Fluid Power

1-800-Lab-Volt Pneumatics Fundamentals

www.labvolt.com

31290-00
Student Manual
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 Fluid Power

Pneumatics Fundamentals
Student Manual
31290-00

A
First Edition
Published December 2013

© 1997 by Lab-Volt Ltd.

Printed in Canada
All rights reserved

ISBN 978-2-89289-383-0 (Printed version)

ISBN 978-2-89640-652-4 (CD-ROM)

Legal Deposit – Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec, 1997

Legal Deposit – Library and Archives Canada, 1997

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in

any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopied, recorded, or otherwise, without
prior written permission from Lab-Volt Ltd.

Information in this document is subject to change without notice and does not represent a
commitment on the part of Lab-Volt. The Lab-Volt® materials described in this document are
furnished under a license agreement or a nondisclosure agreement.

The Lab-Volt® logo is a registered trademark of Lab-Volt Systems.

Lab-Volt recognizes product names as trademarks or registered trademarks of their

respective holders.

All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Other trademarks and trade
names may be used in this document to refer to either the entity claiming the marks and
names or their products. Lab-Volt disclaims any proprietary interest in trademarks and trade
names other than its own.
Safety and Common Symbols

III
 Safety and Common Symbols

IV
 Foreword
The Lab-Volt Pneumatics Training System is a modularized presentation of the
principles of pneumatic energy and its controlled application. The Pneumatics
Training System consists of an introductory and an advanced training program.

The introductory program is based on two manuals: Volume 1, Pneumatics

Fundamentals, covers the basic principles of pneumatics; Volume 2, Electrical
Control of Pneumatic Systems, covers electrical circuits and ladder diagrams for
pneumatics applications. Both manuals are intended to be used with the Lab-Volt
Pneumatics Trainer.

The advanced training program expands upon the introductory program with
pneumatic applications demonstrating pneumatic controls, programmable controllers,
sensors, proportional controls, and servo controls. The covered applications are
based on those encountered in the industry. The introductory program is a
prerequisite for the advanced program.

This manual, volume 1 of the Pneumatics series, introduces students to the basic
principles of pneumatics. This includes the identification and operation of basic
pneumatic components such as valves, flow controls and actuators. The force,
pressure, area, and volume relationships of compressed air are also covered.

The Lab-Volt Instructor's Guide for Pneumatics Fundamentals and Electrical Control
of Pneumatic Systems (P/N 31290-10) provides answers to all procedure steps and
review questions found in each exercise in this manual.

V
 Acknowledgements

We wish to thank Mr Patrick Quirion, Mech. Eng., CEFP, MGI, for

his participation in the elaboration of the pneumatics courseware.
Mr Quirion is teaching fluid power classes in Montreal, Canada.

VI
 Table of contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XI

Unit 1 Introduction to Pneumatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1

Explore the trainer and components included in the Lab-Volt Pneumatics

Training System. Safety rules, component identification, description and
general operation. Introduction to air conditioning and distributing
equipment.

Ex. 1-1 Familiarization with the Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer . . . 1-3

Description of the Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer. Configuration of the

work surface. Identification of the various components.
Familiarization with the symbols, characteristics and uses of each
component. Safety rules.

Ex. 1-2 Introduction to Pneumatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-19

To introduce pneumatic power characteristics, applications,

advantages, and disadvantages. To investigate a demo circuit using
a directional control valve and a cylinder.

Ex. 1-3 Air Conditioning and Distributing Equipment . . . . . . . . . 1-27

To introduce the Conditioning Unit and its components: shutoff

valves, filter, pressure gauge, pressure regulator and muffler. To
learn about receivers, accumulators and safety relief valves. To
observe the effect of friction in a demo circuit using an accumulator,
a directional control valve, a flow control valve and a cylinder.

Unit 2 Basic Physical Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

To introduce pressure, force, volume and flow relationships. Vacuum

generation. Measurements using pneumatic components. Introduction to
flowmeters, needle valves, check valves, flow control valves and vacuum
generators.

Ex. 2-1 Pressure vs Force Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3

To introduce the relationship between pressure and force. To verify

the formula F = P x A. To measure the force delivered by a cylinder
in demo circuits using a cylinder, a pressure gauge and a load
device. To observe that the force exerted on a given surface is
directly proportional to the pressure applied on this surface.

Ex. 2-2 Pressure vs Volume Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13

To introduce the relationship between pressure and volume. To

verify the formula (P1 × V1)/T1 = (P2 × V2)/T2 by compressing air
in a cylinder chamber in demo circuits using a cylinder and a
pressure gauge.

VII
 Table of Contents

Ex. 2-3 Pressure Drop vs Flow Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-19

To introduce the relationship between pressure drop and generated

flow. To see the effect of a load on the flow in demo circuits using
a flowmeter, a flow control valve and a pressure gauge. To
introduce flowmeters, needle valves, check valves and flow control
valves.

Ex. 2-4 Vacuum Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29

To introduce vacuum generation in demo circuits using a vacuum

generator, cylinders, an air bearing and a pressure gauge. To
demonstrate manometer operating principles by measuring the
height of a column of water in a demo circuit.

Unit 3 Basic Controls of Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

To introduce components used in fundamental circuits featuring directional

control valves and cylinders. Introduction to the methods for controlling
speed, force and synchronization.

Ex. 3-1 Directional Control Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3

To introduce the operation of directional control valves. To learn

about symbols, operators, construction and classification. To learn
about normally passing and normally non-passing valves. To learn
how to select circuit branches and power sources in demo circuits
using a flowmeter, a flow control valve and a 3-way, 2-position
directional control valve.

Ex. 3-2 Directional and Speed Control of Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . 3-11

To introduce the operation of cylinders. To learn about symbols,

dimension parameters, construction and classification. To learn how
to control the speed of cylinders using flow control valves. To verify
the meter-in and meter-out methods of control in demo circuits
using flow control valves, directional control and cylinders.

Ex. 3-3 Cylinders in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-25

To describe the operation of a series circuit and cylinder

synchronization. To demonstrate pressure intensification in demo
circuits using a directional control valve and cylinders.

Ex. 3-4 Cylinders in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33

To describe the operation of a parallel circuit, to learn about the

extension sequence of parallel cylinders having different loads. To
show how to synchronize the extension of parallel cylinders in
demo circuits using directional control valves, cylinders and flow
control valves.

VIII
 Table of Contents

Unit 4 Basic Controls of Pneumatic Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

To introduce pilot-operated directional control valves and pneumatic motors.

To learn the methods for controlling torque, speed and direction of rotation
of pneumatic motors.

Ex. 4-1 Indirect Control Using Pilot-Operated Valves . . . . . . . . . . 4-3

To introduce the operation of pilot-operated directional control

valves. To learn about construction and classification. To show the
advantages of indirect control in demo circuits using a long line
device, cylinders and a 4-way, 5-port, 2-position pilot-operated
directional control valve.

Ex. 4-2 Pneumatic Motor Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11

To introduce symbols, construction and classification of pneumatic

motors. To show how to control torque, direction and speed control
of a motor in a test circuit using directional control valves, flow
control valves and a pneumatic motor.

Ex. 4-3 Pneumatic Motor Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-21

To introduce how to use manufacturer's data sheets. To learn how

to evaluate the performance of a pneumatic motor in demo circuits
using a flowmeter, a flow control valve and a motor.

Appendices A Equipment Utilization Chart

B Care of the Pneumatics Trainer
C Hydraulics and Pneumatics Graphic Symbols
D Conversion Factors
E New Terms and Words

Bibliography

We Value Your Opinion!

IX
X
 Introduction

The basic principles of fluid power date back to Pascal's research and the invention
of the piston, but only recently has fluid power become a large scale industry.

This manual, Pneumatics Fundamentals, provides basic training in pneumatics. It is

divided into four units:

C Unit 1 introduces students to the Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer, pneumatics

concepts, and air conditioning and distributing equipment.

C Unit 2 introduces the basic physical concepts: pressure vs force, volume and
flow relationships.

C Unit 3 introduces the basic controls of cylinders: directional and speed using
directional control valves, and flow control valves.

C Unit 4 introduces the basic controls of pneumatic motors and motor

performance. Indirect control using pilot-operated valves is also introduced.

The four units provide a complete course in pneumatics. They lay a solid foundation
for the study of Volume 2 of the courseware series, Electrical Control of Pneumatic
Systems.

The exercises in this manual provide a systematic and realistic means of learning the
subject matter. Each exercise contains

C A clearly defined Exercise Objective.

C A Discussion of the theory involved.
C A list of Equipment Required.
C A Procedure Summary which provides a bridge between the theoretical
Discussion and the laboratory Procedure.
C A detailed step-by-step laboratory Procedure in which the student observes and
measures important phenomena. Illustrations facilitate connecting the modules
and guide the student's observations. Well-organized tables help in performing
calculations. Questions direct the student's thinking process and help in
understanding the principles involved.
C A Conclusion to confirm that objectives have been reached.
C Review Questions which verify that the material has been well assimilated.

XI
XII
 Unit 1

Introduction to Pneumatics

UNIT OBJECTIVE

When you have completed this unit, you will be able to identify the Pneumatics
Trainer components and to safely operate the trainer. You will demonstrate your
ability by constructing simple pneumatic circuits.

DISCUSSION OF FUNDAMENTALS

The growing use of pneumatics in today's industry is a result of the world's need for
fast, low-cost production with better quality, less waste and decreased machine
power consumption. The basic principles of fluid power can be traced back to the
research of Pascal and the development of the piston, but only recently has
pneumatic equipment become a large-scale industry.

Automation is one reason for the popularity of pneumatics in industrial processes

that involve robotics Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) and assembly lines. The
diversity of pneumatic valves and actuators allows technicians to design automated
systems that can be controlled easily and efficiently from a remote location. Air is
readily available as an inexpensive medium used to transmit energy, and air leaks
do not create a fire hazard, unlike hydraulics leaks or damaged electrical wires.

Pneumatic systems have other advantages over their hydraulic and electrical
counterparts. For example, pneumatic motors are smaller, lighter and cheaper than
hydraulic or electric motors with comparable power output ratings. In addition,
pneumatic motors can be stopped or reversed easily without experiencing the
overheating problems associated with other motors. In general, the easy speed
control of pneumatic cylinders and motors, the minimum vibration associated with
pneumatics, and the simplicity and versatility of pneumatic components will ensure
the popularity of pneumatics in the years to come.

1-1
1-2
 Exercise 1-1

Familiarization with the Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE

C To become familiar with the Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer;

C To identify the various system components;
C To be aware of the safety rules to follow when using the Lab-Volt Pneumatics
Trainer.

DISCUSSION

The Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer

The Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer consists of a work surface, pneumatic components,

tubes, and a power unit.

Work surface

The work surface consists of a main perforated panel on which pneumatic

components can be mounted either horizontally or vertically. The main panel can be
tilted to facilitate the mounting of the components. Two additional perforated panels,
respectively covering one third and two thirds of the main panel surface, can be
mounted on the main panel to increase the work surface area. Any number of work
surfaces can be positioned and locked side by side, and components can be bridge-
mounted across adjacent work surfaces.

Pneumatic components

Each pneumatic component is attached to a base plate which allows the component
to be secured to the work surface using either push-lock fasteners or the Quick-
Lock System. Each component has its symbol and part number indicated on the
component body or on the base plate.

Figure 1-1a shows how a component can be secured to the work surface when
push-lock fasteners are used. The component base plate has four identical push-lock
fasteners. To secure a component to the work surface, align the four push-lock
fasteners with the work surface perforations, then firmly push on the fasteners.

1-3
Familiarization with the Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer

Figure 1-1a. Securing a component to the work surface with push-lock fasteners.

Figure 1-1b shows how a component can be secured to the work surface when the
Quick-Lock System is used. With this system, each component base plate has four
fasteners: three fixed (black) fasteners and one twist-lock fastener (fastener with a
yellow knob and a red tab).

(1) First, ensure that the yellow rotating knob of the twist-lock fastener is turned
fully, so that the red tab (pointed by the arrow) of this fastener is fully visible.

On some components, the yellow knob must be turned fully counterclockwise,

while on other components, the yellow knob must be turned fully clockwise.

(2) Align the red pins of the four fasteners with the work surface perforations, then
press the component base plate gently into the work surface.

(3) Lock the component into place by turning the yellow knob fully in the required
direction, depending on the component.

Note: To secure components to the work surface, the yellow knob must
be turned fully clockwise on some components, or fully counterclockwise
on other components.

(4) Ensure that the red tab of the twist-lock fastener is not visible, which indicates
that the component is safely locked into place.

1-4
Familiarization with the Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer

Figure 1-1b. Securing a component to the work surface with the Quick-Lock System.

To remove the component from the work surface, unlock the component by turning
the yellow knob fully in the required direction so that the red tab of the twist-lock
fastener becomes fully visible, then withdraw the component.

Note: Throughout this manual, the components are shown with

quick-lock fasteners.

1-5
Familiarization with the Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer

Tubes

The pneumatic components use quick connect fittings. This type of fitting allows you
to easily and quickly connect and disconnect circuits. Note, however, that these
fittings should only be connected and disconnected when they are not under
pressure.

Compressed air supply

Compressed air is obtained from an adequate compressed air supply located in the
classroom or from an air compressor.

Safety Rules

The Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer has been designed with safety as a primary
concern. However, like any other force, compressed air can be highly destructive.
A pressurized open-ended length of flexible tubing can whip around with enough
force to cause severe injury. Compressed air can penetrate the skin, creating air
bubbles in the blood stream that can kill. Compressed air can cause blindness,
deafness, ruptured lungs if inhaled, and a host of other catastrophic problems. The
instructor and student must be aware of certain potential hazards that exist when
using the Pneumatics Trainer.

a. Do not attempt to block compressed air lines or fittings with fingers or hands.

b. Tubes, components, and other devices that are not part of the trainer should not
be used with the trainer because they may burst and injure the operator.

c. Leaks on pneumatic equipment should never be tightened while there is

pressure in the system. Stop the air supply, release the pressure, then repair
the leak.

d. Never place the pneumatic cylinders in a position where they may become
wedged or confined between rigid parts of the trainer. Damage to the operator
and the unit could result. Inadequate component clearance is shown in
Figure 1-2.

e. Never release compressed air near or in body cavities.

f. Safety glasses with side shields should always be worn when working with
compressed air.

g. Keep the trainer and its components clean and in good working order. Clean
plastic components with mild soap and water. Inspect components and other
equipment for damage. Any damaged equipment should not be used until
further inspection indicates they are safe for operation.

h. Noise can be damaging to the ears at certain levels. Avoid continuous exposure
to air release. Reduce released compressed air noise and/or wear ear
protectors.

1-6
Familiarization with the Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer

Figure 1-2. Inadequate Component Clearance.

Procedure summary

In the first part of the exercise, you will configure your work surface.

In the second part of the exercise, you will identify the various components of your
Pneumatics Trainer and you will draw their symbols.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix A of this manual, to obtain the
list of equipment required to perform this exercise.

PROCEDURE

Configure Your Work Surface

G 1. Install your work surface on a work table or on the Lab-Volt support bench.
Make sure the work surface is secured to the work table or support bench
to ensure that it will not move or fall down. If you use a support bench, make
sure the four caster brakes are locked.

G 2. Figure 1-3 shows different ways of configuring your work surface. The main
panel can be tilted to facilitate component mounting. Additional panels can
be mounted on the main panel to increase the work surface area. They both
can be tilted and used as control panels by mounting the pneumatic
instruments on them.

1-7
Familiarization with the Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer

Figure 1-3. Work Surface Configurations.

G 3. To help you lift and tilt the panels, lift handles have been supplied with your
trainer kit. To fasten a lift handle to a panel, align the fasteners on the
handle base plate with the panel perforations, then lock the handle into
place with the fasteners, as shown in Figure 1-4.

Figure 1-4. Fastening Lift Handles to a Panel.

1-8
Familiarization with the Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer

G 4. To tilt a panel, slowly lift it until the desired inclination is obtained, then hold
the panel in place using the two legs on the back of the panel. Fasteners on
the legs and perforations on each side of the panel allow you to secure the
legs, as shown in Figure 1-5.

Figure 1-5. Tightening the Panel Legs.

Identifying the Trainer Components

G 5. Remove the Pneumatics Trainer components from their storage location.

Each component is identified by a symbol silkscreened on the body or base.
Examine the Conditioning Unit. It consists of a main shutoff valve, filter,
pressure regulator, Pressure Gauge and a 4-port manifold. Complete the
drawings of the composite and simplified symbols in Figure 1-6.

1-9
Familiarization with the Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer

Figure 1-6. Conditioning Unit.

G 6. Examine the Pressure Gauge of your trainer. Pressure gauges convert

pressure into a dial reading. Draw the symbol of the component in
Figure 1-7.

Figure 1-7. Pressure Gauge.

1-10
Familiarization with the Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer

G 7. Examine the various valves of your trainer. Valves are used to control flow
and/or direction. Some valves have two ports. Others have more. Draw the
symbol of each component in Figure 1-8.

Figure 1-8. Valves.

1-11
Familiarization with the Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer

G 8. Examine the cylinders and the load device of your trainer. Cylinders are
actuators that convert fluid energy into linear mechanical power. One of the
cylinders of your trainer is a double-acting type because it works in both the
extension and retraction stroke of the piston rod, the other cylinder is a
spring return-type. The load device is used to measure the force generated
by the cylinders. Draw the symbol of each component in Figure 1-9.

Figure 1-9. Cylinders and Load Device.

1-12
Familiarization with the Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer

G 9. Examine the pneumatic motor of your trainer. Pneumatic motors are

actuators that convert fluid energy into rotational mechanical energy. The
motor supplied with your trainer is a bidirectional pneumatic motor because
it rotates in both directions. Draw the symbol of the component in
Figure 1-10.

Figure 1-10. Pneumatic Motor.

G 10. Examine the Air Bearing of your trainer. Air bearings are fluid power
actuators that reduce or eliminate friction between the bearing and the work
surface. Draw the symbol of the component in Figure 1-11.

Figure 1-11. Air Bearing.

1-13
Familiarization with the Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer

G 11. Examine the Accumulator of your trainer. Accumulators are receivers that
are used to store pressurized air in a pneumatic system. Draw the symbol
of the component in Figure 1-12.

Figure 1-12. Accumulator.

