FM CW RADAR • FM CW radar is capable of measuring the relative velocity and the range of the target with the expense of bandwidth. • The inability of the simple CW radar to measure range is related to the relatively narrow spectrum (bandwidth) of its transmitted waveform. • By providing timing marks into the Tx signal the time of transmission and the time of return can be calculated. This will increase the bandwidth • More distinct the timing, more accurate the result will be and more broader will the Tx spectrum • The spectrum of a CW transmission can be broadened by the application of modulation, either amplitude. frequency, or phase. • An example of an amplitude modulation is the pulse radar. The narrower the pulse, the more accurate the measurement of range and the broader the transmitted spectrum • A widely used technique to broaden the spectrum of CW radar is to frequency- modulate the carrier. The timing mark is the changing frequency.
Range and Doppler measurement:
• In the frequency-modulated CW radar (abbreviated FM-CW), the transmitter frequency is changed as a function of time. • Assume that the transmitter frequency increases linearly with time, as shown by the solid line in the next slide. • If there is a reflecting object at a distance R, an echo signal will return after a time T = 2R/C. The dashed line in the figure represents the echo signal. • If the echo signal is heterodyned with a portion of the transmitter signal in a nonlinear element such as a diode, a beat note fb will be produced. • If there is no Doppler frequency shift, the beat note (difference frequency) is a measure of the target's range and fb = fr where fr is the beat frequency due only to the target's range. 62
• If the rate of change of the carrier frequency is f0 (dot) ,then the beat frequency is given by
Figure: Frequency-time relation-ships in FM-CW radar. Solid curve represents transmitted signal; dashed curve represents echo. (a) Linear frequency modulation; (b)triangular frequency modulation; (c) beat note of (b).
• In any practical CW radar, the frequency cannot be continually changed in one
direction. Periodicity in the modulation is necessary, as in the triangular frequency- modulation waveform shown in the figure (b). The modulation need not necessarily be triangular. It can be saw tooth, sinusoidal, or some other shape.
• The resulting beat frequency as a function of time is shown in figure(c) for
triangular modulation.
• If the frequency is modulated at a rate fm over a range Δf the beat frequency is
fr = (2R/C).2fm.Δf = 4Rfm.Δf /C • Thus the measurement of the beat frequency determines the range R. 63 Block diagram illustrating the principle of the FM-CW radar
• A portion of the transmitter signal acts as the reference signal required to produce the beat frequency. It is introduced directly into the receiver via a cable or other direct connection.
• Ideally the isolation between transmitting and receiving antennas is made sufficiently large so as to reduce to a negligible level the transmitter leakage signal which arrives at the receiver via the coupling between antennas.
• The beat frequency is amplified and limited to remove any amplitude fluctuations.
• The frequency of the amplitude-limited beat note is measured with a cycle-counting
frequency meter calibrated in distance.
• If the target is not stationary Doppler frequency shift will be superimposed on the FM range beat note and an erroneous range measurement results.
• The Doppler frequency shift causes the frequency-time plot of the echo signal to be shifted up or down as shown in the figure (a). On one portion of the frequency-modulation cycle, the beat frequency (Fig. b) is increased by the Doppler shift, while on the other portion, it is decreased.
• If for example, the target is approaching the radar, the beat frequency fb(up) produced during the increasing or up will be the difference between the beat frequency due to the range fr and the Doppler frequency shift fd. Similarly, on the decreasing portion, the beat frequency fb(down) is the sum of the two 64
Figure: Frequency-time relationships in FM-CW radar when the received signal is shifted in frequency by the Doppler effect (a) Transmitted (solid curve) and echo (dashed curve) (b) beat frequency
⚫ The beat frequency due to range fr can be calculated as
FM Altimeter • The FM-CW radar principle is used in the aircraft radio altimeter to measure height above the surface of the earth.
• Relatively short ranges of altimeters permit Low Tx power and low antenna gain.
• Since the relative motion between the aircraft and ground is small, the effect of the Doppler frequency shift may usually be neglected.
