Introduction to Measurements

• Making observations is a key part of the

scientific process.
– Qualitative (Colour, shape, texture e.g the
substance is a yellow solid)
– Quantitative (Measurement e.g the substance
weighs 5.0 g)
• A measurement tells us about a property of
something (how heavy, or how hot, or how
long an object is)
• A measurement gives a number to that property.

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• Different instruments enable us to
measure different substances’
properties.

• For example, a meter stick and ruler measure

length; burette, pipette, graduated cylinder,
beakers and volumetric flasks measure volume;
the balance measures mass; thermometer
measures temperature and the clock measures
time, etc.
• A measurement consists of two parts: a
number and a unit.

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• Measurements without units are meaningless.
• e.g to say that the distance between Okahandja and
Windhoek is 68, is meaningless.
• We must specify that the distance is 68 km.
• Or: How long is it? ... 2 metres.’

SI Units
• In order for people around the world to agree on
quantitative observations, a system of measurement
must be defined.
• The international authority on units proposed a
revised metric system called the International
System of Units (SI Units).
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• Table 1.1 SI base units
Base Quantity SI Unit Name Symbol
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of Mole mol
substance
Electrical Ampere A
current
Volume Cubic meter m3
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• All other units of measurements can be derived
from these SI units. Below are few examples of
derived units:
Table 1.2 derived units

Quantity Dimension SI unit

Area height x m2
width
Velocity/speed Length/time m/s
Density Mass/volume kg/m3

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Often prefixes are used to express very small or very
large quantities. The table below shows the prefixes
used with the SI units:
Table 1.3: SI prefixes

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 The scientific notation
• Chemists often deal with numbers that are either
extremely small or extremely large. For example in
1 g of H there are roughly
602,200,000,000,000,000, 000,000 H atoms,
and each H atom has a mass of only
0.00000000000000000000000166g
• These numbers are too cumbersome to handle
and one can easily make mistakes. To over come
this, scientists use what is called the scientific
notation.

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• It takes the form: N x 10n

• N is the number between 1 and 10, and

n is a positive or negative integer
(whole number).

• For example the number of H atoms in

1 g is expressed as 6.022 x 1023 atoms
and the mass of a single hydrogen atom
is expressed as 1. 66 x 10-24g.

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• Also, expressing 789.234 g in scientific notation
gives 7.89234 x 102 g.

• While expressing 0.000251 mL in scientific

notation gives 2.51 x 10-4 mL.

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 Exercise
• Represent the following numbers in scientific
notation.
a. 453.9
b. 0.00043
c. 0.552
Write each of the following as an “ordinary”
decimal number.
a. 1.995
b. 1.995 × 102

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 Uncertainty in measurements
• It is often impossible to obtain exact
numbers in measurements unless in cases
when all the numbers involved are whole
numbers (e.g. in counting).
• Thus all other measurements are
approximations, no measuring device can
give perfect measurements.

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The candy is a little longer than 4.0 cm and a little shorter
than 5.0 cm. Because there are no graduation marks
between 4 and 5, an estimate has to be made.

Person Result of measurement

1 4.20 cm
2 4.23 cm
3 4.25 cm
4 4.28 cm
5 4.27 cm

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 Accuracy and Precision

• All measurement carry a degree of uncertainty.

• Uncertainty can be a result of human error

or due to the error associated with the
measuring devise (e.g. an un-calibrated
balance).
• Degree of error determines whether the
measurement is precise or accurate.

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• Accuracy:- is the closeness of a
measurement to the true or actual value of
the quantity that was measured (requires
knowledge about the true value).

• Precision:- closeness of the repeated

measurement (does not require knowledge
of the true value of the measurement).

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Reliability of measurements…

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Exercise: Consider the data obtained for the
length of an object (in cm) as measured by
three students, A, B, and C

If the length of the object is known to be 14.54

cm,
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(a)Which student is accurate and precise?

(b) Which student is not accurate, but precise?

(c) Which student is accurate, but not precise

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Significant figures: are the significant digits in a
measured or calculated quantities.

Guidelines for using significant figures:

1. Non-zero integers are always significant.
example: 23.4 g and 234 g both have 3 SF.

2. Captive zeroes, those bound on both sides by

non-zero integers, are always significant.
example: 20.05 has 4 SF; 407 has 3 SF;
1.008 has 4 SF

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 3. Leading zeros, those not bound on the left
by non-zero integers are never significant.

• Such zeros just set the decimal point; they

always disappear if the number is expressed in
scientific notation.
•
example: 0.04 has 1 SF; 0.00035 has 2 SF.
They can be written as
4 x 10-2 and 3.5 x 10-4 respectively.