G 12. Examine the Vacuum Generator of your trainer. Vacuum generators are
used to create a vacuum. Draw the symbol of the component in Figure 1-13.

Figure 1-13. Vacuum Generator.

1-14
Familiarization with the Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer

G 13. Examine the Flowmeter of your trainer. Flowmeters are used to measure the
rate of fluid flow in a pneumatic system. Draw the symbol of the component
in Figure 1-14.

Figure 1-14. Flowmeter.

G 14. Examine the Long Line device of your trainer. The Long Line device is used
to generate friction in a circuit. Draw the symbol of the component in
Figure 1-15.

Figure 1-15. Long Line Device.

1-15
Familiarization with the Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer

G 15. Examine the Tees of your trainer. Tees are used to interconnect or split
compressed air lines. Draw the symbol of the component in Figure 1-16.

Figure 1-16. Tees.

CONCLUSION

In this exercise, you became familiar with the Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer. You
configured the work surface according to your preferences.

You have been introduced to safety procedures. You identified the various
components of the trainer. You saw the different symbols that represent the
components.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Connection between pneumatic components is made using quick connect fittings

that should be

a. connected when they are under pressure.

b. disconnected when they are under pressure.
c. connected and disconnected when they are under pressure.
d. connected and disconnected when they are not under pressure.

2. Pneumatic motors are actuators that convert fluid energy into

a. rotational pressure energy.

b. rotational flow energy.
c. rotational mechanical energy.
d. rotational electrical energy.

1-16
Familiarization with the Lab-Volt Pneumatics Trainer

3. Air bearings are fluid power actuators that reduce or eliminate

a. flow.
b. pressure.
c. friction.
d. all of the above.

4. Cylinders are actuators that convert fluid energy into

a. linear pressure energy.

b. linear flow energy.
c. linear mechanical energy.
d. linear electrical energy.

5. They convert pressure into a dial reading.

a. Pneumatic motors.
b. Pressure gauges.
c. Air bearings.
d. Cylinders.

1-17
1-18
 Exercise 1-2

Introduction to Pneumatics

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE

C To learn about pneumatic power characteristics, applications, advantages and

disadvantages;
C To investigate a basic pneumatic circuit.

DISCUSSION

Fluid power systems convert mechanical energy into fluid energy, and then convert
this fluid energy back into mechanical energy to do useful work. The fluid power
devices that convert the energy of a pressurized fluid into mechanical energy to do
work, are called actuators. The two basic types of actuators are cylinders, which
generate linear motion, and motors or rotary actuators, which generate rotary motion.

Most pneumatic circuits contain a source of compressed air, a pressure control

device, conductors such as pipe or tubing, an actuator, and a directional control
valve to control the operation of the actuator. The power source comes from a motor
or engine, called a prime mover, that operates a compressor having its inlet port
connected to the atmosphere. The mechanical energy is converted into fluid power
when this air is compressed. In addition to a prime mover and a compressor, a
pneumatic power source includes an air storage tank called a receiver. The receiver
stores the compressed air until this energy is needed elsewhere in the system.

A pneumatic circuit is a fluid power circuit that uses gas to transmit power. Air is
commonly used as a gas in pneumatics because it is readily available, inexpensive,
and can be returned to the atmosphere after use.

Air is extremely compressible and elastic. It is capable of absorbing large amounts

of potential energy. These properties of compressed air make possible smooth
acceleration and deceleration and reversal of direction of mechanical motions, with
relative freedom from shock.

As a power medium, compressed air has numerous distinct advantages such as:

C easy to transport and store;

C unlimited conductive geometry;
C offers little risk of explosion or fire;
C is a very fast working medium and enables high working speed to be obtained;
C provides flexibility in the control of machines;
C provides an efficient method of multiplying force;
C no return lines necessary;
C efficient and dependable.

1-19
Introduction to Pneumatics

The main disadvantages of compressed air are:

C safety precautions are necessary in handling;

C expensive compared to some mechanical, electrical or hydraulic means for a
given application;
C generally suitable for relatively low power requirements;
C pressure limits;
C leakages must be controlled to maintain usable pressures;
C dirt and humidity must not be present.

Compressed air finds wide use in transportation and industry fields: air brakes, air
cylinders, tools, die casting, etc. Figure 1-17 shows some typical applications.

Figure 1-17. Compressed Air Applications.

Figure 1-18 illustrates the flow of air through a fundamental pneumatic circuit. Air is
drawn from the atmosphere by the compressor and compressed in the receiver.
When the directional control valve (DCV) is operated, air flows through the valve and
to side A of the cylinder. This causes the cylinder to extend and the air from side B
is exhausted and returned to atmosphere.

Figure 1-18. Fundamental Circuit Flow.

1-20
Introduction to Pneumatics

Become Familiar with the Operation of the Push-in Tube Fittings

Trainer components are equipped with push-in tube fittings that allow one to quickly
assemble and disassemble pneumatic circuits. To connect tubing to a fitting, simply
push the tubing in as far as it will go. To disconnect the tubing, grasp the tubing near
the fitting and push the tubing and collar of the fitting in toward the component. Hold
down the collar in one hand, and pull the tubing out with the other hand.

The ends of the tubing will wear out with repeated use. Eventually, the tubing will not
seal properly in the fittings. When this happens, the worn tubing end must be
trimmed. Use a tube cutter to remove about 12 mm (or 1/2 in) of the worn tubing.

Procedure summary

In the first part of the exercise, you will verify the status of the trainer by executing
the "trainer status verification procedure".

In the second part of the exercise, you will set up and operate a pneumatic circuit
using the Conditioning Unit, a directional control valve and a cylinder.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix A of this manual, to obtain the
list of equipment required to perform this exercise.

PROCEDURE

Trainer Status Verification Procedure

G 1. Each procedure in this manual that requires the use of the Pneumatics
Trainer includes the statement: "Verify the status or the trainer according to
the procedure given in Exercise 1-2". This status verification procedure
consists of the following steps:

C Install the work surface on a work table or on a support bench, if any.

C Make sure the work surface is secured to the work table or support
bench to ensure that it will not move or fall down.
C If you use a support bench, make sure the four caster brakes are
locked.
C On the Conditioning Unit, close the main shutoff valve by pushing down
on the control button.
C Pull up the regulator adjusting knob to unlock the regulator and turn it
completely counterclockwise.
C Close the four branch shutoff valves of the manifold (collar in the lower
position). Figure 1-19 shows the Conditioning Unit with shutoff valves.

1-21
Introduction to Pneumatics

Figure 1-19. Conditioning Unit with Branch Shutoff Valves.

Fundamental Pneumatic Circuit

G 2. Locate the following components:

C Conditioning Unit;
C Directional control valve, 3-way, 2-position, pushbutton-operated;

Note: A directional control valve is a device used to open and

close flow paths in a pneumatic circuit.

C Cylinder, 2.7-cm (or 1 1/16-in) bore, 10-cm (or 4-in) stroke, single-
acting, spring return.

Note: A cylinder is an actuator that converts fluid energy into

mechanical energy. Single-acting cylinders generate force in a
single direction.

G 3. Mount the components on the work surface and connect the circuit shown
in Figure 1-20. Refer to the connection diagram shown in Figure 1-21 to
make your connections. Connect the Conditioning Unit to the NC (normally
non-passing) port of the directional control valve.

1-22
Introduction to Pneumatics

Figure 1-20. Schematic Diagram of a Pneumatic Circuit.

Figure 1-21. Connection Diagram of a Pneumatic Circuit.

G 4. On the Conditioning Unit, open the main shutoff valve and the branch
shutoff valve at the manifold. Screw a tip (bullet) to the rod of the cylinder.

1-23
Introduction to Pneumatics

G 5. Pull up the regulator adjusting knob to unlock the regulator and turn it
clockwise to set the pressure at 200 kPa (or 30 psi) on the regulated
Pressure Gauge.

Note: Each time you set the pressure, it is recommended to close

and reopen the main shutoff valve to overcome friction. Readjust
the pressure if necessary.

G 6. Does the rod of the cylinder extend? Explain why.

G 7. Push the button on the directional control valve and maintain the button
pressed for approximately 5 s, and then, release the button. Does the rod
of the cylinder extend when the button is pressed?

G Yes G No

G 8. Explain what happens to the cylinder when the button is released.

G 9. Does the cylinder convert fluid energy into linear mechanical motion?

G Yes G No

G 10. Close the shutoff valves and turn the regulator adjusting knob completely
counterclockwise. You should read 0 kPa (or 0 psi) on the regulated
Pressure Gauge.

G 11. Disconnect and store all tubing and components.

CONCLUSION

In the first part of the exercise, you learned how to set up the trainer. You verified the
trainer status verification procedure.

In the second part, you set up and operated a pneumatic circuit using a directional
control valve and a cylinder. You observed that a directional control valve is used to
open and close flow paths in a pneumatic circuit. You saw that a cylinder converts
fluid energy into linear mechanical motion.

1-24
Introduction to Pneumatics

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. The fluid power devices that convert the energy of a pressurized fluid into
mechanical energy to do work are called

a. activators.
b. actuators.
c. accumulators.
d. converters.

2. Which gas is commonly used in pneumatics?

a. Oxygen;
b. Air;
c. Hydrogen;
d. Nitrogen.

3. Which two properties of compressed air make possible smooth acceleration and
reversal of direction of mechanical motions?

a. Easy to store and very fast working medium;

b. Elastic and very fast working medium;
c. Compressible and elastic;
d. Efficient and compressible.

4. Which of the following is not considered as an advantage of compressed air?

a. Offers little risk of explosion;

b. No return line necessary;
c. Humidity may not be present;
d. Enables high working speed to be obtained.

5. Mechanical energy is converted into fluid power when air is

a. compressed.
b. exhausted.
c. absent.
d. extended.

1-25
1-26
 Exercise 1-3

Air Conditioning and Distributing Equipment

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE

C To learn about the Conditioning Unit and its components;

C To introduce the operation of receivers, accumulators, long tubing lines and
safety relief valves.

DISCUSSION

The trainer in pneumatic circuits must have an adequate supply of pressurised and
relatively dry air to complete the Procedures in this manual. The compressed air is
obtained from an adequate compressed air supply located in the classroom or from
an air compressor. The air supply must deliver 690 kPa (or 100 psi) with a flow of
90 liters per minute, R/min, (or 3.2 Standard Cubic Feet per Minute, SCFM).

The circuits included in the Procedures in this manual call for a variety of pressures
that are lower than the air supply. The valves on the trainer provide students with a
convenient means of controlling pressure and flow in the circuit.

Conditioning Unit

The Conditioning Unit consists of a main shutoff valve, pressure regulator,

Directional Valve, Double-Air-Pilot Operated, filter, a 4-port manifold and a muffler
as shown in Figure 1-22.

1-27
Air Conditioning and Distributing Equipment

Figure 1-22. Conditioning Unit and Components.

Main Shutoff Valve

The main shutoff valve opens and closes the air supply line between the air supply
and the circuit. The air supply line is ON when the button is in the upper position and
is OFF when the button is in the lower position. When the button is in the OFF
position, the pressure in the regulator is exhausted to the atmosphere.

Pressure Regulator

Pressure regulators are used to limit and to maintain a constant pressure in a circuit.
They allow an operator to manually set the pressure in the circuit downstream from
the valve.

The operation of a simple pressure regulator is illustrated in Figure 1-23. Fluid flows
through the valve by entering the inlet port and leaving through the outlet port. The
spring exerts a downward force against the top of the diaphragm, holding the poppet
out of the way. An internal pilot passage allows pressure to exert an upward force
underneath the diaphragm. Full system flow will pass through this valve as long as
the poppet is not blocking the way.

When the pressure increases at the outlet port, the pressure works against the
spring and will move the poppet up, blocking the way to the inlet pressure.

1-28
Air Conditioning and Distributing Equipment

Figure 1-23. Pressure Regulator.

Note: Your Conditioning Unit is equipped with a Directional Valve,

Double-Air-Pilot Operated indicating the pressure after the pressure
regulator. We will refer to this meter as a regulated pressure gauge.

Pressure Gauge

Pneumatic pressure gauges measure the force applied by compressed air in

pneumatic circuits. They allow operators to monitor the pressure in a system or in a
branch circuit to ensure that the correct amount of work is being done and that
pressure is not enough high to damage the components.

Figure 1-24. Pressure Gauge.

The gauge design most commonly used in pneumatics is the bourdon tube design.
The internal parts of a bourdon tube gauge are shown in Figure 1-24. The pressure
line is connected to the fitting on the bottom of the bourdon tube assembly. Pressure
is directed through the fitting and into the bourdon tube. When the fluid pressure
inside the bourdon tube increases, the bourdon tube has a tendancy to straighten,
communicating its movement through the gear mechanism to the pointer indicator.

Gauge dials may be calibrated to measure absolute pressure, gauge pressure

(above atmospheric), vacuum or a combination of gauge pressure and vacuum.
Also, they may be calibrated to measure pressure in kPa, psi, bars or a combination.

1-29
Air Conditioning and Distributing Equipment

Filter

Unfiltered compressed air contains contaminants. To remove these contaminants,

filters are installed in pneumatics systems. Figure 1-25 shows a pneumatic in-line
filter.

The pneumatic in-line filter used in your trainer is combined with the pressure
regulator. It removes dirt in two stages. In the first stage, air enters the inlet port and
flows through openings in the deflector plate. These openings cause air to swirl
around the inside of the filter in one direction. Centrifugal force pushes dirt and
liquids to the inside of the bowl wall, where gravity causes them to travel to the
bottom of the bowl.

The baffle creates a quiet zone in the filter bowl to permit dirt and moisture to collect
without being affected by the swirling air. The quiet zone prevents contaminants from
reentering the airstream. Dirt and liquids collected in the bottom of the quiet zone are
removed by opening the manual drain located at the bottom of the bowl.

In the second stage, air flows through the filter element and then through the outlet
port. This filter element removes smaller particles not removed by centrifugal force.

Figure 1-25. Pneumatic In-Line Filter.

In certain applications such as dentistry and other medical applications, food

processing, or paint spraying, coalescing filters may be used to remove suspended
oil and other aerosols that can pass through ordinary filters.

4-port manifold

The manifold in your Conditioning Unit allows the distribution of compressed air
through four branches. The four outlet ports are equipped with quick connect fittings.
The outlet ports are connected so that the tubes connected to the manifold are also
connected through branch shutoff valves.

1-30
Air Conditioning and Distributing Equipment

Muffler

Pneumatic systems that use air as an energy-transmitting fluid exhaust the air back
to the atmosphere after it is used. As this air returns to its free state, it expands,
converting some of the unused energy into high intensity sound energy. To decrease
the noise level created by expanding air, mufflers are often used in pneumatic
systems. In addition to providing adequate sound attenuation, a properly selected
muffler should have low resistance to air flow.

As shown in Figure 1-22, the muffler supplied with your Conditioning Unit is located
at the outlet port of the main shutoff valve. A quick fitting located above the muffler
allows the connection of any compressed air lines to be exhausted to atmosphere
through the muffler.

Lubricator

Many pneumatic components that contain moving parts require lubrication.

Lubrication can be added to a component by manually injecting oil or grease through
an extra port or fitting. A more common method uses a drip-type in-line lubricator to
add oil mist or fog into the compressed air flow. The two main types of drip-type in-
line lubricators are the standard mist lubricator and the recirculating-type (also called
micro-mist lubricator).

Figure 1-26. Standard Mist Lubricator.

The operation of a standard mist lubricator is illustrated in Figure 1-26. In this design,
air enters the inlet port, and is directed through an orifice that maintains a pressure
differential between the two sides of the orifice. The higher pressure is applied to the
oil reservoir pushing the oil into the drip gauge and down into the airstream. When

1-31
Air Conditioning and Distributing Equipment

the oil droplets fall into the airstream, the force of the moving air breaks the oil into
small particles. The needle valve located in the oil feed passage allows an operator
to adjust the amount of oil flowing through the drip gauge and into the airstream.

Note: In industrial applications, conditioning units are provided with a

lubricator. However, in order to keep the tubes and the components
clean, the Conditioning Unit of your trainer does not have a lubricator. It
is therefore necessary to manually lubricate the components containing
moving parts. Apply one drop of pneumatic oil through the fittings every
two weeks.

Receivers and Accumulators

Compressors are usually pumping air into receivers which accumulate the air to
minimize starts and stops of the compressor. As shown in Figure 1-27, most
receivers are located near the compressor, and have a drain port on the bottom of
the tank to allow moisture and dirt to be removed from the system.

Accumulators, like receivers, are used to store pressurized air in a pneumatic

system. However, they may have only one fluid port and no drain fitting. They are
used to provide a short-term supply of compressed air to a particular device.

Figure 1-27. Compressor Unit Mounted on a Receiver.

Relief Valves

A relief valve is a device that limits the maximum pressure in a system. It is a

normally non-passing valve, which means that fluid does not flow through the valve
when it is in its normal or at rest position. When system pressure rises above the
setting of the relief valve, it opens, allowing excess pressure to escape.

A special type of relief valve called safety relief valve, is used to protect the system
from high pressures caused by a failure of other equipment. As an example, if the
pressure switch controlling a compressor fails, the compressor will continue to
increase pressure in the receiver until the safety relief valve opens. System pressure
cannot rise above the pressure setting of the relief valve.

1-32
Air Conditioning and Distributing Equipment

Safety relief valves must be located near the compressor to provide the needed
protection, and a common location is on the receiver. Figure 1-28 shows a typical
safety relief valve.

Figure 1-28. Safety Relief Valve.

REFERENCE MATERIAL

For more information about the above components, refer to the Parker-Hannifin
manual Industrial Pneumatic Technology.

Procedure summary

In this exercise, you will use an accumulator to provide a short-term supply of

compressed air to a cylinder. You will use a long line of small diameter tubing and
a flow control valve to simulate the friction caused by long lines in compressed air
distribution systems.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix A of this manual, to obtain the
list of equipment required to perform this exercise.

PROCEDURE

G 1. Figure 1-29 shows the symbol (non-simplified) of the Conditioning Unit.

Complete the drawing by indicating the name of the various components.
Refer to the Hydraulics and Pneumatics Graphic Symbols in Appendix C if
necessary.

