal meat samples indicates that the type of thermal
processing employed does not have a significant impact on the values of this parameter.
Across all cooking methods, the yellow color component (b*) for the samples varied between
12.51 and 13.88. However, the existing literature emphasizes a discernible trend toward a
reduction in a* values coupled with an increase in b* values during prolonged sous-vide
cooking durations [24,43,47]. This observed phenomenon can be attributed to the formation
of metmyoglobin and its subsequent heat-induced denaturation, which ultimately results
in a brownish hue. In contrast, Sujiwo et al. [30] demonstrated that the distribution of b*
values in loin horse samples subjected to sous-vide cooking was significantly influenced by
cooking duration. Specifically, samples cooked at 65 ◦ C for 24 h (13.91) and at 70 ◦ C for
24 h (14.31) exhibited markedly elevated b* values compared to the control group, which
was cooked at 75 ◦ C for 40 min.
The primary heme pigment responsible for meat color is myoglobin. Moreover, color
changes in meat during thermal processing are influenced by other pigments, including
deoxymyoglobin, oxymyoglobin, sulfmyoglobin, and metmyoglobin. Myoglobin forms
undergo degradation during thermal processing through oxygenation, oxidation, and
reduction reactions, which consequently influence the color of the meat [48]. The conducted
research indicates that the type of thermal treatment significantly affects the levels of
myoglobin (Mb) (p = 0.01) and the overall content of heme pigments (OZB) in foal meat.
Samples cooked traditionally at 100 ◦ C in a foil bag for 1.5 h and those cooked until reaching
85 ◦ C at the geometric center exhibited significantly higher levels of Mb (p = 0.01) and
OZB (p = 0.0001) compared to all other samples analyzed. A notably high concentration
of myoglobin was recorded in samples cooked sous-vide at 65 ◦ C for 24 h. In contrast,
the lowest concentrations of myoglobin were found in samples cooked sous-vide at 55 ◦ C
for both 4 and 24 h. Regarding the overall heme pigment content, the lowest values were
observed after 4 h of sous-vide cooking at 55 ◦ C. The type of thermal treatment employed
did not significantly affect the levels of metmyoglobin (MMb) (p = 0.35) and oxymyoglobin
(Mb•O2 ) (p = 0.27) in the examined samples. Slightly elevated levels of these pigments were
detected in the sous-vide cooking at 55 ◦ C after both 4 and 24 h. An increase in temperature
from 55 ◦ C to 65 ◦ C and an extension of sous-vide cooking duration from 4 to 24 h resulted
in a slight reduction in the levels of the analyzed pigments, although this relationship was
not statistically significant.
The results obtained coincide with those reported in earlier research [37], where it
was demonstrated that the temperature used, the duration of sous-vide thermal treatment,
and the interaction between time and temperature significantly influenced the levels of
Molecules 2024, 29, 5464 7 of 14

pigments in horse meat samples. Stanisławczyk et al. [37] indicated that horse meat cooked
sous-vide at 55 ◦ C for 4 h exhibited a high proportion of red color and oxymyoglobin.

2.4. Texture Parameters

Table 4 presents the texture parameters of foal meat in relation to the type of thermal
processing employed. The results show that the heat treatment method significantly
affected the variation in shear force within the examined samples. The shear force values
required to cut the longissimus thoracis muscle were notably highest for those subjected to
traditional cooking methods in water baths (77.82–74.55 N/cm2 ). In contrast, sous-vide
cooking produced significantly lower force values (61.05–48.39 N/cm2 ). Extending the
duration of sous-vide treatment from 4 to 24 h across all temperature ranges resulted in a
significant reduction in the force required to cut the samples (p = 0.001).

Table 4. Texture parameters of foal meat based on the type of thermal processing (means ± SE).