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• 4. Trailing zeros, those bound only on
the left by non-zero integers may or
may not be significant. They are
significant only if the number is written
with a decimal point. The number one
hundred written as 100 has only 1 SF,
but written as 100., it has 3 SF

example: 45.0 L has 3 SF

450. L has 3 SF
450 L may have 2 or 3 SF.
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 Note: To clarify whether a trailing zero is
significant, it is preferable to express the final
answer in scientific notation
.
example: 450 L can be expressed as 4.5 x 102
or 4.50 x 102. In the case where trailing
zeros end with a full stop, then they are always
significant e.g. 450. has 3 SF.

5. Exact numbers are those not obtained by

measurement but by definition or by counting
numbers of objects.

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• They are assumed to have an unlimited number
of significant figures.
• So they are not considered in the determination
of significant figures in calculations.

• Definitions (conversion factors) are examples of

exact numbers. E.g. 1 inch = 2.54 cm.

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 Exercise
How many significant figures are in the
following reported measurements?
a)0.004020
b)4.200
c) 4.02
d)400.

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Handling significant figures in calculations
1. When adding or subtracting:
• Express the answer in the smallest
number of decimal points present in the
original operation.

Examples: a) 1.25 + 0. 21743 = 1.47

b) 2.09 – 1.2 = 0.9

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 2. During multiplication or division
• The product or quotient carries the number of SF
equivalent to the smallest number of SF in the
original operation.
• Examples:
1.356 x 1.5 = 2.0

6.85 ÷ 112.04 = 0.0611

6.6  6.68
 6.6
2

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Note:
• For addition and subtraction, the decimal places
are counted
• For multiplication and division, significant figures
are counted

• When we multiply (or divide) and then add (or

subtract) in a problem, round the first answer
from the first operation before performing the
next operation.

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Carry out the following operations and
express each answer to correct number of
significant figures and units.

a)5.6792 m + 4.33 m + 0.6 m

b)1081 – 7.25
c) 3.70 g – 2.9133 g
d)4.51 cm × 3.6666 cm

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 Dimensional analysis or factor label method

• For measurements to yield meaningful results, the

answers must be expressed in desired units.
• The procedure we use to convert between units
is called the factor label method or the
dimensional analysis.
• We employ conversion factors to convert one unit
into the other. Conversion factors show
relationship between units for example N$1 =
100 cents.
• This can be written as:

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 N $ 1.00 100 cents
or
100 cents N $ 1.00

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To decide what should be up or down
depends on what you are starting with.
Thus to convert 20 cents in to N$, using
the dimensional analysis, proceed as
follows:
20  N $1. 00  N $0.20
100cents

• Converting N$ 1.50 cents proceed as

follows:
N $1.50  100cents  150 cents
N $1.0
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 Temperature scales

• Temperature is an intensive property and it

is used to measure the degree of hotness
of a substance.
• There are currently three temperature
scales in use. They are:

- The Fahrenheit scale (°F)

- The Celsius scale (°C)
- The Kelvin scale (K)

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• The Fahrenheit scale defines the normal
freezing point and boiling point of water to be
exactly 32°F and 212°F respectively.

• Kelvin is the SI base unit of temperature and it

is the absolute temperature scale (meaning
zero Kelvin is the lowest temperature that can
be obtained theoretically).

• The Kelvin scale defines the freezing point and

the boiling point of water to be 273 K and
373 K, respectively.
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• The Celsius scale defines the freezing point of
water to be 0°C and the boiling point of water
to be 100°C.

• To convert degrees Fahrenheit to degrees

Celsius we use the following formula:

  5 C

C  ( F  32 F )  
9 F

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• The following equation is used to convert
degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit.

F  1.8  ( C )  32

• We use the following equation to convert

degrees Celsius to Kelvin:

K  C  273

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The figure below shows the comparison of the three standard
temperature scales

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 Density Calculations
• Density is an important intensive property, which
can be used to help determine the identity of an
unknown substance.
• It is a measure of how much mass is present in
a given unit of volume. The formula is shown
below:
mass m
Density  or D
volume v

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• E.g. A student determines that a piece of an
unknown material has a mass of 5.854 g and
a volume of 7.57 cm3. What is the density
of the material, rounded to the correct number
of significant digits?

5.854 g g
D 3
 0.773 3
7.57 cm cm

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E.g.2. Iron has a known density of 7.87
g/cm3. What would be the mass of a 2.5 L
piece of iron?
M
D , then M  D V
V

1 L  1000 cm 3

g 1000cm 3
7.87 3
  2 .5 L
cm 1L

 2.0  10 4 g

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Exercises
1. Use the dimensional analysis method to carry
out the following conversions:
a) 28.0 mm to km b) 16.68 µL to mL
c) 25.0 ng to g
N.B: 1 km = 106 mm, 1µL = 10-3 mL,
1 ng = 10-9 g

2. When a 25.4 g piece of chromium metal was

placed into a graduated cylinder containing 25.0
mL, the water level rose to 28.6 mL.
Calculate the density of chromium in a) g/mL
b) kg/m3 c) g/L 39