1-33
Air Conditioning and Distributing Equipment

Figure 1-29. Conditioning Unit.

G 2. Verify the status of the trainer according to the procedure given in

Exercise 1-2.

G 3. Use the Long Line of small diameter tubing supplied with your trainer to
connect the Conditioning Unit to the directional control valve. Connect the
circuit shown in Figure 1-30. Refer to the connection diagram shown in
Figure 1-31 to make your connections. Connect the Long Line device to the
NC (normally non-passing) port of the directional control valve. Screw a tip
(bullet) to the rod of the cylinder.

Note: The small diameter tubing simulates the friction caused by

a very long tubing line. This device is made of 11 m (or 37 ft) of
coiled tubing (0.318-cm (or 1/8-in) diameter) and terminated by
quick fittings.

Figure 1-30. Schematic Diagram of a Circuit Using a Long Line.

1-34
Air Conditioning and Distributing Equipment

Figure 1-31. Connection Diagram of a Circuit Using a Long Line.

G 4. Open the main shutoff valve and the branch shutoff valve at the manifold.

G 5. Set the pressure regulator at 100 kPa (or 15 psi) on the regulated Pressure
Gauge.

G 6. Push the button on the directional control valve and observe the time taken
for a full extension of the cylinder rod. Wait a few seconds and repeat.

G 7. Does the cylinder rod extend slowly, with little difficulty?

G Yes G No

G 8. Close the shutoff valves and modify the circuit to add an Accumulator in the
proximity of the cylinder as shown in Figure 1-32. Refer to the connection
diagram shown in Figure 1-33 to make your connections.

1-35
Air Conditioning and Distributing Equipment

Figure 1-32. Schematic Diagram of a Circuit Using a Long Line and an Accumulator.

Figure 1-33. Connection Diagram of a Circuit Using a Long Line and an Accumulator.

G 9. Open the shutoff valves and set the pressure regulator at 100 kPa (or
15 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

G 10. Wait until the Accumulator is filled with compressed air (30 s approximately),
then push the button on the directional control valve and observe the time
taken for a full extension of the cylinder rod. Wait a few seconds and repeat.

1-36
Air Conditioning and Distributing Equipment

G 11. What change do you observe in the time taken by the rod to fully extend?
Explain.

G 12. Does the Accumulator provide a short-term supply of compressed air to the
cylinder?

G Yes G No

Note: The Accumulator stores air at system pressure. When the

valve opens, the movement of the cylinder piston causes a
sudden pressure drop in the circuit. The Accumulator minimizes
this pressure drop, reducing the response time. When the valve
closes, the Accumulator recharges at a slower rate.

G 13. Close the shutoff valves.

G 14. Remove the Tees and the Accumulator from the circuit and replace the
Long Line device in the circuit by a Flow Control Valve. Refer to
Figures 1-30 and 1-31 using the Flow Control Valve instead of the Long Line
device. The inlet port of the Flow Control Valve is the one mounted on a
metallic cube.

Note: A flow control valve is an adjustable resistance to flow that

operates very much like a faucet. By adjusting the resistance, or
opening, of this valve, you can modify the rate of flow to a cylinder
and, therefore, the speed of its piston rod. If necessary, refer to
Unit 2 of this manual.

G 15. On the Flow Control Valve turn the flow control knob fully clockwise to close
the valve. Refer to the mark on the control knob, then open the valve by
turning the knob 1/2 turn counterclockwise. This setting corresponds to a
very low flow rate. It simulates the friction caused by a very long tubing.

G 16. Open the shutoff valves and set the pressure at 200 kPa (or 30 psi) on the
regulated Pressure Gauge.

G 17. Push the button on the directional control valve and observe the extension
of the rod. Wait a few seconds and repeat.

1-37
Air Conditioning and Distributing Equipment

G 18. Does the cylinder rod extend slowly, with little difficulty?

G Yes G No

G 19. Repeat your observations of the time taken by the rod to fully extend with
Flow Control Valve settings of 1, 2, 3 and 4 turns counterclockwise. Does
the extension time vary when the Flow Control Valve is open? Explain.

G 20. Close the shutoff valves and modify the circuit to add an Accumulator in the
proximity of the cylinder as shown in Figure 1-32. Refer to the connection
diagram shown in Figure 1-33 to make your connections, using the Flow
Control Valve instead of the Long Line device.

G 21. On the Flow Control Valve turn the flow control knob fully clockwise to close
the valve. Then open the valve by turning the control knob 1/2 turn
counterclockwise.

G 22. Open the shutoff valves and set the pressure regulator at 200 kPa (or
30 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

G 23. Wait until the Accumulator is filled with compressed air (30 s approximately),
then push the button on the directional control valve and observe the
extension of the rod. Wait a few seconds and repeat.

G 24. What change do you observe in the time taken by the rod to fully extend?
Explain.

G 25. Does the Accumulator provide a short-term supply of compressed air to the
cylinder?

G Yes G No

G 26. On the Conditioning Unit, close the shutoff valves and turn the regulator
adjusting knob completely counterclockwise. You should read 0 kPa (or
0 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

1-38
Air Conditioning and Distributing Equipment

G 27. Disconnect and store all tubing and components.

CONCLUSION

In this exercise, you observed the effect of a Long Line and a flow control valve. You
learned how to compensate for the negative effects of a Long Line.

You observed that accumulators are used to store pressurized air and to provide a
short-term supply of compressed air.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Which component is used to measure the pressure in a pneumatic circuit?

a. Lubricator.
b. Pressure gauge.
c. Flow Control Valve.
d. Regulator.

2. Relief valves are used to

a. limit the minimum pressure in a system.

b. to control the flow rate in a system.
c. limit the maximum pressure in a system.
d. to control the pressure in a system.

3. Which component is used to set the pressure in a pneumatic circuit?

a. Lubricator.
b. Pressure gauge.
c. Flow Control Valve.
d. Pressure regulator.

4. Accumulators are used to

a. provide a short term supply of compressed air to a particular device.

b. cold compressed air before entering the circuit.
c. compress air to a particular value.
d. maintain a constant pressure in a circuit.

5. Which of the following components is not a part of the Conditioning Unit?

a. Shutoff valve.
b. Pressure gauge.
c. Flow Control Valve.
d. Pressure regulator.

1-39
1-40
 Unit Test

1. What is the purpose of a receiver in a pneumatic system?

a. To filter the water.

b. To increase the pressure.
c. To accumulate the air to minimize starts and stops of the compressor.
d. To support the compressor.

2. Pneumatic systems are often preferred to electrical, mechanical or hydraulic

systems because

a. they are more efficient.

b. they are more powerful.
c. they are less expensive.
d. they use an available medium.

3. Pneumatic actuators are used to

a. convert linear to rotary energy.

b. convert fluid to pneumatic energy.
c. convert fluid to mechanical energy.
d. convert pneumatic to electrical energy.

4. A safety relief valve is used to

a. prevent air from flowing in a reverse direction.

b. avoid excessive pressure build-up.
c. control the pressure regulator.
d. drain dirty water from an air receiver.

5. Compressors usually pump air into

a. pneumatic motors.
b. pneumatic cylinders.
c. receivers.
d. atmosphere.

6. What is SCFM?

a. Single-acting cylinder force motion.

b. Volume unit.
c. Air-flow-rate unit.
d. Pressure unit.

7. Air compressors are used to

a. convert mechanical to pneumatic energy.

b. convert pneumatic to electrical energy.
c. lubricate service air lines.
d. read air line pressure.

1-41
 Unit Test

8. Air lines are usually lubricated to

a. avoid increasing pressure too much.

b. create minimal air line flow.
c. reduce internal leaks and wear.
d. transport air contaminants and dirt.

9. Which of the following convert fluid energy into linear mechanical motion?

a. Air bearing.
b. Pneumatic motor.
c. Pneumatic cylinder.
d. Air valve.

10. The fluid power devices that convert the energy of a pressurized fluid into
mechanical energy to do work are called

a. activators.
b. actuators.
c. accumulators.
d. converters.

1-42
 Unit 2

Basic Physical Concepts

UNIT OBJECTIVE

When you have completed this unit, you will be able to measure the force delivered
by an actuator by using a pressure gauge. You will be able to state the laws
governing pneumatics, and perform simple calculations involving force, pressure,
area, velocity, and rate of flow.

DISCUSSION OF FUNDAMENTALS

The physical laws that apply to pneumatics explain why a balloon becomes round
when it is inflated, why tires filled with air expand on hot days, and why air becomes
pressurized when it is compressed. When these laws are used to design and operate
pneumatic equipment, the result is an efficient system that uses gas to transmit
energy predictably and inexpensively.

2-1
2-2
 Exercise 2-1

Pressure vs Force Relationship

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE

C To introduce the relationship between pressure and force;

C To verify the formula F = P x A using a cylinder and a load device;
C To measure the force delivered by a cylinder;
C To observe that the force exerted on a given surface is directly proportional to the
pressure applied on this surface.

DISCUSSION

Pneumatics technology involves the use of a gas to transmit power. The gas most
often used in pneumatics is ordinary air. Air is a highly compressible fluid. This
means that the molecules in a body of air can be pushed closer together in a
confined space to make the air occupy a smaller volume. This property of air is
illustrated in Figure 2-1.

Figure 2-1. Compressibility of Air.

Pascal’s Law

Pascal’s Law states that pressure applied on a confined fluid is transmitted

undiminished in all directions, and acts with equal force on equal areas, and at right
angles to them.

2-3
Pressure vs Force Relationship

The cylinder in Figure 2-2 is completely filled with fluid. When force is applied to the
top of the piston, pressure is created within the fluid and transmitted equally in all
directions.

Figure 2-2. Force Applied to a Confined Fluid.

Pascal's law deals with the relationship between pressure, force and area. In fluid
power technology, pressure is a measurement of force per unit of surface area. In
mathematical formulas, the word per may be replaced by a division sign, so that:

where P is the pressure in kilopascals (or pound force per square inch),
F is the force in newtons (or pound force),
A is the area in square centimeters (or square inches).

Gases have weight. As an example, the mass of air molecules located inside a
1 m2 (or 1 in2) column of air exerts force on the air below as the mass is pulled down
by gravity. At sea level, the pressure of this column of air is about 101.3 kPa (or
14.7 psi) and it is called atmospheric pressure.

Fluid pressure gauges commonly measure pressure above atmospheric pressure

on kPa (or psi) gauge scales, which read a value of zero at sea level. In pneumatics,
the term compressed air refers to air that is compressed beyond atmospheric
pressure.

2-4
Pressure vs Force Relationship

Pneumatic Pressure Versus Cylinder Force

The relationships between force, pressure and area, and Pascal's Law, allow
calculation of the force generated by the piston shown in Figure 2-3.

Figure 2-3. Cap End of the Cylinder.

Compressed air is confined within the cap end of the cylinder. As a result, pressure
develops in the cap end of the cylinder. This pressure is exerted evenly over the
entire surface of the cap end of the cylinder. It acts on the piston, resulting in a
mechanical force to push the piston.

To calculate the force generated by the piston during its extension, we can rewrite
the formula P = F / A as F = P × A. Therefore, the generated force is equal to the
pressure in the cap end of the cylinder times the piston area being acted upon. This
area is called full area, or “face” area (AF).

where AF is the full area,

RCYLINDER is the radius of the cylinder,
DCYLINDER is the diameter of the cylinder.

In Figure 2-4, compressed air is confined in the rod end of the cylinder. This time,
however, the generated force is lower because the piston area available for the
pressure to act on is reduced by the area the cylinder rod covers on the piston. This
area is called annular area (AA). Therefore, the system must generate more pressure
to pull than to push the load.

where AA is the annular area,

AF is the full area,
RROD is the radius of the rod,
DROD is the diameter of the rod.

2-5
Pressure vs Force Relationship

Figure 2-4. Rod End of the Cylinder.

REFERENCE MATERIAL

For additional information on the relationship between force and pressure, refer to
the chapter entitled Force Transmission Through a Fluid in the Parker-Hannifin
manual Industrial Pneumatic Technology.

Procedure summary

In the first part of the exercise, you will verify the formula F = P × A by measuring the
compression force of a cylinder using the load device. In the second part, you will
observe the relationship between pressures of both sections of a cylinder.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix A of this manual, to obtain the
list of equipment required to perform this exercise.

PROCEDURE

Conversion of Pressure to Force

G 1. Use the cylinder diameter, DCYLINDER: 2.7 cm (or 1.06 in) to calculate the full
area AF:

Full area

G 2. Use your calculated full area AF and the formula F = P × A to calculate the
force of the cylinder for the pressure levels indicated in Table 2-1. Record
your results in the appropriate cells in Table 2-1.

2-6
Pressure vs Force Relationship

Note: A pressure of 1 Pa represents a force of 1 N applied on a

surface area of 1 m2 (or 1 psi = 1 lbf / 1 in2).

APPLIED PRESSURE CALCULATED MEASURED

ON FULL PISTON AREA CYLINDER FORCE CYLINDER FORCE

600 kPa (or 90 psi)

400 kPa (or 60 psi)

200 kPa (or 30 psi)

Table 2-1. Cylinder Force versus Pressure.

G 3. Verify the status of the trainer according to the procedure given in

Exercise 1-2.

G 4. As Figure 2-5 shows, screw the load device to the cylinder until the load
piston inside the spring load begins to push on the spring. Do not use a tool
to screw the load device.

Figure 2-5. Load Device Assembly.

G 5. Clip the N/lbf-graduated ruler to the spring load device, and align the "0"
mark with the colored line on the load piston. To reverse measurement
units, install the ruler on the opposite side of the spring load device.

2-7
Pressure vs Force Relationship

Note: Ensure that your N/lbf-graduated ruler corresponds to the

spring characteristics of your loading device. To do so, verify if
there is an encircled letter at the left of the unit symbol N on the
ruler. If so, it should be the same as the one engraved on one of
the Loading Device extremities.

G 6. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 2-6.

G 7. Open the main shutoff valve and the branch shutoff valve at the manifold.

G 8. Set the pressure regulator at 600 kPa (or 90 psi) on the regulated Pressure
Gauge. This corresponds to the pressure applied on the full piston area.

Figure 2-6. Schematic Diagram of the Circuit Used to Measure the Cylinder Output Force.

G 9. On the spring load device, observe that the applied pressure caused the
cylinder to compress the spring. Record the force value indicated by the
load device in the appropriate cell in Table 2-1.

G 10. Close the main shutoff valve to exhaust compressed air, then set the
pressure at 400 kPa (or 60 psi) and record the force value in the appropriate
cell in Table 2-1. Repeat for a pressure setting of 200 kPa (or 30 psi).

G 11. Are the calculated and measured values of force in Table 2-1 approximately
equal, showing that the force corresponds to the applied pressure multiplied
by the area?

G Yes G No

Note: The theoretical examples presented in this manual assume

perfect systems. Unfortunately, pneumatic systems always
experience a slight amount of leakage through fittings and seals.
A difference of 15% between calculated and measured values is
acceptable.

2-8
Pressure vs Force Relationship

G 12. Turn the regulator adjusting knob completely counterclockwise, close the
shutoff valves and remove the load device.

G 13. Use the rod diameter, DROD: 0.8 cm (or 0.31 in) and the full area AF
calculated in step 1, to calculate the annular area AA of the piston.

Annular area

G 14. Calculate the area ratio.

G 15. Ensure that the piston rod is fully retracted then connect a Pressure Gauge
at the rod end of the cylinder. Screw a tip (bullet) to the rod.

Note: For accurate results, the air volume in the tube connecting
the Pressure Gauge must be kept small with respect to the air
volume in the circuit. It is therefore important to use tubes that are
as short as possible.

G 16. Open the main shutoff valve and set the pressure regulator at 350 kPa (or
50 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge. This corresponds to the pressure
applied on the full piston area.

G 17. To eliminate the friction caused by the extension of the rod, pull and push
slightly the tip of the rod then release it. Record in the appropriate cell in
Table 2-2, the pressure in the rod end of the cylinder.

MEASURED
APPLIED PRESSURE (PF) PRESSURE (PA)
PF /PA
ON FULL PISTON AREA IN THE ROD END
OF CYLINDER

350 kPa (or 50 psi)

Table 2-2 Pressure Measurement Results.

G 18. Use the values indicated in Table 2-2 to calculate the ratio PF /PA and record
the results in the appropriate cell.

2-9
Pressure vs Force Relationship

G 19. Compare the pressure ratio PF / PA with the area ratio AA /AF calculated in
step 14. Is the pressure ratio approximately equal to the reciprocal of the
area ratio?

G Yes G No

G 20. Do your results confirm the relationship F = PA × AA = PF × AF?

G Yes G No

G 21. Use your values of AF and AA to calculate the pressure in the rod end of the
cylinder when the pressure applied on full piston area is 700 kPa (or
100 psi).

G 22. Use your values of AF, AA, PF and PA to calculate the force in the cap end
and in the rod end of the cylinder.

Force in the cap end = Force in the rod end =

G 23. Are the results approximately equal? Explain.

G 24. On the Conditioning Unit, close the shutoff valves and turn the regulator
adjusting knob completely counterclockwise. You should read 0 kPa (or
0 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

G 25. Disconnect and store all tubing and components.

CONCLUSION

In this exercise, you learned how to measure force using a load device. You saw that
the force exerted on a given surface is directly proportional to the pressure applied
on this surface.

Since the relationship between force and pressure is linear, predicting the force
exerted by the cylinder at any pressure setting is possible.

2-10
Pressure vs Force Relationship

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. According to the relationship between force, pressure and area, the force may
be calculated using the formula

a. F = P / A.
b. F = P × A.
c. F = P2 × A.
d. F = A / P.

2. Fluid pressure gauges commonly measure pressure

a. above atmospheric pressure.

b. below atmospheric pressure.
c. at atmospheric pressure.
d. below absolute pressure.

3. Pressure is a measurement of

a. weight.
b. force per unit of surface area.
c. flow per unit of time.
d. force per unit of time.

4. The pressure at sea level is called

a. sea level pressure.

b. absolute pressure.
c. atmospheric pressure.
d. reference pressure.

5. The annular area of a cylinder corresponds to

a. the face area plus the rod area.

b. the rod area minus the face area.
c. the face area minus the rod area.
d. the rod area plus the face area.