Type of Thermal Treatment

Specification Cooking * Cooking ** Sous-Vide Method 55 ◦ C Sous-Vide Method 65 ◦ C
p-Value
85 ◦ C 100 ◦ C/1.5 h 4h 24 h 4h 24 h
Shear force
77.82 a ± 5.99 74.55 a ± 7.40 61.05 b ± 6.26 52.86 c ± 5.92 58.20 b ± 6.26 48.39 c ± 7.42 0.001
[N/cm2 ]
Hardness 1 113.37 a ± 102.44 c ±
112.0 a ± 13.10 106.58 b ± 9.57 105.59 b ± 9.02 101.27 c ± 9.39 0.015
[N] 14.55 12.10
Hardness 2
94.14 a ± 7.99 93.94 a ± 8.29 89.10 b ± 8.08 83.77 c ± 9.93 87.49 b ± 7.90 80.87 c ± 9.44 0.023
[N]
Stiffness 5
21.55 a ± 0.35 26.86 a ± 0.51 18.26 b ± 0.37 9.94 c ± 0.38 15.42 b ± 0.48 8.19 c ± 0.37 0.0001
[N]
Stiffness 8
57.88 a ± 2.82 56.37 a ± 1.92 53.99 b ± 2.31 45.53 c ± 2.88 51.41 b ± 2.14 42.89 c ± 2.31 0.034
[N]
Adhesiveness
0.13 ± 0.01 0.10 ± 0.01 0.25 ± 0.02 0.22 ± 0.02 0.21 ± 0.03 0.20 ± 0.01 0.700
[mJ]
Cohesiveness 0.47 ± 0.05 0.52 ± 0.02 0.42 ± 0.01 0.41 ± 0.05 0.38 ± 0.03 0.41 ± 0.01 0.590
Springiness
5.12 ± 0.15 5.08 ± 0.14 4.82 ± 0.15 4.60 ± 0.10 4.50 ± 0.15 4.43 ± 0.19 0.280
[mm]
Resilience 0.18 ± 0.03 0.15 ± 0.01 0.14 ± 0.02 0.13 ± 0.03 0.19 ± 0.03 0.13 ± 0.03 0.460
Chewiness
295.23 a ± 8.65 267.13 a ± 8.70 183.0 b ± 8.09 152.43 b ± 5.56 185.80 b ± 9.01 176.30 b ± 7.69 0.0002
[mJ]
a,b,c —Values designated by different letters indicate statistically significant differences among the types of thermal

processing—p < 0.05; *—cooking until the internal temperature at the geometric center reached 85 ◦ C, **—cooking
in vacuum-sealed foil bag in water at 100 ◦ C for 1.5 h.

Instrumental evaluation of texture parameters indicated that the thermal processing

method had a significant impact on the textural attributes of this kind of meat. The highest
values for hardness 1 (p = 0.015), hardness 2 (p = 0.023), stiffness 5 (p = 0.0001), stiffness 8
(p = 0.034), and chewiness (p = 0.0002) were recorded in samples subjected to traditional
cooking using two different methods. In contrast, samples cooked sous-vide at 65 ◦ C for
24 h displayed the lowest hardness values. Furthermore, extending the sous-vide cooking
duration from 4 to 24 h led to a significant reduction in the measured parameters.
Stiffness, an important parameter of meat texture, quantifies the force needed to
deform a sample over a specified distance during compression. The samples analyzed
demonstrated significantly greater stiffness (stiffness 5 (p = 0.0001), stiffness 8 (p = 0.034))
when subjected to traditional cooking methods, while those cooked sous-vide exhibited
reduced values. Additionally, prolonging the duration of sous-vide cooking resulted in a
substantial decrease in the stiffness of foal meat.
The samples prepared using traditional cooking methods in two variations exhibited
significantly greater chewiness (p = 0.0002) compared to those subjected to sous-vide
cooking. An increase in temperature from 55 ◦ C to 65 ◦ C resulted in a marginal rise in the
Molecules 2024, 29, 5464 8 of 14

