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Cell Structure and function

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THE CELL
Definition:
Cell Cella or Kytos – (hollow space)
“The basic structural and functional unit of life is called Cell.”
OR
“The building block of life is called Cell.”
CELL THEORY:
POSTULATE OF CELL THEORY:-

All organisms are composed of one or more cell.

The cell is the structural unit of life.

“Cells can arise only by division of pre-existing cell.”

STRUCTURE OF EUKARYOTIC CELL:

A typical eukaryotic cell consists of following parts.

1. Plasma membrane

2. Nucleus

3. Cytoplasm and cytoplasmic organelles

4. Cell wall: It is found in plant cell, bacterial cell, fungal cell, but absent in animal
cell.

PLASMA MEMBRANE:

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 Definition
“A membrane that surrounds a typical cell, separating its cytoplasm from the
external environment is known as cell-membrane or plasma membrane”
It is selectively permeable in nature and allows the cell to take up and retain
certain substances while not allowing others to pass through.
Structure:

All biological membranes have same basic molecular organization. They

consist of a double layer (bilayer) of phospholipids and proteins.

The phospholipids molecules in the plasma membrane are arranged in two

parallel layers; having two ends.

A. Hydrophobic ends: It is non-polar end.

B. Hydrophilic ends: It is polar end.

The non-polar hydrophobic ends are present opposite to each other while
polar ends are attached to carbohydrates and proteins.

Plasma lemma also contains several types of lipids like cholesterol. In certain
animal cells cholesterol may constitute upto 50% of lipids molecules in plasma
membrane. It is absent from the plasma membrane of most plant and bacterial
cells.

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 FLUID MOSAIC MODEL:

1. In 1972 Singer and Nicholson proposed a working model of cell membrane

called “Fluid Mosaic Model.”

2. It presents the membrane as a lipid bi layer in which, the lipid molecules are
capable of rotating and moving laterally within the membrane.

3. The structure and arrangement of membrane proteins are explained as the

fluid mosaic or like icebergs in the sea.

4. The protein occurs as a “mosaic” of discontinuous isles that penetrate

completely or incompletely in the lipid sheet.

5. It suggests that the component of plasma membrane are mobile and are
capable of coming together and engage in various types of transient or semi-
permanent interaction.

The proteins associated with the lipid bilayer are of 2 types.

1: EXTRINSIC PROTEIN:

These proteins are present along the surface of lipids.

These are also called peripheral proteins.

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 They have loose attachment with the membrane surface.

2: INTRINSIC PROTEINS:

These proteins are found deeply in the lipid layers.

They help in the movement of H2O soluble ions outside or inside the cell.

The proteins are associated with lipids called lipoproteins or carbohydrates

called glycoproteins.

The proteins are found like a mosaic within the cell membrane, so the model is
called fluid mosaic model.

FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA MEMBRANE:

PROTECTION OF CELL:

Plasma membrane protects the cytoplasm of a cell. It is the most important

function.

PERMEABILITY:

It is the regulatory function of flow of solutions and materials in and out of cells.
The permeability is basically of two types. i.e. passive and active transport.

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 a) Passive Transport:

A type of transport that does not require energy is called passive transport. It has
further two types:
Osmosis:

Transport of solvent molecules across a semi-permeable membrane from the

medium of higher solvent concentration to a medium of lower solvent
concentration is called osmosis. It maintains a balance between osmotic pressure
of the intracellular fluid and that of interstitial fluid, is called osmoregulation.

Diffusion:
When two solutions of different concentrations are mixed, the phenomenon is
called diffusion which is defined as the dispersion of molecules from the medium
of their higher concentrations to that of lower concentration. Movement of certain
gases e.g: O2 and CO2 in and out of the cell is well known example.

b) Active Transport:

In this process the molecules more against the concentration gradient, i.e; they
move from the region of lower concentration to the region of higher concentration
and this process requires energy to counteract the force of diffusion. It has two
types’ i.e; endocytosis and exocytosis.

Endocytosis:

The process in which solid or liquid material is taken into the cell is called
endocytosis. It is of further two types.

1. Phagocytosis:

In this process solid particles are picked and ingested by the cell through plasma
membrane.
e.g: WBCs pick up foreign particles from the blood stream.

2. Pinocytosis:

It is the uptake of fluid in bulk or the uptake of fluid vesicles by living cell is called
pinocytosis.

Exocytosis:

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 The process of membrane and movement of material out of the cell is called
exocytosis.