2-11
2-12
 Exercise 2-2

Pressure vs Volume Relationship

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE

C To show the relationship between pressure and volume by compressing air in a

cylinder chamber;
C To observe air compressibility phenomena.

DISCUSSION

Pressure vs Volume Relationship

The relationship between pressure and volume is known as Boyle's law. Boyle's Law
states that the product of the pressure (absolute) and volume for a gas is a constant
for a fixed amount of gas at a fixed temperature. Written in mathematical terms, this
law is:

If an amount of gas initially at pressure P1 and volume V1 is subjected to a change

that does not change the amount of gas or the temperature, the final pressure P2 and
volume V2 are related to the initial values by the equation

where P1 is the initial pressure,

P2 is the final pressure,
V1 is the initial volume,
V2 is the final volume.

As an example, Boyle's law can be used to calculate the final pressure inside an air
tank when the initial pressure, initial volume and final volume are known as shown
in Figure 2-7. The formula can be rewritten to isolate the unknown variable P2 on one
side of the equation. In this case, Boyle's law becomes P2 = P1 × V1 / V2.

2-13
Pressure vs Volume Relationship

Figure 2-7. Using Boyle's law to Calculate Final Pressure.

Effect of the Temperature

When the temperature changes, the formula becomes:

where T1 is the initial temperature, in K (Kelvin),

T2 is the final temperature, in K.

REFERENCE MATERIAL

For additional information, refer to the chapter entitled Energy Transmission Using
a Pneumatic System in the Parker-Hannifin manual Industrial Pneumatic
Technology.

Procedure summary

In this exercise, you will observe the relationship between pressure and volume by
compressing air in a cylinder chamber.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix A of this manual, to obtain the
list of equipment required to perform this exercise.

2-14
Pressure vs Volume Relationship

PROCEDURE

G 1. Verify the status of the trainer according to the procedure given in

Exercise 1-2.

G 2. Get the Double-Acting Cylinder, screw a tip (bullet) to the rod and extend
the piston rod out of the cylinder as far as it will go.

G 3. Make a mark with a pencil at the halfway point on the rod. Do not consider
the threaded section of the rod in your measurement.

Note: When air is confined within a cylinder, the actual volume of

confined air is equal to the volume inside the cylinder plus the
volume inside the tubing connected to the cylinder chamber. It is
therefore important to use tubes as short as possible to perform
your exercise.

G 4. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 2-8.

G 5. Open the main shutoff valve and the branch shutoff valve on the
Conditioning Unit.

Set the pressure regulator to obtain 67 kPa (10 psi) on Pressure Gauge
PG1.

Figure 2-8. Schematic Diagram of a Circuit Using a Pressure Gauge and a Cylinder.

G 6. Push the piston rod to the halfway mark and read the pressure P2 on
Pressure Gauge PG1. Enter your result.

P2 =

2-15
Pressure vs Volume Relationship

G 7. Explain what happens to the air in the cap end of the cylinder when the
piston rod is pushed?

G 8. Using Boyle's law, calculate the theoretical final pressure P2.

Note: The final volume V2 is half the initial volume V1.

G 9. Compare the theoretical pressure with the actual pressure measured. Are
they similar?

G Yes G No

G 10. Do your results confirm Boyle's law? Explain.

G 11. Disconnect and store all tubing and components.

CONCLUSION

In this exercise, you learned that air is compressible.

You learned that the relationship between pressure and volume is known as Boyle's
law.

You saw that this relationship can be expressed by the formula P1 × V1 = P2 × V2

when the temperature remains constant.

You calculated and measured the pressure in a cylinder chamber to verify the
relationship.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. The relationship between pressure and volume is known as

a. Pascal's law.
b. Boyle's law.
c. Gas law.
d. Pneumatic's law.

2-16
Pressure vs Volume Relationship

2. Absolute pressure refers to

a. the pressure measured by a pressure gauge plus the pressure exerted by

atmosphere.
b. the pressure measured by a pressure gauge minus the pressure exerted by
atmosphere.
c. the highest pressure that a component can withstand.
d. the pressure measured by a Bourdon tube pressure gauge.

3. When the air temperature in a receiver doubles,

a. the volume will double.

b. the volume will decrease by half.
c. the pressure will double.
d. the pressure will decrease by half.

4. When the temperature remains constant, the relationship between pressure and
volume can be expressed by

a. P2 = V2 / (P1 × V1).
b. P2 = (P1 × V1) / T2.
c. P2 = (P1 × T1) / V2.
d. P2 = (P1 × V1) / V2.

2-17
2-18
 Exercise 2-3

Pressure Drop vs Flow Relationship

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE

C To introduce flowmeters, needle valves, check valves and flow control valves;
C To show the relationship between pressure drop and generated flow using a test
circuit in order to see the effect of a load on the measured flow.

DISCUSSION

Flowmeters

The flow rate in a fluid power circuit describes the volume of fluid passing through
the circuit during a given period of time. The flow rate is measured in liters per
minute, R/min (Standard Cubic Feet per Minute, SCFM, or Standard Cubic Feet per
Hour, SCFH).

The device used to measure the flow rate is called a flowmeter. The Flowmeter
supplied with your trainer is a variable-area flowmeter. In this type of flowmeter, the
flow of air is used to float a lightweight ball or bullet-shaped element through a
tapered tube. As the flow rate of air increases, a larger orifice inside the flowmeter
is needed to allow the air to escape. The taper of the tube requires a nonlinear scale,
which means that the scale calibrations are not evenly spaced. The Flowmeter
supplied with your trainer is shown in Figure 2-9.

Figure 2-9. Typical Flowmeter and Symbol.

2-19
Pressure Drop vs Flow Relationship

The variable-area flowmeter must be mounted vertically to allow gravity to act on the
ball or bullet. It is calibrated to measure air at atmospheric pressure. This means that
the flowmeter should be placed in a circuit to measure flow as the air is returning to
atmospheric pressure.

Needle Valves

The needle valve is a component that allows control of the rate of flow in a system.
It consists of a valve body containing two ports, an adjustable needle, a seat and a
stem seal. Its operation is shown in Figure 2-10.

Figure 2-10. Typical Needle Valve and Symbol.

When the needle is held against the seat by screwing the threaded stem, fluid (air)
cannot flow through the valve. When the needle is lifted off the seat slightly, an
orifice is created, permitting a small amount of fluid to flow past the needle. As the
needle is lifted farther off the seat, the size of the orifice is increased, allowing more
fluid to flow past the needle. If the orifice is not large enough to permit full system
flow to pass through the valve, the orifice acts as a restriction, and creates pressure
upstream from the valve. The difference between the pressures upstream and
downstream from the needle valve is called the pressure drop, or pressure
differential, across the valve.

The flow through the valve will increase if either the size of the orifice is increased
or, if the size of the orifice remains constant but the pressure drop is increased by
raising the upstream pressure. Needle valves control the flow in both directions.

Check Valves

Check valves allow fluid to flow through the component in one direction only. A
simple check valve as shown in Figure 2-11, consists of a valve body containing two
ports, a sealing element such as a ball or poppet and a light spring.

2-20
Pressure Drop vs Flow Relationship

Figure 2-11. Typical Check Valve and Symbol.

When fluid enters the inlet port of a check valve, the sealing element is lifted off the
valve seat, and fluid flows through the valve. When the direction of flow is reversed,
the sealing element is pushed against the valve seat and fluid cannot flow through
the valve.

A pressure of 20 to 35 kPa (or 3 to 5 psi) is generally required to compress the light

spring in a check valve and unseat the sealing element. The actual inlet pressure
needed to open the valve is sometimes referred to as cracking pressure.

Flow Control Valve

The Flow Control Valve supplied with your trainer consists of a needle valve and a
check valve connected in parallel and integrated in one package. The major
difference between a simple needle valve and a flow control valve involves the
direction of metered flow. A needle valve placed into a pressure line meters flow in
both directions. A flow control valve meters flow in only one direction. The check
valve permits flow to bypass the needle valve in one direction. A typical Flow Control
Valve and its corresponding graphic symbol are shown in Figure 2-12.

2-21
Pressure Drop vs Flow Relationship

Figure 2-12. Typical Flow Control Valve and Symbol.

REFERENCE MATERIAL

For additional information, refer to the chapters entitled Control of Pneumatic Energy
and Flow Control Valves, Silencers, Quick Exhausts in the Parker-Hannifin manual
Industrial Pneumatic Technology.

Procedure summary

In the first part of the exercise, you will set up a circuit in order to observe the effect
of a check valve.

In the second part of the exercise, you will vary the flow rate through a flow control
valve by varying the size of the orifice in the needle valve and by varying the
pressure drop across the valve.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix A of this manual, to obtain the
list of equipment required to perform this exercise.

PROCEDURE

G 1. Verify the status of the trainer according to the procedure given in

Exercise 1-2.

G 2. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 2-13.

2-22
Pressure Drop vs Flow Relationship

Note: The muffler is located at the outlet port of the main shutoff
valve of the Conditioning Unit.

Figure 2-13. Schematic Diagram of a Circuit using a Flow Control Valve.

G 3. Close the Flow Control Valve by turning the control knob fully clockwise.

G 4. Open the main shutoff valve and the branch shutoff valve at the manifold.
Set the pressure regulator at 200 kPa (or 30 psi) on the regulated Pressure
Gauge.

G 5. Record the reading indicated by the Flowmeter.

G 6. Open the Flow Control Valve by turning the control knob fully
counterclockwise.

G 7. Record the reading indicated by the Flowmeter.

G 8. Close the Flow Control Valve by turning the control knob fully clockwise, and
close the main shutoff valve without modifying the setting of the pressure
regulator.

G 9. Reverse the tubes at the Flow Control Valve ports to reverse the air flow
through the valve.

G 10. Open the main shutoff valve.

2-23
Pressure Drop vs Flow Relationship

G 11. Record the reading indicated by the Flowmeter.

G 12. Since the Flow Control Valve is closed, explain why the Flowmeter indicates
a flow through the valve.

G 13. Open the Flow Control Valve by turning the control knob fully
counterclockwise.

G 14. Record the reading indicated by the Flowmeter.

G 15. Compare the flow rates measured in steps 11 and 14. Explain why the flow
rate is a little larger when the Flow Control Valve is fully open.

G 16. Close the shutoff valves and turn the regulator adjusting knob completely
counterclockwise.

G 17. From the results obtained, what can you conclude about the metering of a
Flow Control Valve?

G 18. Modify your circuit as shown in Figure 2-14.

2-24
Pressure Drop vs Flow Relationship

Figure 2-14. Schematic Diagram of a Circuit using a Flow Control Valve.

G 19. Open the shutoff valves.

G 20. Close the Flow Control Valve by turning the control knob fully clockwise. Set
the pressure regulator at 400 kPa (or 60 psi) on the regulated Pressure
Gauge.

G 21. Gradually open the Flow Control Valve by turning the control knob
counterclockwise as indicated in Table 2-3. Refer to the mark on the control
knob to help you set the correct position. For each setting, ensure that the
regulated pressure is set at 400 kPa (or 60 psi). Record the flow rates in the
appropriate cells in Table 2-3.

PRESSURE REGULATOR FLOW CONTROL VALVE FLOW RATE

400 kPa (or 60 psi) 3 turns

400 kPa (or 60 psi) 4 turns

400 kPa (or 60 psi) 5 turns

400 kPa (or 60 psi) fully open

Table 2-3. Flow Rate vs Size of the Orifice.

G 22. What relation is there between the opening of the Flow Control Valve and
the flow rate?

2-25
Pressure Drop vs Flow Relationship

G 23. Without modifying the setting of the Flow Control Valve, set the pressure
regulator to obtain a reading of 50 R/min (or 2 SCFM) on the Flowmeter.
Record the value of P1 and P2 in Table 2-4.

FLOW RATE P1 P2 )P

50 R/min
(or 2 SCFM)

75 R/min
(or 3 SCFM)

100 R/min
(or 4 SCFM)

Table 2-4. Flow Rate vs Pressure Drop.

G 24. Set the pressure regulator to obtain the remaining flow rate values indicated
in Table 2-4. For each setting, record the value of P1 and P2.

G 25. Close all the shutoff valves.

G 26. Calculate the pressure drop ()P) for each flow rate and record the result in
Table 2-4.

G 27. What relation is there between the pressure drop and the flow rate?

G 28. On the Conditioning Unit, turn the regulator adjusting knob completely
counterclockwise. You should read 0 kPa (or 0 psi) on the regulated
Pressure Gauge.

G 29. Disconnect and store all tubing and components.

CONCLUSION

In the first part of the exercise, you saw the effect of a check valve. You saw that it
allows fluid to flow in one direction only.

You have seen that a check valve connected in parallel with a needle valve permits
flow to bypass the needle valve in one direction.

2-26
Pressure Drop vs Flow Relationship

In the second part of the exercise, you have observed that the flow through the Flow
Control Valve varies with the size of the orifice or, if the size remains constant, with
the pressure drop across the valve.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. A needle valve is used to

a. adjust the flow rate in a circuit.

b. adjust pressure downstream from the valve.
c. control the direction of fluid flow.
d. align the needle in an industrial pneumatic sewing operation.

2. Which components are combined within a pneumatic flow control valve?

a. A relief valve and a needle valve.

b. A needle valve and a check valve.
c. A check valve and a regulator.
d. A regulator and a needle valve.

3. A needle valve consists of a valve body containing

a. two ports, a spring and a spool.

b. two ports, a needle and seat, and a threaded needle stem.
c. three ports, a spring and a ball.
d. one port, a needle and seat, and a spring.

4. The flow through a control valve will increase if either the size of the orifice is
increased or

a. if the size of the orifice remains constant but the pressure drop is increased
by raising the upstream pressure.
b. if the size of the orifice remains constant but the pressure drop is decreased
by lowering the upstream pressure.
c. if the size of the orifice remains constant but the pressure drop is increased
by lowering the upstream pressure.
d. if the size of the orifice remains constant but the pressure drop is decreased
by raising the upstream pressure.

5. The major difference between a simple needle valve and a flow control valve
involves

a. the size of the valve.

b. the construction method.
c. the number of ports.
d. the direction of metered flow.

2-27
2-28
 Exercise 2-4

Vacuum Generation

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE

C To introduce air vacuum generation;

C To introduce the Air Bearing;
C To introduce the Vacuum Generator.

DISCUSSION

Vacuum is the partial or complete absence of atmospheric pressure. When the

pressure inside a sealed container equals 0 kPa (or 0 psi), the pressures inside and
outside the container are equal [101.3 kPa (or 14.7 psi) absolute]. When pressure
inside the container is less than atmospheric pressure, a vacuum is present.

Like positive pressure, vacuum intensity must be measured by the force which it can
exert on a unit area of surface. It can be measured with the same units as positive
pressure, but it is commonly measured in millimeters (or inches) of mercury,
abbreviated as mmHg (or inHg). This measuring unit is based on the physical
properties of the barometer, which measures barometric pressure.

A barometer consists of a glass tube that is sealed at one end and open at the other.
The tube is filled with mercury and upended in a body of mercury as shown in
Figure 2-15. Under standard sea level conditions, atmospheric pressure supports a
760-mm (or 30-in) column of mercury. Because of its weight (13.6 times lighter than
mercury), water is not used in barometers. Under the same conditions, atmospheric
pressure can support a 10-m (or 34-ft) column of water.

2-29
Vacuum Generation

Figure 2-15. Simple Barometer.

Vacuum is usually generated by vacuum pumps. A vacuum pump is simply an air

pump used to remove air pressure from one side of an object so atmospheric
pressure can act against the opposite side.

Figure 2-16 shows a venturi that can be used to produce a vacuum. Compressed air
enters through inlet port A, and at the narrow part of the venturi, the air velocity
increases, reducing the air pressure. Diffuser orifice D creates a vacuum which is
pulled through port C. The air stream exhausts through port B.

Figure 2-16. Venturi Operation.

Since the pressure differential between vacuum and atmospheric pressure has a
theoretical limit of 760 mmHg (or 14.7 psi), a vacuum cannot do the same amount
of work as higher pressure compressed air. However, it has many invaluable uses.
As an example, vacuum pumps run milking machines so that one man can milk
20 times as many cows by machine as by hand. Standard mist lubricators in
pneumatic systems use also a venturi tube to pump oil from the reservoir.

The conversion factors for the different measurement units are:

1 mmHg = 13.6 mmH2O = 0.133 kPa (or 1 inHg = 13.6 inH2O = 0.491 psi).

2-30
Vacuum Generation

Air bearings

An air bearing is an actuator that reduces or eliminates friction between the bearing
and the work surface. The operation of an air bearing is illustrated in Figure 2-17.
Air enters through the fluid inlet port and exhausts through a small hole in one side
of the bearing. Air pressure is created in the air pocket between the bearing and the
smooth work surface. This pressure prevents these two surfaces from contacting
each other, reducing friction.

Figure 2-17. Air Bearing Operation.

The surface area of an air bearing and the applied pressure determine the amount
of lifting force generated by the air bearing. The formula F = P × A is used to
calculate the amount of force generated. As the load increases or the size of the
bearing decreases, pressure must increase to provide satisfactory bearing operation.

REFERENCE MATERIAL

For additional information about vacuum, refer to the chapter entitled Force
Transmission Through a Fluid in the Parker-Hannifin manual Industrial Pneumatic
Technology.

Procedure summary

In the first part of the exercise, you will use two cylinders to observe the effect of
vacuum.

In the second part of the exercise, you will use a vacuum generator (venturi) to
produce a vacuum that will operate a cylinder.

In the third part of the exercise, you will use an air bearing to observe the effect of
vacuum.

In the fourth part of the exercise, you will calculate the vacuum force of the venturi
by measuring the height of a column of water.

2-31
Vacuum Generation

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix A of this manual, to obtain the
list of equipment required to perform this exercise.

PROCEDURE

G 1. Remove the two cylinders supplied with your trainer from their storage
location and install a tip on each cylinder rod.

G 2. Extend the piston rod of the Double-Acting Cylinder and connect the circuit
shown in Figure 2-18.

Figure 2-18. Schematic Diagram of a Two-Cylinder Vacuum Circuit.

G 3. Pull the piston rod of the Single-Acting Cylinder.