chewiness of the meat, whereas prolonging the sous-vide cooking duration from 4 to 24 h
led to a slight reduction in the values of the analyzed texture parameter, although this trend
was not statistically significant.
Sujiwo et al. [30] performed instrumental texture analysis on horse meat and demon-
strated that sous-vide cooking reduced the shear force required to slice horse loin. However,
no significant differences were observed in hardness and chewiness between the control
samples (cooked at 72 ◦ C for 40 min) and those prepared using sous-vide cooking at 65 ◦ C
and 70 ◦ C for 12, 18, and 24 h. Notably, the cohesiveness and springiness of samples cooked
at 70 ◦ C for 18 and 24 h showed significant differences compared to the control. Springiness
was found to be significantly influenced by both cooking time and the interaction between
time and temperature during sous-vide processing [30]. Stanisławczyk et al. [49] reported
that prolonged sous-vide thermal processing at elevated temperatures improved texture
parameters such as shear force and hardness in horse meat. These findings align with those
of Roldán et al. [24], who observed that sous-vide cooking enhances the tenderness of lamb
loin when cooking times are extended.
The results of this study regarding the texture of foal meat can be attributed to the
dissolution of connective tissue caused by the thermal processing temperature, which
enhances meat tenderness. However, the denaturation of myofibrillar proteins may also
contribute to increased toughness. Meat toughening is further influenced by water loss from
muscle tissue during heating. Additionally, texture changes during heating are affected
by the transition of muscle tissue from a viscoelastic to an elastic state. The reduction
in hardness and the shear force required to slice the meat samples with extended sous-
vide cooking times can be attributed to the increased solubility of collagen over longer
cooking durations. Myofibrillar shrinkage may have already reached its peak, showing no
further significant increase with prolonged cooking times. The extensive breakdown of the
perimysium surrounding muscle bundles during prolonged cooking may also explain the
increased tenderness observed in foal meat [13]. The temperature applied undoubtedly
influenced the distribution of texture-related results. Exposure to temperatures up to 65 ◦ C
enhances tenderness by promoting the aggregation of sarcoplasmic proteins into a gel,
which improves chewability. Higher temperatures between 65 and 85 ◦ C can result in
tougher meat due to an increased elastic modulus [50]. The tenderness of meat cooked at
60 ◦ C for extended periods may be linked to the residual collagenolytic activity observed
after 6 h [13].

2.5. Sensory Properties

Compared to traditional cooking methods, sous-vide significantly enhances meat
texture and sensory qualities by minimizing protein aggregation and gelation, which can
contribute to reduced toughness [22,51]. The average values of sensory quality attributes
for foal meat, based on the type of thermal treatment, are illustrated in Figure 1. The
results of the organoleptic assessment indicate that the type of heat treatment significantly
influences the sensory quality. The aroma (intensity and desirability) of samples cooked at
100 ◦ C in a foil bag for 1.5 h and those cooked to a core temperature of 85 ◦ C received the
highest scores, ranging from 4 to 4.5 points. In terms of aroma (intensity and desirability),
it can be concluded that sous-vide cooking significantly contributes to the reduction in
the analyzed sensory quality attributes of meat compared to traditional cooking methods
(p = 0.003 and, 0.003). Extending the sous-vide cooking time from 4 to 24 h at both 55 ◦ C
and 65 ◦ C had no effect on aroma (intensity and desirability) for foal meat. An opposite
trend was observed for the other sensory quality attributes. When comparing sous-vide
cooking to traditional methods, there was a significant increase in juiciness (p = 0.004),
tenderness (p = 0.004), and flavor (desirability) (p = 0.020) of meat. The traditional cooking
method, which aimed to reach a core temperature of 85 ◦ C, yielded the lowest scores for
the sensory quality attributes assessed. In the case of sous-vide cooking, both raising
the temperature from 55 ◦ C to 65 ◦ C and extending the cooking duration from 4 to 24 h
improved the juiciness, tenderness, and flavor of the samples.
Molecules 2024,
Molecules 29, x5464
2024, 29, FOR PEER REVIEW 9 9of
of 15
14

Cooking 85 °C inside Cooking in a bag 100 °C/ 1.5 h

Sous-Vide Method 55 °C /4 h Sous-Vide Method 55 °C /24 h
Sous-Vide Method 65 °C /4 h Sous-Vide Method 65 °C /24 h
Scent
(intensity)
a
5