1. REGULATORY FUNCTIONS:

Plasma membrane consists of proteins which perform many regulatory functions

of cell. e.g: They acts as enzyme, responsible for specific functions of the
membrane.

NUCLEUS

Discovery:

Nucleus was discovered by Robert Brown in 1831.

Definition:

“A very prominent spherical body present in typical cell that controls almost all of
its activities is usually referred to as nucleus.”
It is a dense, deeply staining almost spherical body, embedded in the cytoplasm.

Structure:

The nucleus has following parts.

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 1. Nuclear membrane

2. Nucleoplasm/ karyoplasm /karyolymph

Chromatin network

1. Nucleoli

Nuclear Membrane:

It is thin, double membraned structure, which surrounds the nucleus.

The nuclear membrane is not a complete barrier.

It is perforated by nuclear pores. Certain substances pass freely through these

pores between the nucleus and surrounding cellular substances.

Karyoplasm:

It is clear structure less fluid, which fills the inner space of nucleus. It is mainly
composed of proteins.

Chromatin Network:

Suspended in the Karyoplasm are numerous fine thread like structures, which
form chromatin network.

They are clearly visible during cell division and form definite number of
chromosomes, made up of DNA and protein.

NUCLEOLUS:

It is a rounded body in the nucleus.

Its number is one or more in various types of nuclei.

It disappears during cell division and reappears afterwards.

The nucleolus is believed to play an important role in the synthesis of RNA and
ribosomes.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CHROMOSOMES:

Chromosomes contain the hereditary unit called genes that carry the
hereditary unit called that carry the hereditary information from generation to
generation.

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 The chromosomes vary in number from species to species e.g.: 8 in butterfly,
46 in

A typical chromosome is composed of 2 parts the chromatid and centromere.

Chromatid consists of one or more threads called chromonema, which have
bead area called chromomeres.

STRUCTURAL TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES:

The chromosomes have different shapes, depending on the position of
centromere. These shapes are:

Metacentric:

Chromosomes with equal arms resembling the letter V.

Sub-metacentric:

Chromosomes with unequal arms and resembling the letter J.

Acrocentric or sub telocentric:

Rod like chromosome with one arm very small and other very long. The
centromere is subterminal.

Telocentric:

Location of centromere at the end of chromosomes.

FUNCTIONS:

The nucleus takes direct part in reproduction.

It initiates cell division.

It is regarded as a bearer of hereditary characters.

It gives instructions to prepare all types of proteins.

It controls all metabolic activities of a cell by producing enzymes.

Ribosomes are produced in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.

CELL WALL:

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 DEFINITION:
“Cell wall is a nonliving outermost structure responsible for support and is
secreted and maintained by the protoplasm”

In the young cell it is a thin and delicate but as the cell matures, the wall becomes
thick due to the deposition of chemical substances on the inner surface.
COMPOSITION:

It is mainly composed of cellulose, which is a carbohydrate.

Other chemical substances are also present e.g: pectin and lignin etc.

Many layers of cell wall develop as the plant cell grows.

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES:

Cell wall is hard, rigid and non-elastic structure that surrounds a typical plant
cell.

It is a permeable to H2O and its dissolved contents.

It is a non-living structure.

The cell wall is pierced in many places by tiny pores, through which
protoplasm of one cell connects with that of adjacent cell through which

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 material can pass from one cell to the next. These pores are called
‘plasmodesmata’.

It is secreted and maintained by living portion of the cell called protoplasm.

STRUCTURE:
A plant cell wall can be differentiated into three regions.

Middle lamella

Primary wall (1.3µ m and elastic)

Secondary wall (5-10 µm, thick and rigid)

1-Middle Lamella:

1. The first formed cell plate works as a cementing layer between two daughter
cells and it is called middle lamella.

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 2. It is a common layer between two cells and the two cells are separated when
middle lamella is dissolved.

It is composed of Calcium and Magnesium pectates.

2-Primary Wall:

1. Bordering middle lamella, primary wall is the first product of cell, synthesis by
protoplast.

2. In young enlarging cells primary wall remains thin and elastic becoming thick
and rigid with the approach of cell maturity.

Primary cell wall contains hemi-cellulose upto 50%, cellulose upto 25% and
smaller amount of pectin.

1. Hemi-cellulose forms matrix of the wall in which cellulose microfibrils are

embeded.

3-Secondary Wall:

1. Secondary wall is formed by deposition of cellulose at the inside of primary

wall.

2. It mainly consists of cellulose or varying mixture of cellulose.

Secondary wall may be modified through the deposition of lignin and other
substances.