G 4. Explain why the piston rod of the double-acting cylinder retracts when the
piston rod of the Single-Acting Cylinder is pulled.

G 5. How does the circuit create a vacuum in the chamber of the Double-Acting
Cylinder?

G 6. Disconnect the circuit and verify the status of the trainer according to the
procedure given in Exercise 1-2.

G 7. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 2-19.

2-32
Vacuum Generation

Figure 2-19. Schematic Diagram of Vacuum Circuit Using a Cylinder.

G 8. From the schematic diagram in Figure 2-19, explain how the cylinder will
react when compressed air flows through the venturi.

G 9. Retract the rod of the cylinder, then open the main shutoff valve and the
branch shutoff valve at the manifold and set the pressure regulator at
100 kPa (or 15 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

G 10. Does the cylinder react as predicted? If not, explain why.

G 11. Close the shutoff valves.

G 12. Replace the cylinder by the Air Bearing. Connect the Air Bearing to the
venturi using a 600-mm (or 2-ft) long tube.

G 13. Place the Air Bearing on a horizontal surface. The hole in the center of the
surface of the Air Bearing must be facing down.

G 14. Open the shutoff valves and set the pressure regulator at 100 kPa (or
15 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

2-33
Vacuum Generation

G 15. Try to lift up the Air Bearing. Explain what is happening.

G 16. On the Conditioning Unit, close the shutoff valves.

G 17. Disconnect the Air Bearing from the Vacuum Generator and connect it to a
branch shutoff valve on the Conditioning Unit. Place the Air Bearing on a
horizontal surface. The hole in the center of the surface of the Air Bearing
must be facing down.

G 18. Open the shutoff valves and set the pressure regulator at 100 kPa (or
15 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

G 19. Try to move the Double-Acting Cylinder. Explain what is happening.

G 20. Does the Air Bearing reduce friction between the bearing and the horizontal
surface?

G Yes G No

G 21. Close the shutoff valves and disconnect your circuit.

G 22. Now you will calculate the vacuum force of the venturi by measuring the
height of a column of water supported by the venturi.

G 23. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 2-20.

2-34
Vacuum Generation

Figure 2-20. Schematic Diagram of the Circuit Used to Measure Vacuum.

G 24. Referring to the conversion factors indicated in the discussion, calculate the
pressure (kPa (or psi)) corresponding to the vacuum force when the height
of the column of water is 76 cm (or 30 in).

Vacuum =

G 25. Open the main shutoff valve. Adjust slowly the pressure regulator to obtain
a column of water 76-cm (or 30-in) height in the tube.

Note: Water will splash if it goes up to the venturi.

G 26. Does the level of water indicate that the vacuum increases when the
regulated pressure is increased?

G Yes G No

2-35
Vacuum Generation

G 27. Disconnect and store all tubing and components.

G 28. On the Conditioning Unit, close the shutoff valves and turn the regulator
adjusting knob completely counterclockwise. You should read 0 kPa (or
0 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

G 29. Disconnect and store all tubing and components.

CONCLUSION

In the first part of the exercise, you used two cylinders to observe the vacuum effect.
You saw that we can move objects using a vacuum force.

In the second part of the exercise, you used a vacuum generator to operate a
cylinder.

In the third part of the exercise, you saw that the air bearing sticks to a horizontal
surface when vacuum is applied. You also saw that the air bearing reduces friction
when a positive pressure is applied.

In the fourth part of the exercise, you calculated the vacuum force by measuring the
height of a column of water.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. The amount of lifting force generated by an air bearing is determined by

a. the surface area of an air bearing and the applied pressure.

b. the weight of the object.
c. the height of the air pocket between the bearing and smooth work surface.
d. compressor size.

2. Why do we use mercury instead of water in barometers?

a. The mercury is more stable.

b. Because of the viscosity of the mercury, it will not leak like water.
c. The mercury will not evaporate like water.
d. Because of the weight of the mercury.

3. The basic function of an air bearing is to

a. lower the pressure in a branch circuit.

b. cause a pneumatic motor to develop more torque.
c. allow a pneumatic cylinder to suspend a load.
d. reduce friction between two surfaces.

2-36
Vacuum Generation

4. Vacuum cannot do the same amount of work as high pressure compressed air.
Why?

a. The vacuum generator would be enormous.

b. The pressure differential between vacuum and atmospheric pressure is only
760 mmHg (or 14.7 psi).
c. To do the same of amount of work, tubes would be large and expensive.
d. Vacuum pumps are much more expensive then compressors.

5. What single word describes a partial or complete absence of atmospheric

pressure?

a. Volume.
b. Force.
c. Barometric.
d. Vacuum.

2-37
2-38
 Unit Test

1. Pascal's law states that pressure applied on a confined fluid is transmitted

undiminished in all directions, and acts with equal

a. pressure on equal areas and at right angles to them.

b. flow on equal areas and at right angles to them.
c. force on equal areas and at right angles to them.
d. pressure and force on equal areas and at right angles to them.

2. When a body of gas is compressed, the pressure of the gas

a. decreases.
b. increases.
c. remains constant.
d. varies as the flow rate.

3. Needle valves are used to

a. adjust the flow rate in both directions.

b. adjust the flow rate in one direction only.
c. adjust the pressure in both directions.
d. adjust the pressure in one direction only.

4. The amount of force generated by an air bearing decreases when

a. the load decreases.

b. the pressure decreases.
c. the area increases.
d. the pressure increases.

5. A flow control valve consists of

a. a needle valve and a check valve connected in series.

b. a needle valve and a check valve connected in parallel.
c. a shutoff valve and a check valve connected in series.
d. a shutoff valve and a check valve connected in parallel.

6. The measuring unit for vacuum is based on the physical properties of the

a. barometer.
b. flowmeter.
c. thermometer.
d. vacuum meter.

7. Check valves are often used with other valves to

a. allow fluid to leak through the other valves.

b. force fluid to flow in both directions through the other valves.
c. adjust a regulator or pressure reducing valve.
d. raise the pressure in a branch circuit.

2-39
 Unit Test

8. Pressure drop across a needle valve refers to

a. the maximum pressure in a branch circuit.

b. the maximum pressure that the needle can withstand.
c. the difference between upstream and downstream pressure.
d. the minimum pressure needed to create flow.

9. A check valve

a. is manually opened and closed by an operator.

b. is used only in industrial applications.
c. is used to adjust a regulator or pressure reducing valve.
d. allows fluid flow through the valve in one direction only.

10. Why are the scale calibrations not evenly spaced on a variable-area flowmeter?

a. The flow of air is not linear.

b. The tube is tapered.
c. The pressure is not linear.
d. To facilitate the reading.

2-40
 Unit 3

Basic Controls of Cylinders

UNIT OBJECTIVE

When you have completed this unit, you will be able to operate and test simple,
pneumatic circuits using directional control valves and cylinders. You will be able to
describe the operation of directional control valves and cylinders.

DISCUSSION OF FUNDAMENTALS

In fluid power systems, various forms of energy are converted into other forms of
energy to do useful work. Actuators are linear or rotary devices that convert fluid
power into mechanical motion and force.

Controlling actuators is one of the most important aspects in pneumatics. Directional

control valves are used to open and close flowpaths in a fluid power circuit. They
allow an operator to start, stop and reverse the direction of an output device.
Directional control valves are classified according to the number of positions, the
number of ways and the number of ports.

The basic types of actuators are the cylinders which convert fluid energy into
straight-line, or linear, mechanical energy, the pneumatic motors which convert fluid
energy into rotational mechanical energy, and the air bearings which use fluid energy
to reduce friction between two surfaces.

3-1
3-2
 Exercise 3-1

Directional Control Valves

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE

C To introduce directional control valves and their symbols;

C To describe the operation of normally passing and normally non-passing
directional control valves.

DISCUSSION

Directional Control Valves

Directional control valves (DCVs) are used to stop and control the direction of flow
in a fluid power branch circuit. They are classified according to the number of
positions, the number of ways, and the number of valve ports. There are two-way,
three-way, and four-way types. The number of ways corresponds to the number of
fluid port connections in one position of the valve. The number of positions
corresponds to the number of possible flowpath configurations. As an example, a
two-way, two-position directional control valve is shown in Figure 3-1.

Figure 3-1. 2-Way, 2-Position Directional Control Valve.

The symbol for a directional control valve consists of a separate envelope for each
position. The number of ports, or ways, is shown by lines protruding from one of the
envelopes. The envelope with lines protruding or with ports identified by a letter or
a number shows the flowpath through the valve in the normal, or at rest, position.

A 3-way, 2-position directional control valve has three ports and two possible
flowpath configurations. The 3-way, 2-position directional control valve supplied with
your trainer can be used in normally passing and normally non-passing applications.
It can be used also to provide one of two branch circuits with flow, or select between
two power supplies. These four possible uses are shown in Figure 3-2.

3-3
Directional Control Valves

Figure 3-2. 3-Way, 2-Position Directional Control Valve Applications.

The operation of a normally non-passing directional control valve is illustrated in

Figure 3-3. When the valve is in its normal position, port 1 is pressurized. Ports 2 and
3 are interconnected through the valve, connecting the branch circuit to the
atmosphere. When the spool is shifted, fluid flows from pressurized port 1 to port 2
through the valve, pressurizing the branch circuit. The spring returns the spool to its
normal position when the device used to shift the spool is released.

Figure 3-3. 3-Way, 2-Position Directional Control Valve Operation.

A variety of devices, called valve actuators, may be used to shift the spool of
directional control valves. The different types are:

C Manual and mechanical: pushbutton, lever, pedal, cam or linkage from a machine
member;
C Pilot: a piston moved by pressure, controlled by another directional valve;
C Solenoid: a rod moved by magnetic forces.

Valve actuators are illustrated in Appendix C.

3-4
Directional Control Valves

REFERENCE MATERIAL

For additional information on directional control valves, refer to the chapter entitled
Directional Control Valves in the Parker-Hannifin manual Industrial Pneumatic
Technology.

Procedure summary

In this exercise, you will verify the operation of a 3-way, 2-position directional control
valve.

In the first part of the exercise, you will experiment with the normally passing and
normally non-passing configurations.

In the last part of the exercise, you will experiment with selection capabilities of a
directional control valve.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix A of this manual, to obtain the
list of equipment required to perform this exercise.

PROCEDURE

G 1. Verify the status of the trainer according to the procedure given in

Exercise 1-2.

G 2. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 3-4. Connect the Conditioning Unit to
the NC (normally non-passing) port of the directional control valve.

Figure 3-4. Schematic Diagram of a Circuit Using a DCV.

G 3. Open the main shutoff valve and the branch shutoff valve at the manifold
and set the pressure regulator at 100 kPa (or 15 psi) on the regulated
Pressure Gauge.

3-5
Directional Control Valves

G 4. Record the reading indicated by the Pressure Gauge.

G 5. Push the button on the directional control valve and record the reading
indicated by the Pressure Gauge with this position of the button.

G 6. Close the shutoff valves.

G 7. Do your observations confirm that this flow path configuration corresponds

to a normally non-passing or a normally passing valve? Explain.

G 8. Modify the circuit by connecting the Conditioning Unit to the NO (normally

passing) port of the directional control valve.

G 9. Open the shutoff valves and set the pressure regulator at 100 kPa (or
15 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

G 10. Record the reading indicated by the Pressure Gauge.

G 11. Push the button on the directional control valve and record the reading
indicated by the Pressure Gauge with this position of the button.

G 12. Does this flow path configuration correspond to a normally non-passing or

normally passing valve? Explain.

G 13. Close the shutoff valves and turn the regulator adjusting knob completely
counterclockwise.

3-6
Directional Control Valves

G 14. Modify the circuit as shown in Figure 3-5. Connect the Conditioning Unit to
the OUT port of the directional control valve.

Figure 3-5. Schematic Diagram of a Circuit Using a DCV to Select a Branch Circuit.

G 15. Open the shutoff valves and slowly turn the regulator adjusting knob
clockwise until you hear some noise generated by compressed air.

G 16. Observe by which port compressed air flows.

G 17. Push the button on the directional control valve and repeat your observation.

G 18. Does the air flow through the same port when the button is pushed?

G Yes G No

G 19. Do your observations confirm that the directional control valve can be used
to select a branch circuit to be pressurized?

G Yes G No

G 20. Close the shutoff valves.

G 21. Modify the circuit as shown in Figure 3-6. Connect the Flow Control Valve
to the NC port of the directional control valve and the Conditioning Unit to
the NO port.

3-7
Directional Control Valves

Figure 3-6. Schematic Diagram of a Circuit Using a DCV to Select a Power Source.

G 22. Ensure that the Flow Control Valve is fully closed.

G 23. Open the required shutoff valves and set the pressure regulator at 200 kPa
(or 30 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

G 24. Open partially the Flow Control Valve by turning the control knob three turns
counterclockwise. Refer to the mark on the control knob to help you set the
correct position.

G 25. Record the flow rate indicated by the Flowmeter.

G 26. Push the button on the directional control valve and repeat your observation.
Record the flow rate indicated by the Flowmeter while the button is pressed.

G 27. Close the shutoff valves.

G 28. Do your observations confirm that the directional control valve allows
selection of a power source? Explain.

3-8
Directional Control Valves

G 29. On the Conditioning Unit, close the shutoff valves and turn the regulator
adjusting knob completely counterclockwise. You should read 0 kPa (or
0 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

G 30. Disconnect and store all tubing and components.

CONCLUSION

In this exercise, you verified the operation of a 3-way, 2-position directional control
valve. You have seen that the directional control valve supplied with your trainer can
be used in normally passing and normally non-passing applications.

You have also seen that it can be used to provide one of two branch circuits with
flow, or select between two power supplies.

You have learned that a variety of devices, called valve actuators, may be used to
shift the spool of directional control valves.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. A 3-way, 2-position directional control valve cannot be used to

a. select between two power sources.

b. select between two branch circuits.
c. adjust pressure in two branch circuits.
d. start and stop an actuator.

2. A 3-way, 2-position directional control valve

a. can be spring return.

b. can be used to adust pressure in two different branch circuits.
c. cannot be shifted manually.
d. has two ports.

3. A 3-way, 2-position directional control valve can have

a. three envelopes and two fluid ports.

b. three envelopes and three fluid ports.
c. two envelopes and three positions.
d. two envelopes and three fluid ports.

4. The devices used to shift the spool of directional control valves are called

a. valve actuators.
b. valve controls.
c. valve pilots.
d. levers

3-9
Directional Control Valves

5. In a 3-way, 2-position directional control valve, how many flowpath

configurations are possible?

a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 6

3-10
 Exercise 3-2

Directional and Speed Control of Cylinders

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE

C To introduce the operation of cylinders;

C To learn how to control the direction and speed of cylinders.

DISCUSSION

In fluid power systems, various forms of energy are converted into other forms of
energy to do useful work. The devices that convert fluid energy into mechanical
energy are called actuators.

A fluid power cylinder is an actuator that converts fluid energy into straight-line or
linear mechanical energy. Single-acting cylinders generate forces in a single
direction whereas double-acting cylinders generate forces during both extension and
retraction of the rod.

The operation of a single-acting, spring-return cylinder is illustrated in Figure 3-7.

When flow is directed into the cap end of the cylinder, pressure in the cap end rises
until enough force is generated to compress the spring. Air in the rod end is
exhausted to atmosphere through the vent port. When the cylinder reaches the end
of its stroke, or is stopped by a load, pressure in the cap end rises to the system
pressure. When the fluid pressure is relieved, the force of the spring retracts the
cylinder. Common single-acting cylinder applications include lifts, clutches, clamps
and brakes.

3-11
Directional and Speed Control of Cylinders

Figure 3-7. Single-Acting, Spring Return Cylinder Operation.

The basic construction of a double-acting cylinder is similar to that of a single-acting

cylinder, except that the double-acting cylinder contains two fluid ports instead of
one, and does not include a spring. When fluid enters one port of the cylinder, the
piston moves toward the other port. A double-acting cylinder is shown in Figure 3-8.

Figure 3-8. Double-Acting Cylinder Operation.

3-12
Directional and Speed Control of Cylinders

Flow control valves are commonly used to control the speed of fluid power actuators.
In some applications, the flow control valve is placed upstream of the actuator. This
application is called a meter-in circuit because it controls, or meters, the rate of flow
going into the actuator. The meter-in circuit is used to control actuator speed where
the actuator constantly works against a load. This means that there is always
resistance to flow downstream from the valve.

For example, a cylinder used to push a load might be controlled with the meter-in
circuit shown in Figure 3-9. A check valve is often included to allow a rapid return
stroke.

Figure 3-9. Meter-in Circuit.

When the actuator does not constantly work against a load, such as in a drilling
operation where the drill breaks through the stock, a meter-out circuit may be used.
A meter-out circuit controls the flow rate leaving the actuator. A meter-out circuit that
controls the extension speed of a cylinder is shown in Figure 3-10. In this circuit,
gravity applies a constant force that attempts to extend the cylinder. If the meter-out
needle flow control valve was not included, the cylinder might extend too quickly,
creating a runaway condition.

3-13
Directional and Speed Control of Cylinders

Figure 3-10. Meter-out Circuit.

When independent control of speed is necessary for each direction of travel, two flow
control valves must be used: one for each direction. As shown in Figure 3-11, on the
extension stroke, air is admitted freely to the cap end of the cylinder through the
check valve in flow control valve FCV1, and speed is controlled by metering exhaust
air through flow control valve FCV2. On the retraction stroke, air enters freely into the
rod end through the check valve in valve FCV2 while exhaust air is metered through
valve FCV1. Since the valves FCV1 and FCV2 control the flow rate leaving the
actuator, they are connected in a meter-out configuration.

Figure 3-11. Meter-out Both Directions.

Speed control is also achieved using the bypass configuration. In this configuration,
a needle valve is connected between the air supply and the cap end of the cylinder
as shown in Figure 3-12. The opening of the needle valve controls the flow of
compressed air that is exhausted to atmosphere. This configuration is less power
efficient but only one needle valve is required to control the speed in both directions.

3-14
Directional and Speed Control of Cylinders

Figure 3-12. Bypass Configuration of Speed Control.

REFERENCE MATERIAL

For additional information, refer to the chapter entitled Flow Control Valves,
Silencers, Quick Exhausts in the Parker-Hannifin manual Industrial Pneumatic
Technology.