4.5 a
b
4
Flavor b Scent
c 3.5 c a
(desirability) (desirability)
c c a
3 b b
c a, c
b b
2.5 c
a
2
a
a a
cc
a b b
Flavor
a Juiciness
(intensity)
a

b
b
Tenderness

Figure 1. Sensory characteristics of foal meat (points) based on the method of thermal processing; a,
Figure 1. Sensory characteristics of foal meat (points) based on the method of thermal processing; a,
b, c—indicate statistically significant differences in values between the types of thermal treat-
b, c—indicate statistically significant differences in values between the types of thermal treatment—
ment—p < 0.05.
p < 0.05.
In terms of taste, flavor, tenderness, and juiciness of chicken meat, Kerdpiboon et al.
In terms of taste, flavor, tenderness, and juiciness of chicken meat, Kerdpiboon
[51] reported that the most favorable values for these attributes were achieved in meat
et al. [51] reported that the most favorable values for these attributes were achieved in
processed using the sous-vide method at temperatures ranging from 55 to 60 °C for pe-
meat processed using the sous-vide method at temperatures ranging from 55 to 60 ◦ C for
riods of 3 to 5 h. Enhanced juiciness of pork loin processed via the
periods of 3 to 5 h. Enhanced juiciness of pork loin processed via the sous-vide method sous-vide method was
observed
was observedwhen subjected
when to temperatures
subjected to temperatures between
between 60 60
andand6565
°C◦ Cforfora aduration
durationofof33 h,h,
which
which can
can bebe attributed
attributed to to increased
increased moisture
moisture content
content andand minimized
minimized cooking
cooking losses
losses[52].
[52].
Polak andMarkowska
Polak and Markowska [11][11] demonstrated
demonstrated that turkey
that turkey breastprepared
breast meat meat prepared using
using sous-vide
sous-vide method at a temperature
◦ of 64 °C for 120 min exhibited
method at a temperature of 64 C for 120 min exhibited the most favorable organoleptic the most favorable
organoleptic qualities,
qualities, whereas whereas
the lowest the lowest
ratings ratings were
were assigned assigned
to meat to meat
subjected to thesubjected to the
same temper-
same temperature for only 60 min. Furthermore, Karpińska-Tymoszczyk
ature for only 60 min. Furthermore, Karpińska-Tymoszczyk et al. [41] indicated that et al. [41] indi-
the
cated that the most
most desirable flavordesirable
and aroma flavor and aroma
of chicken of chicken
breast breast
fillets can fillets can
be achieved bybe achieved the
employing by
employing the sous-vide method at a temperature
◦ of 55 °C for 260
sous-vide method at a temperature of 55 C for 260 min. The cited authors explain that atmin. The cited authors
explain that at lowsuch
low temperatures, temperatures, suchand
as 55 ◦ C, flavor as aroma
55 °C, can flavor and aroma
be enhanced can beinteractions
through enhanced
through interactions between sugars and amino acids. This phenomenon
between sugars and amino acids. This phenomenon also leads to the release of flavor also leads to the
release of flavor compounds in meat due to the thermal degradation
compounds in meat due to the thermal degradation of thiamine and lipid oxidation. The of thiamine and li-
pid oxidation.
flavor and aroma Theofflavor
meat canandsignificantly
aroma of meat differcan significantly
based differ
on the type based
of meat oneven
cut, the type
amongof
meat cut, cuts
different evenfrom
among thedifferent cuts from
same species, the same
as well species,
as across as well
various meat as across
types and various meat
products
types and products derived from distinct species. Thathsarani et al. [40] indicate that
Molecules 2024, 29, 5464 10 of 14