• Frequency range: 4.2 to 4.4 GHz (reserved for altimeters)
• Solid state Tx is used here.
• High sensitive super-heterodyne Rx is preferred for better sensitivity and stability
65
Figure: Block diagram of a FM-CW radar using sideband super heterodyne receiver
• A portion of the frequency-modulated transmitted signal is applied to a mixer along with the oscillator signal.
• The selection of the local-oscillator frequency is a bit different from that in the usual super heterodyne receiver. The local-oscillator frequency fIF is the same as the intermediate frequency used in the receiver.
• The output of the mixer consists of the varying transmitter frequency fo(t) plus two sideband frequencies, one on either side of fo(t) and separated from fo(t) by the local-oscillator frequency fIF.
• The filter selects the lower sideband, fo(t) - fIF and rejects the carrier and the upper sideband. The sideband filter must have sufficient bandwidth to pass the modulation, but not the carrier or other sideband. The filtered sideband serves the function of the local oscillator.
• When an echo signal is present, the output of the receiver mixer is an IF signal of frequency (fIF+fb) where fb is composed of the range frequency fr and the Doppler velocity frequency fd.
• The IF signal is amplified and applied to the balanced detector along with the local-oscillator signal fIF .
• The output of the detector contains the beat frequency (range frequency and the Doppler velocity frequency), which is amplified to a level where it can actuate the frequency- measuring circuits. 66
• The output of the low-frequency amplifier is divided into two channels: one feeds an average-frequency counter to determine the range, and the other feeds a switched frequency counter to determine the Doppler velocity (assuming fr > fd). • Only the averaging frequency counter need be used in an altimeter application. • A target at short range will generally result in a strong signal at low frequency, while one at long range will result in a weak signal at high frequency. Therefore the frequency characteristic of the low frequency amplifier in the FM-CW radar may be used to provide attenuation at the low frequencies corresponding to short ranges and large echo signals. Less attenuation is applied to the higher frequencies, where the echo signals are weaker. • Unwanted signals in FM altimeter: 1. The reflection of the transmitted signals at the antenna caused by impedance mismatch. 2. The standing-wave pattern on the cable feeding the reference signal to the receiver, due to poor mixer match. 3. The leakage signal entering the receiver via coupling between transmitter and receiver antennas. This can limit the ultimate receiver sensitivity, especially at high altitudes.
3. The interference due to power being reflected back to the transmitter, causing a change in the impedance seen by the transmitter. This is usually important only at low altitudes. It can be reduced by an attenuator introduced in the transmission line at low altitude or by a directional coupler or an isolator. 4. The double-bounce signal. 67
Advantages of FM-CW Radar
• Range can be measured by simple broadening of frequency spectrum.
• FM modulation is easy to generate than linear modulation.
• Synchronization is not required as in multiple frequency CW radar.
• For measuring range, single frequency is required.
Disadvantages of FM-CW Radar
• FM CW radar can be used to detect single targets only.
• Accuracy of FM CW radar is less compared to Multiple frequency radar.
• Measurement of range is more difficult when FM signal is non uniform or mixer is
not operating in linear region.
Multiple-frequency CW Radar • Consider a CW radar radiating a single-frequency sine wave of the form sin 2πfot
• The signal travels to the target at a range R and returns to the radar after a time T = 2R/c where c is the velocity of propagation.
• The echo signal received at the radar is sin [2πfo(t –T)].
• If the transmitted and received signals are compared in a phase detector, the output is proportional to the phase difference between the two and is given by : Δφ= 2πf0T =4πfoR/c.
• The phase difference may therefore be used as a measure of the range, or
• However, the measurement of the phase difference Δφ is unambiguous only if Δφ
does not exceed 2π radians. Substituting Δφ = 2π into above eqn gives the maximum unambiguous range as λ/2. 68
• Unambiguous range may be extended considerably by utilizing two separate CW
signals differing slightly in frequency. • The transmitted waveform is assumed to consist of two continuous sine waves of frequency f1 and f2 separated by an amount Δf. • For convenience, the amplitudes of all signals are set equal to unity. • The voltage waveforms of the two components of the transmitted signal v1T and v2T may be written as:
where Ø1 and Ø2 are arbitrary (constant) phase angles.