Procedure summary

In the first part of the exercise, you will control the operation of a cylinder using the
meter-in configuration.

In the second part, you will control the operation of the cylinder using the meter-out
configuration.

In the last part, you will control the speed of the cylinder in both directions.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix A of this manual, to obtain the
list of equipment required to perform this exercise.

PROCEDURE

Meter-in Flow Control

G 1. Verify the status of the trainer according to the procedure given in

Exercise 1-2.

G 2. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 3-13.

3-15
Directional and Speed Control of Cylinders

Note: Because of the compressibility of air, always use tubes as

short as possible between the cylinder and the Flow Control
Valve.

Figure 3-13. Schematic Diagram of the Meter-in Circuit.

G 3. Close the Flow Control Valve by turning the control knob fully clockwise.
Screw a tip (bullet) to the rod of the cylinder.

G 4. Open the main shutoff valve and the branch shutoff valve at the manifold
and set the pressure regulator at 500 kPa (or 70 psi) on the regulated
Pressure Gauge.

G 5. Open the Flow Control Valve by turning the control knob counterclockwise
as indicated in Table 3-1. Refer to the mark on the control knob to help you
set the correct position.

G 6. Push the button on the directional control valve and measure the extension
time and retraction time of the piston rod. Record your results in the
appropriate cells in Table 3-1. Repeat your measurements to validate your
results.

3-16
Directional and Speed Control of Cylinders

REGULATED PRESSURE: 500 kPa (or 70 psi)

EXTENSION TIME RETRACTION TIME

FLOW CONTROL VALVE
seconds seconds

¼ turn

½ turn

¾ turn

1 turn

2 turns

fully open

Table 3-1. Meter-in Flow Control.

G 7. Explain the relationship between the setting of the Flow Control Valve and
the extension time of the rod.

G 8. What do you observe about the retraction time of the rod? Explain.

G 9. Close the Flow Control Valve by turning the control knob fully clockwise,
then close the shutoff valves.

Meter-out Flow Control

G 10. Reverse the tubes at the Flow Control Valve ports to reverse the air flow
through the valve.

G 11. Open the main shutoff valve and set the pressure regulator at 500 kPa (or
70 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

G 12. Open the Flow Control Valve by turning the control knob counterclockwise
as indicated in Table 3-2. Refer to the mark on the control knob to help you
set the correct position.

3-17
Directional and Speed Control of Cylinders

G 13. Push the button on the directional control valve and measure the extension
time and retraction time of the piston rod. Record your results in the
appropriate cells in Table 3-2. Repeat your measurements to validate your
results.

REGULATED PRESSURE: 500 kPa (or 70 psi)

EXTENSION TIME RETRACTION TIME

FLOW CONTROL VALVE
seconds seconds

¼ turn

½ turn

¾ turn

1 turn

2 turns

fully open

Table 3-2. Meter-out Flow Control.

G 14. Compare the extension time and retraction time of the cylinder when the
Flow Control Valve is open 1 turn counterclockwise? Explain.

G 15. Explain the relationship between the setting of the Flow Control Valve and
the retraction time of the rod.

G 16. Close the shutoff valves and turn the regulator adjusting knob completely
counterclockwise.

Speed Control Both Directions

G 17. Modify your circuit as shown in Figure 3-14. Be careful to connect the Flow
Control Valves in the correct direction.

3-18
Directional and Speed Control of Cylinders

Figure 3-14. Schematic Diagram of a Circuit Using Speed Control Both Directions.

G 18. Referring to the schematic diagram shown in Figure 3-14, which valve
controls the extension speed of the cylinder?

G 19. Referring to the schematic diagram shown in Figure 3-14, indicate in

Table 3-3 how the operation of the cylinder will be affected by the setting
combinations of Flow Control Valves FCV1 and FCV2.

FCV1 FCV2 OPERATION OF THE CYLINDER

closed closed

open closed

closed open

open open

Table 3-3. Description of the Operation of the Cylinder.

G 20. Close the Flow Control Valves by turning the control knob fully clockwise.

G 21. Open the main shutoff valve and set the pressure regulator at 300 kPa (or
40 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

G 22. Push the button on the directional control valve while observing the
operation of the cylinder. Verify your predictions indicated in Table 3-3.

G 23. Repeat your observations for the setting combinations of FCV1 and FCV2
indicated in Table 3-3.

3-19
Directional and Speed Control of Cylinders

G 24. Do your observations confirm your predictions indicated in Table 3-3?

G Yes G No

G 25. Close the shutoff valves and turn the regulator adjusting knob completely
counterclockwise.

G 26. Modify your circuit as shown in Figure 3-15. Be careful to connect the Flow
Control Valves in the correct direction.

Figure 3-15. Schematic Diagram of a Circuit Using Speed Control Both Directions.

G 27. Referring to the schematic diagram shown in Figure 3-15, indicate if the
circuit is connected in a meter-in or meter-out configuration.

G 28. Close the Flow Control Valves by turning the control knob fully clockwise.

G 29. Open the shutoff valves and set the pressure regulator at 500 kPa (or
70 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

G 30. Which directional control valve must be open to allow the rod of the cylinder
to extend?

3-20
Directional and Speed Control of Cylinders

G 31. Open the Flow Control Valve FCV1 by turning the control knob fully
counterclockwise and open the directional control valve DCV1 by pushing
down the button on the valve.

G 32. Does the cylinder extend, confirming your prediction indicated in step 30?

G Yes G No

G 33. Try different setting combinations for FCV1 and FCV2 to obtain an
extension time of the rod of 2 s and a retraction time of 1 s.

G 34. Does your circuit allow you to set the extension time and retraction time of
the cylinder? If not, explain.

G 35. Close the shutoff valves and the Flow Control Valves.

G 36. Reverse the tubes at the Flow Control Valve ports (both valves) to change
the configuration of the circuit. Indicate if the circuit is now connected in a
meter-in or meter-out configuration.

G 37. Indicate which Flow Control Valve controls the extension speed of the
cylinder.

G 38. Verify the operation of your circuit by trying different setting configurations
of the Flow Control Valves and verify your prediction made in the previous
step.

G 39. Adjust FCV1 and FCV2 to obtain an extension time of the rod of 1 s and a
retraction time of 2 s.

3-21
Directional and Speed Control of Cylinders

G 40. Does your circuit allow you to set the extension time and retraction time of
the cylinder? If not, explain.

G 41. On the Conditioning Unit, close the shutoff valves and turn the regulator
adjusting knob completely counterclockwise. You should read 0 kPa (or
0 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

G 42. Disconnect and store all tubing and components.

CONCLUSION

In this exercise, you operated single-acting and double-acting cylinders.

You saw that flow control valves are used to control the speed of extension and
retraction of the cylinder rods. You verified that the extension and retraction times
can be controlled independently using two flow control valves.

You also saw how the meter-in and meter-out configurations can be used to control
the operation of cylinders.

3-22
Directional and Speed Control of Cylinders

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. A single-acting cylinder

a. converts fluid power to rotary motion.

b. can both extend and retract under power.
c. relies on a spring or a load to return the cylinder to its original position.
d. requires the use of a 3-way, 3-position directional control valve.

2. Cap-end and rod-end refer to

a. the two ends of a fluid power cylinder.

b. the two ends of a fluid power circuit.
c. single-acting cylinders only.
d. the fluid ports of a fluid power motor.

3. A double-acting cylinder

a. requires the use of a 3-way, 3-position directional control valve.

b. converts linear mechanical energy into rotary mechanical energy during
extension and retraction.
c. contains one fluid port and a breather element.
d. converts fluid power energy into linear mechanical energy during extension
and retraction.

4. The meter-out configuration controls the flow rate

a. entering an actuator.
b. leaving an actuator.
c. entering and leaving an actuator.
d. None of the above.

5. The meter-in configuration is used to control actuator speed where the actuator
constantly works

a. vertically.
b. horizontally.
c. slowly.
d. against the load.

3-23
3-24
 Exercise 3-3

Cylinders in Series

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE

C To describe the operation of cylinders connected in series;

C To demonstrate pressure intensification in a series circuit.

DISCUSSION

Cylinders in Series

In some pneumatic applications, it is necessary for two cylinders to work together in

unison. For example, two cylinders may be required to start and stop extending at
the same time. Cylinders operating in this manner are said to be synchronized.

One method to synchronize two cylinders consists in connecting them in series, so

that the discharge flow from one cylinder serves as the input flow to the second
cylinder. Figure 3-16 shows two cylinders connected in series. The rod end of one
cylinder is connected to the cap end of the second cylinder. With this circuit, neither
cylinder can move unless the other is also moving.

Figure 3-16. Cylinders Connected in Series.

Pushing down the button of the directional control valve in Figure 3-16 will cause the
cylinders to start and stop at the same time. If the cylinders are of the same size and
stroke, however, cylinder 2 (downstream cylinder) will extend slower, and it will not
extend completely since the flow out of the rod end of cylinder 1 (upstream cylinder)
will be less than the flow entering the cap end of cylinder 1.

If the two cylinders are of the same size, the total force of the two cylinders in series
is equal to the system pressure multiplied by the area of one of the pistons.
Differences in cylinder size, however, will cause considerable variations.

3-25
Cylinders in Series

Pressure Intensification

An intensifier is a device with which compressed air pressure in one circuit is used
to increase the compressed air pressure in a separate circuit. The basic intensifier
is typically contained in one cylinder or composed of two cylinders in series. The
low-pressure side is called the master cylinder because it drives another cylinder.
The high-pressure cylinder is called the slave cylinder because it is driven by the
master cylinder.

When an intensifier is contained within an individual, single-rodded cylinder, the cap

side is used as the low-pressure side and the rod end is used as the high-pressure
side. It is used in this way because there is more piston area on the cap side than
the rod side. As shown in Figure 3-17, the lower pressure in chamber A acts on the
cap side of the piston and transmits the force to the rod side of the piston in
chamber B.

Figure 3-17. The cap side (chamber A) is used as the low-pressure side and the rod end
(chamber B) is used as the high-pressure side.

The ratio of areas determines the pressure multiplication possible with an intensifier.
This corresponds to the larger net piston area (face area) divided by the smaller net
piston area (annular area): AF/AA. The quotient obtained is called the ratio of areas
and it is the factor by which the lower pressure is multiplied to obtain the theoretical
pressure that an intensifier can produce.

Figure 3-18 shows an example. If the surface area of the piston rod is exactly
one-half the full piston area (face area), the pressure in the rod end will be intensified
up to twice the pressure applied in the cap end if flow is blocked.

3-26
Cylinders in Series

Figure 3-18. Pressure Intensification.

Intensification is present in any cylinder which has unequal areas on opposite sides
of the piston. All components used in the rod end circuit must be rated for the
intensified pressure.

REFERENCE MATERIAL

For additional information about cylinders, refer to the chapter entitled Check Valve
Cylinders, and Motors in the Parker-Hannifin manual Industrial Pneumatic
Technology.

Procedure summary

In the first part of the exercise, you will connect two cylinders in series to observe
synchronized operation of the cylinders.

In the second part of the exercise, you will set up a circuit to observe pressure
intensification.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix A of this manual, to obtain the
list of equipment required to perform this exercise.

3-27
Cylinders in Series

PROCEDURE

Synchronization

G 1. Verify the status of the trainer according to the procedure given in

Exercise 1-2.

G 2. Ensure that the piston rod of the Double-Acting Cylinder is retracted, and
connect the circuit shown in Figure 3-19. To minimize air compression, use
a short tube to connect the cylinders, and screw a tip to each rod.

Figure 3-19. Schematic Diagram of a Circuit Using Two Cylinders in Series.

G 3. Open the main shutoff valve and the branch shutoff valve at the manifold
and set the pressure regulator at 100 kPa (or 15 psi) on the regulated
Pressure Gauge.

G 4. Open the directional control valve by pushing down the button on the valve
while observing the operation of the cylinders. Retract the cylinders by
releasing the button.

G 5. Repeat your observations as necessary. Do the cylinders start and stop at

the same time?

G Yes G No

G 6. Does the rod of the Single-Acting Cylinder extend completely? Explain.

3-28
Cylinders in Series

G 7. Close the shutoff valves and turn the regulator adjusting knob completely
counterclockwise.

G 8. What causes the Double-Acting Cylinder to retract?

Pressure Intensification

G 9. Use the face area and annular area calculated in Exercise 2-1 to determine
the pressure multiplication possible with the Double-Acting Cylinder.

G 10. Calculate the theoretical pressure that the cylinder can produce when the
lower pressure applied to its face area is 400 kPa (or 60 psi).

G 11. Modify your circuit as shown in Figure 3-20. Use the shortest tube possible
to connect the Pressure Gauge to the rod end of the cylinder.

Figure 3-20. Schematic Diagram of a Circuit Used to Show Intensification.

G 12. Open the main shutoff valves and set the pressure regulator at 400 kPa (or
60 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

3-29
Cylinders in Series

G 13. Open the directional control valve while observing the pressure readings.
Record the initial and final pressures in the appropriate cells in Table 3-4.

INITIAL PRESSURE FINAL PRESSURE

PRESSURE MULTIPLICATION
(cap end of the cylinder) (rod end of the cylinder)

Table 3-4. Pressure Multiplication.

G 14. Use the pressure values indicated in Table 3-4 to calculate the pressure
multiplication produced by the cylinder. Record your result in the appropriate
cell in Table 3-4.

G 15. Compare the pressure multiplication factor calculated in the previous step
with the theoretical value calculated in step 10. Are the values similar? If
not, explain.

G 16. From your calculations and observations, can you conclude that the Double-
Acting Cylinder supplied with your trainer is a good device to intensify the
pressure? Explain.

G 17. On the Conditioning Unit, close the shutoff valves and turn the regulator
adjusting knob completely counterclockwise. You should read 0 kPa (or
0 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

G 18. Disconnect and store all tubing and components.

CONCLUSION

In the first part of the exercise, you observed that one method to synchronize the
operation of two cylinders consists in connecting them in series.

In the second part of the exercise, you observed pressure intensification. You saw
that pressure intensification is present in cylinders which have unequal areas on
opposite sides of the piston.

3-30
Cylinders in Series

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is the purpose of an intensifier?

a. To produce low pressure from a high pressure source.

b. To increase the temperature of compressed air.
c. To produce a high pressure from a low pressure source.
d. To increase the volume of compressed air.

2. Which of the following determines the pressure multiplication possible with an

intensifier?

a. The slave cylinder.

b. The master cylinder.
c. The bore of the cylinder.
d. The ratio of areas.

3. Two cylinders can be synchronized

a. using loads.
b. using directional control valves.
c. connecting them in series.
d. Answers a and c.

4. The low-pressure side of an intensifier is called

a. master cylinder.
b. slave cylinder.
c. cylinder cap-end.
d. cylinder rod-end.

5. If two cylinders connected in series are of the same size and stroke, the
downstream cylinder will extend

a. faster.
b. slower.
c. at exactly the same speed.
d. farther.

3-31
3-32
 Exercise 3-4

Cylinders in Parallel

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE

C To describe the operation of cylinders connected in parallel;

C To describe the extension sequence of parallel cylinders having different loads;
C To synchronize the extension of parallel cylinders using a flow control valve.

DISCUSSION

Cylinders in Parallel

Figure 3-21 shows two cylinders connected in parallel. The rod and cap ends of one
cylinder are connected to the corresponding ends of the other cylinder. When
compressed air is applied to the circuit, cylinder C1 extends first because it requires
lower pressure to move its load. Once cylinder C1 is extended, the pressure climbs
to the level required for cylinder C2 to extend. Once cylinder C2 is extended, the
pressure climbs to the air supply pressure.

Figure 3-21. Cylinders Connected in Parallel.

Synchronization of Parallel Cylinders

In theory, two cylinders connected in parallel should operate in synchronization if

they are of identical size and stroke and if they are evenly loaded, since they both
receive the same flow rate from the same air supply. In practice, however,
manufacturing any two cylinders to be exactly identical, is impossible. There are
always small differences in dimensions, internal friction, surface texture, internal
leakage, etc.

This does not mean that synchronization of parallel cylinders is impossible. One
method of synchronizing parallel cylinders, called mechanical yoke method, is shown
in Figure 3-22. In this method, a strong yoke connects the two cylinder rods together.

3-33
Cylinders in Parallel

The weight of the two loads is distributed evenly between the two cylinders so that
the cylinders extend at the same speed, even if the loads are of different weight.

Figure 3-22. Synchronization of Parallel Cylinders Using a Mechanical Yoke.

If mechanical synchronization is not possible or practical, parallel cylinders can be

approximately synchronized using the flow control valve method. In this method, a
flow control valve is connected in series with the cylinder requiring the lowest
pressure to move in order to increase the resistance of this line (circuit path).

Figure 3-23 shows an example. Cylinders C1 and C2 are of the same size, however
cylinder C1 requires 350 kPa (or 50 psi) at its cap end to lift the light load, while
cylinder C2 requires 700 kPa (or 100 psi) at its cap end to lift the heavier load. A flow
control valve, connected in the line of cylinder C1, is adjusted so that it creates an
additional pressure drop of 350 kPa (or 50 psi) in this line when cylinder C1 extends.
Since equal pressures of 700 kPa (or 100 psi) are required in each cylinder line, the
compressed air will divide equally between the two lines, causing the cylinders to
move at the same time and speed.

3-34
Cylinders in Parallel

Figure 3-23. Synchronization of Parallel Cylinders Using a Flow Control Valve.

REFERENCE MATERIAL

For additional information about cylinders, refer to the chapter entitled Check Valve
Cylinders, and Motors in the Parker-Hannifin manual Industrial Pneumatic
Technology.

Procedure summary

In the first part of the exercise, you will connect two cylinders in parallel and will
determine which cylinder moves first.

In the second part of the exercise, you will connect a flow control valve in series with
the cylinder requiring the lowest pressure to move its load to synchronize the
operation of two cylinders connected in parallel.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix A of this manual, to obtain the
list of equipment required to perform this exercise.

PROCEDURE

G 1. Verify the status of the trainer according to the procedure given in

Exercise 1-2.

3-35
Cylinders in Parallel

G 2. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 3-24. Screw a tip (bullet) to the rod.