derived from distinct species. Thathsarani et al. [40] indicate that maintaining the cooking
temperature of meat below 70 ◦ C yields a more favorable flavor profile than cooking at
higher temperatures. However, this outcome may also be influenced, as previously noted,
by the type of meat and the specific cuts involved. Sous-vide cooking effectively minimizes
the loss of flavor and aroma associated with volatile compounds in meat, primarily due to
the vacuum packaging, which retains these compounds within the sealed environment. In
terms of juiciness, extensive research [14,15,41,53] demonstrates that sous-vide cooking at
lower temperatures significantly enhances this quality. This improvement can be explained
by the fact that, during sous-vide processing at reduced temperatures, denaturation of
proteins, contraction of muscle fibers, and dissolution of collagen in the muscle tissue are
minimized, resulting in greater moisture retention within the muscle, ultimately leading to
increased juiciness of the meat.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Experimental Design
The study material consisted of longissimus thoracis muscle samples taken from 16 half-
carcasses of foals aged 6 to 12 months, obtained from individual farmers in southeastern
Poland. The pre-slaughter weights of the animals ranged between 250 and 320 kg (average
285 ± 20). The foals belonged to the Malopolski and Silesian breeds, which are the most
prevalent horse breeds in this region. The foals were randomly selected, with an equal
distribution of 50% fillies and 50% uncastrated colts. All the animals were healthy and
raised in an extensive farming system. During transport, foals were housed individually in
designated pens within livestock facilities for approximately 24 h, under the supervision
of veterinary professionals to ensure their welfare. Slaughtering procedures adhered to
standard practices in the meat industry and complied with European regulations [54].
Before slaughter, the foals were stunned using a captive bolt pistol. Muscle samples for
quality analysis were collected from the longissimus thoracis muscle, located between the
13th and 14th thoracic vertebrae. These samples were subsequently chilled at 4 ◦ C ± 0.5 ◦ C
for a period of 10 days to assess the effects of heat treatment on foal meat quality.

3.2. Cooking Procedure

Upon arrival at the laboratory, the muscle samples were maintained at a controlled
temperature of 3 ± 0.5 ◦ C and evenly divided into six batches, each weighing approximately
200 ± 30 g. A total of 6 foal meat samples were taken from 16 half-carcasses of foals,
one for each type of heat treatment, which constituted a total of 96 samples. Four of
these batches were placed in mesh foil bags designed for sous-vide heat treatment and
vacuum-sealed using a vacuum packer (Inauen, Schwanden, Switzerland). Following
the vacuum-sealing process, the meat samples underwent thermal treatment in a water
bath (Hendi, Gadki,
˛ Poland). They were cooked at 55 ◦ C and 65 ◦ C for either 4 or 24 h,
producing a total of 64 meat samples (16 half-carcasses × 2 temperature settings × 2 time
settings = 64 meat samples). Following thermal processing, the meat samples were rapidly
chilled to a temperature of 4 ◦ C ± 0.5 ◦ C. The remaining two batches, which constituted
the control group (32 samples), were subjected to conventional cooking methods. One
batch was boiled until the internal temperature at the geometric center reached 85 ◦ C,
while the other batch was boiled in vacuum-sealed foil bags at 100 ◦ C for 1.5 h (16 half-
carcasses × 2 conventional heat treatment methods = 32 samples). After the heat treatment,
all samples were immediately cooled to 4 ◦ C ± 0.5 ◦ C.

3.3. Analytical Methods

The moisture content of the samples was measured according to the PN-ISO 1442:2000
standard [55], while protein content was determined using the Kjeldahl method, as outlined
in the PN-75/A-04018 standard [56]. Fat content was evaluated using the Soxhlet extraction
method in accordance with the PN-ISO 1444:2000 guidelines [57]. Lipid oxidation was
measured through the TBARS (2-thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances) index, applying
Molecules 2024, 29, 5464 11 of 14

the methodology outlined by Pikul et al. [58]. Oxidation–reduction potential (ORP) was
evaluated using an ERPt-13 Hydromet No. 235-type combination electrode connected
to a CPC-501 digital pH/conductivity meter (Elmetron, Zabrze, Poland). Once the ORP
stabilized, the readings were converted to redox potential values (EH mV) by adding the
reference electrode potential (Em = 211 mV at 20 ◦ C) to the measured Em values. Each 10 g
sample, previously ground using a laboratory mill with a 3 mm mesh, was homogenized
in 50 cm3 of distilled water at 20 ◦ C. The process was conducted using an ULTRA TURAX
T25 homogenizer (IKA, Staufen, Germany) operating at a spindle speed of 15,000 rpm. The
potential of the resulting suspension was measured at 20 ◦ C, with readings taken to an
accuracy of 0.01 [59].Water activity was determined using a Novasina AG LabMaster—aw
neo meter (Lachen, Switzerland) following the method described by Duma-Kocan et al. [60].
The loss was determined using the formula below [20].