FUNCTIONS:

It maintains typical form of the plant cell.

It protects the cell from external injuries.

The cell wall forms the skeleton of plant body.

It is responsible for the strength, rigidity and flexibility of plants.

It is freely permeable layer.

It provides a mechanical support.

Being hydrophilic in nature it is capable of imbibing water and thus helps in the
movement of H2O and solutes towards protoplasm i.e: cell wall acts as a
permeable structure.

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 CYTOPLASM:

Definition:

“The protoplasm of the cell outside the nucleus is called cytoplasm.”

1. The cytoplasm is a semi-fluid colloid that fills the cell.

2. It exhibits active streaming movements around the inner surface of the cell
called cyclosis.

3. It has 2 distinct parts:

The outer portion is called ectoplasm and it appears clear.

The inner portion is called endoplasm and it appears granular.

1. Cytoplasm contains several types of organelles, embedded in a fluid matrix

called the cytosol containing salts, sugar, amino acids, proteins, fatty acids,
nucleotides and other substances.

2. The cytoplasm maintains shape with the help of a network of proteins fibers
called cytoskeleton, which is also connected to many organelles. It also helps
the cells in movement.

3. The cell organelles can be grouped on the basis of presence or absence of a

membrane.

Cytoplasmic Organelles:

There are two types of cytoplasmic organelles.

MEMBRANE BOUNDED ORGANELLES:

Endoplasmic reticulum

Golgi apparatus

Plastids

Glyoxysomes

Mitochondria

Lysosomes

Peroxisomes

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 Vacuoles

NON-MEMBRANE BOUNDED ORGANELLES:

Centrosomes

Cytoskeleton

Ribosomes

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:

Definition

“It is a network of fine tube like structures which extend from cell membrane to
the nuclear membrane.
Occurence:

They occur in all kinds of cell except bacterial and erythrocytes of mammals.
Composition:

It is composed of lipid protein molecules.

Also it is non-stable or fixed structure.

It breaks up, reforms and regroups in response to cellular activities

ER undergoes partial fragmentation at the time of cell division.

Functions:
Endoplasmic reticulum is associated with some general functions in the cell.

They form a structural frame work of the cell.

They increase the surface area for various metabolic reactions.

They actively participate in different metabolic reactions with the help of

attached enzymes.

They also provide conducting pathways for import, export and intracellular
circulation of various substances.

They also provide passage for RNA to pass from the nucleus to various
organelles in the cytoplasm and influence the synthesis of proteins.

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 They also help in detoxification of harmful drugs, storage and release of
calcium ions, detoxification of chemicals and manufacture of lipids.

TYPES OF E.R:

There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum.

1: SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:
Definition:
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not contain ribosomes on their surface.
Location:

It is found in steroid producing cell, like fat cells, interstitial cells, like liver and
muscle cells.
Structure:
It consists of an irregular network of membranous tubules and vesicles devoid of
ribosomes.
FUNCTIONS:

1. This helps in lipid biosynthesis and intracellular transport.

2. In skin it converts cholesterol into vitamin D.

This vitamin helps to make bones strong and healthy.

2: ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:

Definition:
Rough endoplasmic reticulum are those which contain ribosomes on their surface.

Structure:
It consists of an interconnecting network of membranous tubules, vesicles and
flattened sacs.
Location:
Rough endoplasmic reticulum mostly in protein synthesizing cells e.g: cells of
pancreas and mammalian salivary glandular cells.

Functions:
Main function of RER is protein synthesis and its intracellular transport.

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 MITOCHONDRIA OR CHONDRIOSOMES:

Definition:
They are small spherical or plate like bodies present in the cytoplasm of animals
and plants.

Location:
Usually present in the region of the cell with the highest rate of metabolism e.g.: in
skeletal and cardiac muscles.
Composition
Mitochondria are composed of

Proteins 70%

Phospholipids 25%

RNA 5-7%

DNA in traces

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 Matrix fluid consists of enzymes, ribosomes, salts, vitamins etc.

Size and Shape:

The size of mitochondria may range from 0.2-1.0µm in length. They may appear in
spheres, rods and threads.
Structure:
Mitochondria consist of three parts:
Outer membrane: It is smooth and consists of proteins and lipids.
Inner membrane: It forms numerous folds called ‘cristae’. On these cristae
enzymes and co-enzymes are present which help in the oxidation of starch, fatty
acids and amino acids.
Matrix: It is central granular part. It contains many organic compounds.
Mitochondria exist semi-autonomously in the cell as they have their own DNA that
directs production of some of their component proteins by their own ribosomes,
and they can reproduce independently of the normal cell division cycle of the
cells.