Figure 3-24. Schematic Diagram of a Circuit with Cylinders in Parallel.

G 3. From the schematic diagram, predict which cylinder will extend first when
compressed air will flow in the circuit, and explain why.

G 4. Open the main shutoff valve and the branch shutoff valve at the manifold
and set the pressure regulator at 200 kPa (or 30 psi) on the regulated
Pressure Gauge.

Note: In the following steps, you must push back the piston rod
of the Double-Acting Cylinder manually each time you operate the
directional control valve.

G 5. Open the directional control valve while observing the cylinders as they
extend. Repeat if necessary.

G 6. Do the cylinders extend as predicted in step 3? If not, explain.

G 7. Connect a Flow Control Valve at the rod end of the Double-Acting Cylinder
as shown in Figure 3-25.

3-36
Cylinders in Parallel

Figure 3-25. Cylinder Synchronization Using a Flow Control Valve.

G 8. Adjust the Flow Control Valve so that both cylinders complete their full
stroke at the same time during extension. Accurate adjustment may require
that the cylinders be extended and retracted several times.

G 9. Do your observations confirm that the extension of cylinders can be

synchronized using a Flow Control Valve? If not, explain.

G 10. On the Conditioning Unit, close the shutoff valves and turn the regulator
adjusting knob completely counterclockwise. You should read 0 kPa (or
0 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

G 11. Disconnect and store all tubing and components.

CONCLUSION

This exercise showed some circuit principles which govern two cylinders connected
in parallel.

You observed that the individual loads governed cylinder movement. You saw that
the cylinder requiring the lowest pressure to move its load always moves first.

You learned that parallel cylinders can be synchronized using a flow control valve
connected in series with the cylinder requiring the lowest pressure to move its load.

3-37
Cylinders in Parallel

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Which of two identical cylinders connected in parallel will extend first?

a. The cylinder with the lower load.

b. The cylinder with the higher load.
c. It depends on the flow rate.
d. Neither, they will be synchronized.

2. One mechanical method of synchronizing parallel cylinders is called

a. synchronizer.
b. mechanical method.
c. mechanical yoke method.
d. parallel method.

3. Parallel cylinders can be synchronized using

a. directional control valves.

b. check valves.
c. flow control valves.
d. shutoff valves.

4. Two cylinders connected in parallel should operate in synchronization if

a. they are identical in size.

b. they both receive the same flow rate.
c. they are evenly loaded.
d. all of the above.

5. When cylinders are connected in parallel,

a. the rod ends of each cylinder are connected together.

b. the cap ends of each cylinder are connected together.
c. the rod ends and the cap ends of each cylinder are connected together.
d. the rod end of one cylinder is connected to the cap end of the other cylinder.

3-38
 Unit Test

1. When calculating the total piston area for the rod end of a cylinder

a. the rod area must be added to the piston area.

b. the rod area must be subtracted from the piston area.
c. the piston area must be subtracted from the rod area.
d. the piston area must be added to the rod area.

2. A directional control valve with two flow path configurations and three fluid ports
is called

a. 3-way, 2-position directional control valve.

b. 2-way, 3-position directional control valve.
c. 2-way, 2-position directional control valve.
d. 3-way, 3-position directional control valve.

3. If the same pressure is applied to both sides of the piston in a double-acting

cylinder, the cylinder will

a. extend because the extension force is greater than the retraction force.
b. extend because the seals in the cylinder will allow fluid in the rod end to leak
into the cap end.
c. retract because the pressure applied to the cylinder rod will create a
retraction force greater than the extension force.
d. remain in its original position because pressure in each side will prevent the
piston from moving.

4. The devices that convert fluid energy into mechanical energy are called

a. air bearings.
b. pneumatic motors.
c. cylinders.
d. actuators.

5. They are commonly used to control the speed of fluid actuators.

a. Directional control valves.

b. Check valves.
c. Flow control valves.
d. Shutoff valves.

6. The symbol for a directional control valve consists of a separate envelope for
each

a. valve.
b. flow path.
c. direction.
d. position.

3-39
 Unit Test

7. They are commonly used to control the direction of fluid actuators.

a. Check valves.
b. Directional control valves.
c. Flow control valves.
d. Shutoff valves.

8. When the actuator does not constantly work against a load,

a. the meter-in configuration is commonly used to control the speed.

b. the meter-in and meter-out configurations are commonly used to control the
speed.
c. the meter-out configuration is commonly used to control the speed.
d. the by-pass configuration is commonly used to control the speed.

9. When an intensifier is contained within an individual cylinder,

a. the rod end is used as the low-pressure side.

b. the rod end is used as the high-pressure side.
c. the cap end is used as the high-pressure side.
d. the rod end is used as the master cylinder.

10. If two cylinders connected in series are of the same size and stroke, the
upstream cylinder will extend

a. faster.
b. slower.
c. at exactly the same speed.
d. after the downstream cylinder.

3-40
 Unit 4

Basic Controls of Pneumatic Motors

UNIT OBJECTIVE

When you have completed this unit, you will be able to operate and test simple
pneumatic circuits using pilot-operated directional control valves and pneumatic
motors.

DISCUSSION OF FUNDAMENTALS

As an alternative to electric and hydraulic motors, pneumatic motors are among the
most widely used pneumatic devices. In contrast to electric and hydraulic motors,
stalling a pneumatic motor causes no damage and wastes little power. A pneumatic
motor is also much lighter and smaller than an equivalent electric motor. Compared
with hydraulic motors, pneumatic motors are less expensive, require less
maintenance and are cleaner in operation.

4-1
4-2
 Exercise 4-1

Indirect Control Using Pilot-Operated Valves

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE

C To learn about pilot-operated valves;

C To show the advantages of indirect control of a single acting cylinder.

DISCUSSION

The main difference between pilot-operated directional control valves and direct-
operated valves is in how their spools are shifted. On a pilot-operated valve, an air
signal replaces the mechanical force used to shift the spool in a direct-operated
valve. Other than this, the housings and spools of both valve types are so similar that
these parts are often interchangeable.

The greatest advantage of a pilot-operated valve is that it permits the

remote-actuation of large valves with inexpensive pilot lines. The more expensive
working lines of the larger valves can then be kept short to save money. Cheaper
pilot-lines can be run for some distance without any loss of circuit performance.
Since pilot-operated valves do need not be manually actuated, they can be
controlled with outside devices or systems. This makes process automation possible.
Also, because pilots require minimum pressures and volumes to shift against the
working pressures, they reduce the delays caused by compressibility of air and
friction in long tubing lines.

Pilot-operated valves can be 3-way and 4-way (4 ports or 5 ports). They can be
either 2-position or 3-position. Usually, 3-way pilot valves are used to remotely
control linear or rotary actuators in one direction and then exhaust their working
lines. The 4-way pilot valves are used to remotely control linear and rotary actuators
in two directions, as well as exhausting their working lines.

Pilot-operated valves may move their spools using one or two pilots along with a
return spring. If a 2-position valve uses only one pilot, the pilot moves the valve spool
against a spring and into the housing opposite the pilot. The spring will return the
spool when pilot pressure is removed.

Double-piloted valves have a pilot at each end of the housing. Opposing pilots are
used to shift the spool back and forth, but the circuit must exhaust one pilot before
the other pilot can shift the spool. The lack of return springs in double-piloted valves,
allows the spool position to be maintained, or memorized, without maintaining pilot
pressure.

The pilot-operated valve supplied with your Trainer is a double-piloted, 4-way, 5-port,
2-position directional control valve. It is called a 4-way valve instead of a 5-way valve
because one of the exhaust ports is usually not used in a given valve position. It is
illustrated in Figure 4-1.

4-3
Indirect Control Using Pilot-Operated Valves

Figure 4-1. Double-pilot, 4-way, 2-position Directional Control Valve.

The operation of a double-piloted, 4-way, 2-position directional control valve is

illustrated in Figure 4-2. When pilot port A is pressurized, ports 1 and 2 are
interconnected through the valve, supplying the branch circuit with compressed air.
Ports 3 and 4 are also interconnected through the valve, connecting the branch
circuit to atmosphere. When the spool is shifted by pressurizing pilot port B, ports 1
and 4 are interconnected to supply the branch circuit with compressed air.
Compressed air is exhausted from the branch circuit to atmosphere through
interconnected ports 2 and 3. Pilot-operated valves can have manual overrides to
move the spool without pilot pressure for system setup and troubleshooting.

Figure 4-2. Operation of a Double-pilot, 4-way, 2-position Directional Control Valve.

The circuit shown in Figure 4-3 shows that a 3-way, 2-position pilot-operated valve
allows the use of shorter expensive working lines. The cheaper pilot-lines can be run
for some distance without any loss of circuit performance while minimizing delays.

4-4
Indirect Control Using Pilot-Operated Valves

Figure 4-3. Indirect Control Using a 3-way, 2-position Piloted Directional Control Valve.

REFERENCE MATERIAL

For additional information on directional control valves, refer to the chapter entitled
Directional Control Valves in the Parker-Hannifin manual Industrial Pneumatic
Technology.

Procedure summary

In this exercise, you will verify the operation of a 4-way, 5-port, 2-position directional
control valve by operating a double-acting cylinder.

In the second part you will use the long line device to verify that pilot lines require
minimum pressure and volume to shift the spool.

You will verify that priority can be maintained on a position when the pilot port
remains pressurized. You will also verify that indirect control reduces delays caused
by compressibility of air and friction in long tubing lines.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix A of this manual, to obtain the
list of equipment required to perform this exercise.

4-5
Indirect Control Using Pilot-Operated Valves

PROCEDURE

G 1. Verify the status of the trainer according to the procedure given in

Exercise 1-2.

G 2. Retract the piston rod of the Double-Acting Cylinder and connect the circuit
shown in Figure 4-4.

Figure 4-4. Schematic Diagram of a Pilot-Operated Circuit.

G 3. From the schematic diagram shown in Figure 4-4, predict which of the
valves DCV1 or DCV2 controls the extension and/or the retraction of the
piston rod.

G 4. Open the main shutoff valve and the branch shutoff valves at the manifold
and set the pressure regulator at 100 kPa (or 15 psi) on the regulated
Pressure Gauge.

G 5. Push down the button on the directional control valve DCV2 to set the spool
in the pilot-operated valve as illustrated in Figure 4-4. The piston rod should
be retracted.

4-6
Indirect Control Using Pilot-Operated Valves

G 6. Actuate the cylinder using the directional control valves DCV1 and DCV2.
Do the valves DCV1 and DCV2 control the extension and retraction of the
cylinder piston rod as predicted? If not, explain why.

G 7. Push down the button on the directional control valve DCV2 and maintain
this position. With your other hand, push down the button on the directional
control valve DCV1. Does the piston rod extend?

G Yes G No

G 8. Release the button on the directional control valve DCV2, then push down
the button on the directional control valve DCV1 and maintain this position.
With your other hand, push down the button on the directional control valve
DCV2. Does the piston rod retract? Explain why.

G 9. Close the shutoff valves and turn the regulator adjusting knob completely
counterclockwise.

G 10. Modify your circuit as shown in Figure 4-5.

Figure 4-5. Schematic Diagram of a Circuit Using a Long Tubing Line.

G 11. Open the shutoff valves and set the pressure regulator at 100 kPa (or
15 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

4-7
Indirect Control Using Pilot-Operated Valves

G 12. Push down the button on the directional control valve while observing the
time taken by the rod to extend fully. Estimate the time taken by the rod to
extend fully and record your result in Table 4-1. Repeat your observation
three times, then calculate the mean value.

G 13. Close the shutoff valves and turn the regulator adjusting knob completely
counterclockwise.

G 14. Modify your circuit as shown in Figure 4-6.

Figure 4-6. Schematic Diagram of an Indirect Control Circuit.

G 15. Open the main shutoff valve and set the pressure regulator at 100 kPa (or
15 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

G 16. Push down the button on the directional control valve DCV2 to set the spool
in the pilot-operated valve as illustrated in Figure 4-6. The piston rod should
be retracted.

G 17. Push down the button on the directional control valve DCV1 while observing
the time taken by the rod to extend fully. Estimate the time taken by the rod
to extend fully and record your result in Table 4-1. Repeat your observation
three times, then calculate the mean value.

4-8
Indirect Control Using Pilot-Operated Valves

EXTENSION TIME OF THE PISTON ROD

READING
DIRECT CONTROL INDIRECT CONTROL

First Reading

Second Reading

Third Reading

Mean Value

Table 4-1. Extension Time of The Piston Rod.

G 18. Compare the results shown in Table 4-1. Does the rod extend faster when
the valve is controlled indirectly?

G Yes G No

G 19. Since the same Long Line was first used to power the cylinder and then to
pilot the directional control valve, what can you conclude?

G 20. Does the piston rod retract when the button on the directional control valve
DCV1 is released? Explain why.

G 21. On the Conditioning Unit, close the shutoff valves and turn the regulator
adjusting knob completely counterclockwise. You should read 0 kPa (or
0 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

G 22. Disconnect and store all tubing and components.

CONCLUSION

In this exercise, you verified the operation of a 4-way, 5-port, 2-position

pilot-operated directional control valve. You have seen that the piloted valve supplied
with your trainer can be used to remotely control linear and rotary actuators in two
directions.

You have seen that when a pilot port is maintained pressurized, priority is maintained
on that position although the other port becomes pressurized.

4-9
Indirect Control Using Pilot-Operated Valves

You have seen that pilots require minimum pressures and volumes to shift against
the working pressures, minimizing delays caused by compressibility of air and friction
in long tubing lines.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is the greatest advantage of pilot-operated valves over manually operated

valves?

a. They require a high pressure to operate.

b. They permit the remote actuation of large valves.
c. They can be made smaller than other valves.
d. They can be made larger than other valves.

2. What is the purpose of the 4-way piloted-operated valves?

a. To control linear actuators in one direction remotely.

b. To control rotary actuators in one direction remotely.
c. To control linear and rotary actuators in one direction remotely.
d. To control linear and rotary actuators in two directions remotely.

3. What is the main difference between pilot-operated and direct-operated control

valves?

a. Pilot-operated control valves are smaller.

b. The way their spools are shifted.
c. Pilot-operated control valves can work in both directions.
d. Pilot-operated control valves cannot be spring return.

4. What is the purpose of the manual override on a pilot-operated valve?

a. To bleed off excess compressed air.

b. To reverse the direction of the valve.
c. To reverse pilot operation.
d. To manually duplicate the operation of the valve.

5. Give the reason why double pilot-operated valves can memorize a position?

a. They need a pilot signal to shift the spool.

b. They do not need a pilot signal to shift the spool.
c. It is a characteristic of pilot-operated valve.
d. Because they are remotely-controlled.

4-10
 Exercise 4-2

Pneumatic Motor Circuits

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE

C To describe the design and operation of a pneumatic motor;

C To learn how to control the direction and speed of pneumatic motors.

DISCUSSION

Pneumatic motors convert fluid energy into mechanical rotational energy. When a
pressure differential is created within a pneumatic motor, the higher pressure air
expands. This expanding air acts upon the internal surfaces of the motor to cause
the motor output shaft to turn. Figure 4-7 shows a pneumatic motor and its symbol.

Figure 4-7. Pneumatic Motor and Symbol.

Types of Pneumatic Motors

There are three basic types of pneumatic motors: vane, piston and turbine.

C The vane motor is the type of motor supplied with your Trainer. It is relatively
simple in construction: a slot rotor is located off-center inside a vane housing as
shown in Figure 4-8.

4-11
Pneumatic Motor Circuits

Figure 4-8. Vane Type Pneumatic Motor.

As compressed air enters the inlet port, it expands inside one of the air chambers
between two vanes. The rotor turns to create an increasing volume between the
vanes to accommodate the expanding air. When air reaches the outlet side of the
motor, it is expelled into the atmosphere through the exhaust port. Vane motors
may be unidirectional or bidirectional.

C The operation of a piston pneumatic motor is shown in Figure 4-9. As air enters
the piston compression chambers, the pistons move inside the cylinders to
accommodate the increasing volume of air. This linear piston movement is
converted into rotational motion by piston connecting rods that rotate a driveshaft.
Piston pneumatic motors are used as low speeds, and can generate high starting
torque.

Figure 4-9. Piston Type Pneumatic Motor.

C The operation of a turbine pneumatic motor is shown in Figure 4-10. It uses a

turbine wheel to convert the kinetic energy of moving air into rotary motion.
Turbine pneumatic motors drive devices such as small drilling and grinding tools

4-12
Pneumatic Motor Circuits

used by dentists. This motor type also drives heavy commercial rotary saws and
drills. Turbine motors convert fluid energy into rotary motion in one direction only.

Figure 4-10. Turbine Type Pneumatic Motor.

The main advantages of pneumatic motors are: their speed can be easily adjusted,
they can be used in environment which may be unfavorable for electric motors, they
can be operated in flammable or corrosive atmospheres, they can be stalled without
damage, and they are simple in design and construction.

The main disadvantages of pneumatic motors are: low efficiency, motor speed goes
down when the torque goes up and vice versa, noise level is higher than that
produced by an electric motor.

Motor Displacement

The displacement of a pneumatic motor is the volume of air required for the motor
shaft to turn one complete revolution. It is expressed in cubic centimeters per
revolution (cm3/r) (or cubic inches per revolution (in3/r)). Due to mechanical friction
and internal leakages, the displacement varies with air pressure.

Motor Speed

The theoretical motor speed of a pneumatic motor is calculated by dividing the flow
rate by the motor displacement. The speed is directly proportional to the flow rate
through the motor, and inversely proportional to the motor displacement. The formula
for calculating the theoretical speed of a motor is:

4-13
Pneumatic Motor Circuits

Due to internal leakages and compressibility of air, the actual motor speed will be
less than the theoretical speed given by the formula.

Motor Torque

The motor torque is the turning effort, or rotary force, generated at the motor shaft.
For example, the force applied to the end of a wrench to tighten a bolt is called
torque. Torque is usually expressed in Newton-meter (N@m) (or pound force-inch
(lbf@in)). A rotary force of 22.2 N (or 5 lbf) applied to a shaft 0.0508 m (or 2 in) from
the center of the shaft would be expressed as a torque of 1.13 N@m (or 10 lbf@in).