weight o f raw meat − weight o f cooked meat

Weight loss (%) = • 100
weight o f raw meat

The color of the meat samples was evaluated using the CIE LAB color system (L*, a*,
and b* values) with an NR20XE (3nh Technology Co., Ltd., Shenzen, China). The blooming
process was performed in darkness at 4 ◦ C, and color measurements were taken at three
locations on each sample after sous-vide cooking and 60 min of cooling at 4 ◦ C, following
the methodology outlined by [37]. The proportion of heme pigments in the meat samples
was measured according to the method described by Krzywicki [61].
Using a TA.XT plus texturometer (TA-XT plus; Stable Micro Systems Ltd., Surrey, UK)
equipped with a triangular-cut Warner–Bratzler shear blade, the shear force was measured.
Raw meat samples were taken using a cylinder-shaped cork borer (12.7 mm in diameter)
cut along the muscle fibers. The prepared samples were then sectioned, and the shear force
(N/cm2 ) exerted during the cutting process was recorded. Each sample underwent three
technical repetitions.
Raw meat samples were diced into 20 mm cubes and analyzed for texture using a
CT3-25 texture analyzer (Brookfield, WI, USA) with a cylindrical probe, following the
method described by Stanisławczyk et al. [62]. The Texture Pro CT software (V.1.9 Build
39; Brookfield, WI, USA) was used to measure various parameters, including hardness,
springiness, adhesiveness, cohesiveness, stiffness, resilience, and chewiness. A panel of
15 trained individuals performed the sensory evaluation following ISO 8586:2023 [63] and
ISO 8587:2006 [64] standards. Using a 5-point scale, they assessed aroma intensity, taste
intensity, aroma desirability, taste desirability, juiciness, and tenderness in a dedicated
laboratory, as outlined by Stanisławczyk et al. [49].

3.4. Statistical Analysis

All observations composing the experiment (6 types of heat treatment × 16 batches)
were included in the statistical analysis. The data were verified for normality using the
Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. The homogeneity of variance was verified using the Brown–
Forsythe test. Chemical composition, selected physicochemical properties, color parame-
ters, texture, and sensory evaluations of the meat were analyzed by a one-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA), which considers type of heat treatment as a fixed effect and batch as a
random term. The Statistica 13.3PL software (STATISTICA v. 10; StatSoft, Krakow, Poland)
package from TIBCO Software Inc. (Palo Alto, CA, USA) was utilized for this analysis.
Tukey’s HSD test was used to evaluate the significance of differences at a significance level
of p < 0.05. Tables 1–4 present mean values and standard error of individual qualitative
features of meat.

4. Conclusions
The sous-vide method emerged as the most effective thermal processing technique
for preserving the optimal quality attributes of foal meat, particularly in terms of sensory
and textural characteristics preferred by consumers. These favorable qualities were most
Molecules 2024, 29, 5464 12 of 14

prominent after 24 h of sous-vide heat treatment. Foal and horse meat exhibit distinct
differences from the meat of other animal species, especially in terms of processing and
functional properties. This study demonstrates that the best sensory and textural qualities,
such as tenderness and juiciness, were achieved in foal meat only after 24 h of sous-
vide cooking. In contrast, meat from other species reached the most favorable sensory
characteristics with shorter sous-vide processing times, indicating that foal meat requires
different culinary preparation. Further studies on the quality of foal meat subjected to
sous-vide processing at temperatures above 70 ◦ C would be of interest.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.S. and M.R.; methodology, M.R.; software, M.R.; valida-
tion, M.G.; formal analysis, R.S.; investigation, R.S., M.R., M.G., A.K. and D.D.; resources, M.R.; data
curation, R.S.; writing—original draft preparation, R.S.; writing—review and editing, R.S.; visualiza-
tion, J.Ż.; supervision, M.G.; project administration, J.Ż.; funding acquisition, M.R. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The sensory evaluation of meat was carried out on a hedonic
scale. According to the information provided by the Bioethics Committee of the University of
Rzeszów, ethical consent was not required for this type of research. This declaration is also in
accordance with Polish national law and the Helsinki Convention on Human Rights. The research
did not involve human experimentation in the same way as clinical or psychological research.
Informed Consent Statement: Before the study, all participants were informed about the characteris-
tics of the samples and consented to participate.
Data Availability Statement: The original contributions presented in the study are included in the
article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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