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 Mitochondria, which are present in a cell, come only from the mother as they are
present in eggs but not in the part of the sperm that enters the eggs.

FUNCTION:
Mitochondria are the main centers of intercellular energy production; they are
called POWER HOUSE of the cell. Almost all the respiratory activities take place in
mitochondria.

GOLGI BODIES:

Definition:
“The Golgi apparatus are tubular system with sacs and it has a parallel arranged,
flattened membrane bound vesicles which lack ribosomes.’’
“The Golgi apparatus is a system of canaliculi made up of flattened membrane
bound vesicles, which are arranged parallel to each other. They are known as
dictyosome
Location:
They are typically located near the nucleus membrane.

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 Components:
Each golgi body consist of

Flattened sac like structures called cristae. Golgi body has 3-20 cisternae.

Outer network of connecting tubules is present at the edge of cisternae.

Certain vesicles or golgian vacuoles.

Quantity:
The number of golgi bodies in a cell may be very large; usually it varies from 3-15
per cell. It is absent in bacteria and RBCs of mammals.
Occurence:
In animal cells single golgi apparatus is found in each cell, but in plant cell they are
found throughout the cell cytoplasm.

FUNCTIONS:

They are concerned with cell secretions.

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 They manufacture certain macromolecules.

They help in the synthesis of cell wall and plate material in plant cell.

They manufacture lysosomes as well in animal cells.

LYSOSOMES:

Definition:
They are small spherical bodies few micrometer in size surrounded by single
membrane originated by golgi apparatus and containing digestive enzymes.
Occurence:

They occur only in the cytoplasm of animal cell. They are rich in acid
phosphatases and hydrolytic enzymes.
FUNCTION

They contain digestive enzymes and usually take part in the digestion of food.

They also destroy unnecessary particles.

They perform the breakdown of bacteria, warm out cells or other harmful
foreign material engulfed by WBCs by the process of phagocytosis.

Suicide Sacs:
They are also called ‘suicide sacs’. When their membrane ruptures the cell starts
its chemical breakdown because due to secretion of enzymes the cell uses its
own protein for digestion.
This process is called lysis or autophagy.

PLASTIDS

Introduction
Plastids, along with all cell walls are truly distinctive plant structures. They
originate from minute defined precursor structures called proplastids.
Definition:
These are special protoplasmic, membrane bounded, oval shaped organelles
which function as chemical synthesizers and storage bodies.
Occurence:

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 Plastids occur in greatest number in cells of plants and in the primitive single cell
organisms e.g: Euglena
TYPES OF PLASTIDS:
There are three types of plastids.

1. Chloroplast

2. Chromoplast

Leucoplast

1. Chloroplast ( chloro:green , plast:living)

Definition:
The chloroplast is the green plastids which are most important of the plastids and
are scattered in the cytoplasm.

Occurence:
They contain chlorophyll and are found in parts exposed to light and occur in great
number in green leaves.
Importance:
They contain their own DNA and RNA.
FUNCTION:

They manufacture the food material in the presence of sunlight by the help of CO2
and H2O.

1. Chromoplast ( chroma:colour, plast:living )

Definition
These are coloured plastids which are mostly present in the petals of flowers and
fruits.
Pigments:
The plastids may be yellow, orange or red because of the presence of xanthophyll
(yellow) and carotene (orange, red). They may be also show other colours.

FUNCTIONS:

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 Due to the presence of plastids the petals of flower become showy to invite for
pollinations.

Leucoplast: ( leuco:white , plast:living )

Definition:
These are colourless plastids which develop in the absence of sunlight.
Occurrence:
They are found in the storage cells of roots and underground stem.
FUNCTION:

They convert sugar into starch for the purpose of storage. They store
carbohydrates, protein and lipids,

VACUOLES:

Vacuoles are non-protoplasmic liquid filled cavities in the cytoplasm and are
surrounded by a selectively permeable membrane called tonoplast.

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 In animal cells they are formed temporarily when needed. They are rich in
hydrolytic enzymes such as proteases, ribonucleases and glycosidase. Some
of the vacuoles act as lysosomes. They may initiate cell death by altering the
differential permeability of the tonoplast causing enzymatic lysis of the cell.

Vacuoles are very prominent and large in the plant cells and are filled with cell
sap and act as a storehouse for different substances. They also help in plant
defence, cell growth and enlargement.

They are more prominent in mature cells and are small in developing cells.