• The echo signal is shifted in frequency by the Doppler effect. The form of the Doppler-shifted signals corresponding to the two frequencies f1 and f2 are:
Where Ro = range to target at a particular time t=to
fd1 = Doppler frequency shift associated with frequency f1 fd2 = Doppler frequency shift associated with frequency f2 • Since the two RF frequencies f1 and f2 are approximately the same (that is f2 = f1+ Δf, where Δf <<<f 1) the Doppler frequency shifts fd1 and fd2 can be assumed to be equal to each other. • Therefore we may write fd1 = fd2 = fd • The receiver separates the two components of the echo signal and heterodynes each received signal component with the corresponding transmitted waveform and extracts the two Doppler-frequency components given below: 69 •
Hence
• which is the same as that of R i
• The two-frequency CW technique fo Doppler frequency shift. • A large difference in frequency between the accuracy of the range measurement since large change in ΔØ for a given range. • However, there is a limit to the value of Δf since ΔØ ca radians if the range is to remain unambiguous. • The maximum unambiguous range Runamb is:
• Therefore Δf must be less than c/2Runamb. Note that when Δf is replaced by the pulse repetition rate, above eq gives the maximum unambiguous range of a pulse radar. • The two-frequency CW radar is essentially a single-target radar since only one phase difference can be measured at a time. If more than one target is present, the echo signal becomes complicated and the meaning of the phase measurement becomes doubtful. • The theoretical accuracy with which range can be measured with the two-frequency CW radar can be found and it can be shown that the theoretical rms range error is
• Where E = energy contained in received signal and
• No = noise power per hertz of bandwidth.
The above Equation indicates that the greater the separation Δf
between the two frequencies, the lesser will be the rms error. 70 • Therefore the frequency difference must not be too large if unambiguous measurements are to be made.
• The selection of Δf represents a compromise between the requirements of accuracy
and ambiguity.
• Both accurate and unambiguous range measurements can be made by transmitting
three or more frequencies instead of just two.
• For example, if the three frequencies f1,f2 and f3 are such that f3 – f1 = k( f2–f1) where k is a factor of the order of 10 or 20, the pair of frequencies f3, f1 (with greater Δf) gives an ambiguous but accurate range measurernent while the pair of frequencies f2, f1(with lesser Δf) resolve the ambiguities in the measurement of Range.
• Likewise, if further accuracy is required a fourth frequency can be transmitted and
its ambiguities resolved by the less accurate but higher unambiguous measurement obtained from the three frequencies, f1, f2 and f3.
• As more frequencies are added the spectrum and target resolution approach that obtained with a pulse or an FM-CWwaveform.
• The multiple-frequency CW radar technique has been applied to the accurate
measurement of distance in surveying and in missile guidance. The Tellurometer is the name given to a portable electronic surveying instrument which is based on this principle.
• In addition to its use in surveying, the multiple CW frequency method of measuring
range has been applied in 1. Range-instrumentation radar for the measurement of the distance to a transponder- equipped missile,
2. The distance to satellites,
3. In satellite navigation systems based on range measurement
4. For detecting the presence of an obstacle in the path of a moving automobile by
measuring the distance,
5. The Doppler velocity, and the sign of the Doppler (whether the target is approaching or receding). 71 • Example1: Determine the Range and Doppler velocity of an approaching target using a triangular modulation FMCW Radar. Given : Beat frequency fb(up) = 15KHz and fb (down) = 25KHz , modulating frequency : 1MHz, Δf : 1KHz and Operating frequency : 3Ghz Solution: We know fr = ½[fb(up)+ fb (down)] = ½( 15+25) = 20 Khz fd = ½[ fb (down) - fb(up)] = ½( 25-15) = 5 Khz The Range R in terms of fr , fm and Δf is given by : R = c fr / 4fm.Δf = (3x10^8)20x10^3 / 4(1x10^6x1x10^3) mtrs = 1500 mtrs = 1.5 Kms