PEROXISOME:

Definition:
Peroxisomes are single membrane bounded micro-bodies that contain enzyme for
transferring hydrogen atom to oxygen to form hydrogen peroxide (H2o2).

Occurrence:
Peroxisomes are found in the cells which metabolize alcohol. The peroxisomes are
also present in yeast, protozoa and many cells of higher plants.
Enzymatic Activity:
They also produce other enzymes such as peroxidase, glycolic and acid kinase
etc.

H2O2: It is a toxic compound which is immediately converted into H2O by catalase

enzyme.
FUNCTION:
They take part to destroy the toxic effect of alcohol.

GLYOXYSOMES:

Definition:
These are micro-bodies covered by single membrane which produce network of
spindle fibers which help in cell division.

Location:
They are usually found in plant cells. This organelle is present only in the
germination of lipid rich seed and it is absent poor seed such as pea.

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 Enzymatic Activity
They secrete enzyme which metabolize the oxidation of stored fatty acids to
provide energy for the formation of new plant.
FUNCTION:

The glyoxysomes secrete enzymes which take part to activate the enzymes and
molecules of photosynthesis and respiration by fatty acid oxidation, especially in
seedlings.

CYTOSKELETON:

Definition:
Cytosol is organized into three dimensional network of the fibrous protein called
‘cytoskeleton’.
FUNCTIONS:
It plays fundamental roles in:

1. Mitosis

2. Meiosis

Cytokinesis

1. Cell wall deposition

2. Maintenance of shape

3. Cell differentiation

TYPES:
There are major two types of cytoskeleton.

1. Microtubules

2. Microfilaments

Intermediate filaments.

Microtubules:
These are long, straight hollow cylinder like structure composed of a globular
protein called ‘tubulin’.

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 Characteristics:
Their outer diameter is 25 cm.Their single microtubule consists of numerous sub-
units of tubulin arranged in 13 columns called ‘protofilaments’.

They help in the storage of cellulose and movement of chromosomes during

cell division.

Microfilaments:

These are solid tube like structures made up of globular protein called ‘actin’.
Characteristics:

Their diameter is about 7nm.

Each microfilament consists of two actin chains arranged in helical manner.

Function:
Microfilament helps in internal motion of the cell
Intermediate Filament:

These are intermediate in size between microtubules and microfilaments.

Shape:
Their shape is rope like in different tissues. In hair and skin they consist of keratin
protein.
Diameter:

Their diameter is range about 8nm-11nm

Function:
They are important in maintenance of shape of cell and may have the function of
supporting the other elements of cytoskeleton.

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 RIBOSOMES:

Very small, oval shaped, non-membranous granules of a cell are known as

ribosomes. These are so named because they contain high concentration of
Ribonucleic acid(RNA)
Characteristic Features:

Ribosomes occur in all kind of cells, from bacteria to complex plant and animal
cells

Ribosomes are found freely dispersed in the cytoplasm in the prokaryotic

cells, but in eukaryotic cells they are found free as well as attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum.

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 Chemical Composition:
Chemically ribosomes are composed of following substances:

Proteins: They are composed of 50 or more types of proteins

RNA: A special type of RNA is found in ribosomes called ribosomal RNA or

rRNA.

Structure:

Ribosomes are generally oblate and spheroid tiny granules

Each ribosome consists of two unequal subunits. The larger subunit is dome
shaped and smaller one forms a cap on the flat surface of larger subunit

Ribosomes adhere themselves to endoplasmic reticulum by the larger subunits

Formation of Ribsomes:
Recent investigation reveals that the ribosomes are manufactured in the nucleolus
from where they are transferred to the cytoplasm through nucleoplasm
FUNCTION:

Ribosomes are regarded as protein factories. Under directions by the nucleus they
produce the protein needed throughout the cell.

CENTROSOMES

In the cytoplasm, near nucleus most of the animal cells and certain lower plants
cells a centrosome is commonly present

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 Structure:

Centrosome consists of a pair of organelles called centrioles

Each centriole is a cylinder, about 0.2 nm in diameter

It consist of 9 parallel triplets of hollow cylindrical microtubules

Each member of centrosome move to opposite side of the cell during division
and thread like fibers begin to radiate from the centriole in all directions called
Astral rays

FUNCTIONS:

The centrioles are active at the time of cell division in annimal cells, where
they separate and move to form the poles of nuclear spindles

Microtubules of cells are also formed by centrosome

They also play a role in the formation of contractile structures of cilia and
flagella in certain cells

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Cell Structure and function 27