The resistance of the load connected to the motor shaft determines the amount of
system pressure developed at the motor inlet, and, therefore, the amount of torque
generated at the motor shaft. No torque will be generated if there is no load on the
shaft.

Motor Output Power

The amount of power in W (or hp) generated by a pneumatic motor is equal to the
torque developed at the motor shaft multiplied by the speed of the shaft. Therefore,
it is zero when the speed or the torque becomes zero. In equation form:

SI units:

English units:

Due to internal leakage, mechanical friction and compressibility of air, the actual
amount of power generated by a pneumatic motor will be less than the theoretical
value given by the formula.

Cylinders vs Motors

Pneumatic cylinders are linear actuators, whereas pneumatic motors are rotary
actuators. As with cylinders, however, the speed of a motor is a function of flow rate,
while its output force, or torque, is a function of pressure. Therefore, increasing the
system pressure available to a motor increases the torque output capability.
Conversely, increasing the flow rate through a motor increases the speed of rotation.

REFERENCE MATERIAL

For additional information, refer to the chapter entitled Check Valves, Cylinders, and
Motors in the Parker-Hannifin manual Industrial Pneumatic Technology.

4-14
Pneumatic Motor Circuits

Procedure summary

In the first part of this exercise, you will verify the torque vs pressure relationship.

In the second part, you will verify the speed of rotation vs flow relationship.

In the third part you will set up a circuit that allows control of both the direction and
the speed of rotation of the motor.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix A of this manual, to obtain the
list of equipment required to perform this exercise.

PROCEDURE

Torque vs Pressure Relationship

G 1. Verify the status of the trainer according to the procedure given in

Exercise 1-2.

Note: Be very careful when using pneumatic motors. Refer to the

safety rules in Exercise 1-1.

G 2. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 4-11. Facing the motor shaft, connect
the directional control valve to the left port of the motor.

Note: Because of high levels of noise generated by pneumatic

motors, you should always exhaust compressed air from your
circuit through the muffler at the exhaust port of the main shutoff
valve on the Conditioning Unit.

Figure 4-11. Schematic Diagram of Pneumatic Motor Circuit.

4-15
Pneumatic Motor Circuits

G 3. Referring to the schematic diagram shown in Figure 4-11, indicate in which

direction the motor will rotate?

G 4. Open the main shutoff valve and the branch shutoff valve at the manifold
and set the pressure regulator at 100 kPa (or 20 psi) on the regulated
Pressure Gauge.

G 5. Push the button on the directional control valve while observing the direction
of rotation of the motor shaft. Does the motor rotate as predicted in step 3?
If not, explain why.

G 6. Release the pushbutton and indicate which modification must be done to

reverse the direction of rotation of the motor shaft.

Note: Wear protective gloves when conducting this part of the

exercise.

G 7. Hold the shaft of the motor with your hand while opening the directional
control valve. Is it difficult to stall?

G Yes G No

G 8. Release the button and set the pressure regulator to 600 kPa (or 80 psi).
Retry to stall the shaft of the motor. Is it less difficult or more difficult to stall
the shaft with this setting?

G 9. Which motor characteristic do you observe when you try to stall the shaft of
the motor?

G 10. Close the shutoff valves.

4-16
Pneumatic Motor Circuits

Speed of Rotation vs Flow Relationship

G 11. Replace the directional control valve by a Flow Control Valve to control the
flow rate through the motor and connect a Flowmeter to the outlet port of the
motor.

G 12. Open the Flow Control Valve by turning the control knob fully
counterclockwise.

G 13. Open the shutoff valves and set the pressure regulator at 500 kPa (or
70 psi).

G 14. Adjust the Flow Control Valve to obtain a flow rate of 100 R/min (or
4.0 SCFM) on the Flowmeter. At each setting of the Flow Control Valve,
ensure that the regulated pressure is set at 500 kPa (or 70 psi). Adjust if
necessary.

G 15. Use a tachometer to measure the rotational speed of the motor. Record
your result in the appropriate cell in Table 4-2. Repeat your measurements
for the flow rate values indicated in Table 4-2.

PRESSURE FLOW RATE SPEED OF ROTATION

100 R/min (or 4.0 SCFM)

80 R/min (or 3.0 SCFM)

60 R/min (or 2.0 SCFM)

Table 4-2. Rotational Speed Values.

G 16. From the values indicated in Table 4-2, what can you conclude from the
rotational speed vs flow rate relationship?

G 17. Close the shutoff valves and turn the regulator adjusting knob completely
counterclockwise.

Directional and Speed Control of Pneumatic Motors

G 18. Modify your circuit as shown in Figure 4-12. Facing the motor shaft, connect
the Flow Control Valve FCV1 to the left port of the motor.

4-17
Pneumatic Motor Circuits

Figure 4-12. Schematic Diagram of a Circuit Using Speed Control Both Directions.

G 19. Open the Flow Control Valves FCV1 and FCV2 by turning the control knobs
fully counterclockwise.

G 20. Referring to the schematic diagram shown in Figure 4-12, determine in

which direction the motor will rotate when pressurizing the circuit. Explain
why.

Note: Wear ear protectors when conducting this part of the

exercise.

G 21. Open the shutoff valves and set the pressure regulator at 400 kPa (or
60 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

G 22. Use the required directional control valve to set the motor rotation in the
counterclockwise direction.

G 23. Adjust the Flow Control Valve FCV1 to obtain a rotational speed of
3000 r/min.

G 24. Record the flow rate in the appropriate cell in Table 4-3.

4-18
Pneumatic Motor Circuits

G 25. Push down the button on the directional control valve DCV2 to set the motor
rotation in the clockwise direction.

G 26. Adjust the Flow Control Valve FCV2 to obtain a rotational speed of
2000 r/min.

G 27. Record the flow rate in the appropriate cell in Table 4-3.

DIRECTION
SPEED FLOW RATE
OF ROTATION

Counterclockwise
Clockwise

Table 4-3. Pneumatic Motor Operating Parameters.

G 28. From the values indicated in Table 4-3, what can you conclude about the
operation of the circuit?

G 29. On the Conditioning Unit, close the shutoff valves and turn the regulator
adjusting knob completely counterclockwise. You should read 0 kPa (or
0 psi) on the regulated Pressure Gauge.

G 30. Disconnect and store all tubing and components.

CONCLUSION

In this exercise, you saw that pneumatic motors convert fluid energy into mechanical
rotational energy. You also learned about the three basic types of pneumatic motors:
vane, piston and turbine.

You learned that motor speed is proportional to the flow rate through the motor and
inversely proportional to the displacement. You also learned that the torque of a
pneumatic motor is directly proportional to the system pressure at the motor inlet and
to displacement.

You experienced how to control the direction of rotation, speed and torque of a
pneumatic motor.

4-19
Pneumatic Motor Circuits

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Torque refers to

a. the linear force generated by a single-acting cylinder.

b. the speed of a pneumatic motor.
c. the rotational force generated by a motor.
d. the lifting force generated by an air bearing.

2. The speed of rotation of a motor is directly proportional to

a. the flow rate.

b. the displacement.
c. the pressure.
d. the load.

3. To increase the torque output capability of a motor

a. the flow rate must be decreased.

b. the flow rate must be increased.
c. the displacement must be increased.
d. the pressure must be increased.

4. The three basic types of pneumatic motors are

a. vane, piston and turbine.

b. rotary, vane and piston.
c. turbine, rotary and vane.
d. piston, turbine and rotary.

5. The output power of a motor is

a. equal to the torque developed at the motor shaft multiplied by the flow rate.
b. zero when the speed or the torque becomes maximum.
c. maximum when the speed or the torque becomes zero.
d. equal to the torque developed at the motor shaft multiplied by the speed of
the shaft.

4-20
 Exercise 4-3

Pneumatic Motor Performance

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE

C To introduce the use of the manufacturer's data sheets;

C To learn how to determine the power, torque and flow rate of a pneumatic motor
using the data sheets.

DISCUSSION

The torque is the most important factor in selecting a pneumatic motor. If the torque
is not adequate, the motor can not turn and no power is developed. In general, a
motor should deliver the required output power at 65% of system pressure. This
allows full system pressure to be used for standing and motor overloads.

Manufacturers often supply information concerning pneumatic motor power, speed

and torque ratings in the form of charts. The charts for the trainer pneumatic motor
are shown in Figure 4-13.

4-21
Pneumatic Motor Performance

Figure 4-13. Trainer Pneumatic Motor Charts.

For example, assume that an application requires a pneumatic motor that generates
a torque of 0.226 N@m (or 2 lbf@in) at a rotational speed of 4000 r/min. According to
the torque vs speed chart, the motor will meet these requirements if the pressure
drop through the motor equals 276 kPa (or 40 psi). The other charts reveal that a
flow rate of 157 R/min (or 5.55 SCFM) is needed, and that the motor has an output
power rating of 97 W (or 0.13 hp) at this pressure and speed.

REFERENCE MATERIAL

For additional information about motors, refer to the chapter entitled Check Valve
Cylinders, and Motors in the Parker-Hannifin manual Industrial Pneumatic
Technology.

4-22
Pneumatic Motor Performance

Procedure summary

In the first part of the exercise, you will use the manufacturer's data sheets to
determine the flow rate, torque and output power of the pneumatic motor from
measured values of pressure and speed.

In the second part, you will verify the effect caused by a load increment.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix A of this manual, to obtain the
list of equipment required to perform this exercise.

PROCEDURE

G 1. Verify the status of the trainer according to the procedure given in

Exercise 1-2.

Note: Wear protective gloves when conducting this exercise and

refer to the safety rules in Exercise 1-1.

G 2. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 4-14.

Note: Because of high levels of noise generated by pneumatic

motors, you should always exhaust compressed air from your
circuit through the muffler at the exhaust port of the main shutoff
valve on the Conditioning Unit.

Figure 4-14. Schematic Diagram of a Circuit Using a Bidirectional Motor.

G 3. Open the main shutoff valve and the branch shutoff valve at the manifold
and set the pressure regulator to obtain 300 kPa (or 40 psi) on the Pressure
Gauge connected to the inlet port of the motor.

4-23
Pneumatic Motor Performance

G 4. Use a tachometer to measure the rotational speed of the motor. Record

your result in the appropriate cell in Table 4-4.

PRESSURE
OUTPUT *
AT INLET PORT SPEED FLOW RATE * TORQUE *
POWER
OF THE MOTOR

* from manufacturer's flow charts

Table 4-4. Pneumatic Motor Operating Parameters.

G 5. Close the shutoff valves.

G 6. Referring to the charts in Figure 4-13, determine the flow rate, torque and
output power corresponding to the pressure and speed measured in steps
3 and 4. Record the values in Table 4-4.

G 7. Referring to the charts in Figure 4-13, determine the speed at which the
torque is maximum.

G 8. Connect a Flowmeter between the outlet port of the motor and the muffler.

G 9. Open the shutoff valves and set the pressure regulator to obtain 300 kPa (or
40 psi) on the Pressure Gauge connected to the inlet port of the motor.

G 10. Use a tachometer to measure the rotational speed of the motor. Record
your result in the appropriate cell in Table 4-4.

G 11. Holding the shaft of the motor, stall the motor while observing the reading
on the Flowmeter. Since the motor is stalled, explain why the flow rate is not
equal to zero.

G 12. On the Conditioning Unit, close the shutoff valves and turn the regulator
adjusting knob completely counterclockwise.

4-24
Pneumatic Motor Performance

G 13. Referring to the charts in Figure 4-13, determine the flow rate, torque and
output power corresponding to the pressure and speed measured in steps
9 and 10. Record the values in Table 4-4.

G 14. Compare the speed values indicated in Table 4-4. Explain why the speed
decreases when the Flowmeter is added to the circuit.

G 15. Compare the torque values determined in steps 6 and 13. Explain why the
torque increases when the Flowmeter is added to the circuit.

G 16. Explain what would happen to the torque and speed of the motor if
compressed air was not exhausted through the muffler but directly to the
atmosphere.

G 17. Disconnect and store all tubing and components.

CONCLUSION

In this exercise, you have learned how to use the manufacturer's data sheets to
determine the output power, torque and flow rate of a pneumatic motor.

You have also seen how the torque and speed react when the load increases.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Manufacturers often supply information concerning pneumatic motors

a. on request.
b. in the form of tables.
c. in the form of pictures.
d. in the form of charts.

4-25
Pneumatic Motor Performance

2. Referring to Figure 4-13, determine the torque corresponding to a pressure drop

of 400 kPa (or 60 psi) at a speed of 6000 r/min.

a. 0.20 N@m (or 1.75 lbf@in).

b. 0.30 N@m (or 2.75 lbf@in).
c. 0.40 N@m (or 3.75 lbf@in).
d. Impossible to determine using the charts.

3. In general, a motor delivers the required output power

a. at minimum torque.
b. at maximum torque.
c. at system pressure.
d. at 65% of system pressure.

4. It is the most important characteristic in selecting a pneumatic motor.

a. The speed.
b. The torque.
c. The flow rate.
d. The size.

5. Referring to Figure 4-13, how can the displacement of a motor be determined?

a. From the output power vs speed relationship.

b. From the torque vs speed relationship.
c. From the flow rate vs speed relationship.
d. Impossible to determine using the charts.

4-26
 Unit Test

1. How can a 4-way valve be made to act as a 3-way valve?

a. By plugging one port.

b. By plugging two ports.
c. By plugging one input port and one output port.
d. By plugging two output ports.

2. Stalling a pneumatic motor

a. is dangerous.
b. causes no damage.
c. causes a pressure build-up.
d. is impossible.

3. The housings and spools of pilot-operated valves

a. are similar to those of direct-operated valves

. b. are different from those of direct-operated valves.
c. are smaller than those of direct-operated valves.
d. are bigger than those of direct-operated valves.

4. Pilot-operated valves may move their spools using

a. a pedal.
b. a pushbutton.
c. one or two pilots along with a return spring.
d. a lever.

5. Pilot-operated valves reduce the delays caused by

a. complex circuits.
b. compressibility of air and friction in long tubing lines.
c. components connected in series.
d. high-pressure pilot lines.

6. The displacement of a pneumatic motor

a. is the volume of air required for the motor shaft to turn one complete
revolution.
b. corresponds to the amount of force generated by the motor.
c. corresponds to the resistance of the motor to turn one complete revolution.
d. corresponds to the speed divided by the flow rate.

7. What causes the actual motor speed to be less than the theoretical speed?

a. Friction.
b. Internal leakages and compressibility of air.
c. Load.
d. Pressure losses.

4-27
 Unit Test

8. A double-piloted 4-way, 5-port, 2-position directional control valve

a. does not have exhaust ports.

b. has one exhaust port by flow-path configuration.
c. has two exhaust ports by flow-path configuration.
d. It depends on the circuit.

9. The torque developed at the motor shaft multiplied by the speed corresponds to
the

a. force.
b. displacement.
c. output power.
d. torque power.

10. No torque will be generated by a pneumatic motor if

a. there is no load.
b. the load exceeds the motor output power.
c. the motor speed is low.
d. pressure exceeds 65% of pressure system.

4-28
 Appendix A
Equipment Utilization Chart

The following Lab-Volt equipment is required to perform the exercises in this manual.

EQUIPMENT EXERCISE
MODEL DESCRIPTION 1-1 1-2 1-3 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 4-1 4-2 4-3
6411 Conditioning Unit 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
6412 Accumulator 1 1
6413 Vacuum Generator 1 1
6420 Directional Valve, Push-Button Operated 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 2
6421 Flow Control Valve 1 1 1 1 2 1 2
6422 Directional Valve, Double-Air-Pilot Operated 1 1 1
6440 Single-Acting Cylinder 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
6441 Double-Acting Cylinder 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
6442 Bidirectional Motor 1 1 1
6443 Air Bearing 1 1
6450 Pressure Gauge 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
6451 Flowmeter 1 1 1 1
6480 Loading Device 1 1
6490 Tees 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
6491-1 Tubing and Accessories 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
6492 Long Line 1 1 1

A-1
A-2
 Appendix B
Care of the Pneumatics Trainer

a. Keep all components and work area in a clean, dirt-free condition.

b. Use only a clean, lint-free cloth to wipe or dry component parts or to clean dust
and dirt from the outside of the system.

c. Operate each component every month to prevent component sticking.

d. The muffler on the Conditioning Unit must be cleaned with common solvents
every two months.

e. Apply one drop of pneumatic oil through each tube fitting of the components as
indicated in Table B-1.

MODEL EQUIPMENT ADD PNEUMATIC OIL

6442 Bidirectional Motor At each use
6411 Conditioning Unit
6420 Directional Valve, Pushbutton Operated
6421 Flow Control Valve
Every week
6422 Directional Valve, Pushbutton Operated
6440 Single-Acting Cylinder
6441 Double-Acting Cylinder
6412 Accumulator
6413 Vacuum Generator
6443 Air Bearing
6450 Pressure Gauge
6451 Flowmeter Not applicable
6480 Loading Device
6490 Tees
6491 Accessories
6492 Long Line

Table B-1. Oil Adding Rate.

f. The filter element of the Conditioning Unit should be replaced once a year.
Contact your Lab-Volt representative for any assistance.

B-1
B-2
 Appendix C
Hydraulics and Pneumatics Graphic Symbols

Figure C-1.

C-1
 Hydraulics and Pneumatics Graphic Symbols

Figure C-2.

C-2
 Appendix D
Conversion Factors

SI to English

(Multiply SI unit by conversion factor to obtain English unit)

CONVERSION
SI UNIT ENGLISH UNIT
FACTOR

Area
square millimeter, mm2 0.0016 square inch, in2
square centimeter, cm2 0.155 square inch, in2
square meter, m2 10.765 square foot, ft2

Displacement of a motor
cubic centimeter per revolution, cm3/r 0.061 cubic inch per
revolution, (in3/r)

Flow
liter per minute, R/min 0.035 cubic foot per min
(CFM), ft3/min

Force
newton, N 0.225 pound force, lbf

Length
centimeter, cm 0.39 inch, in
meter, m 3.281 foot, ft

Mass
gram, g 0.0353 ounce, oz
kilogram, kg 2.205 pound, lb

Power
watt, W 0.00134 horsepower, hp

Pressure
atmosphere, atm 14.7 pound force per square
inch (psi), lbf/in2
bar 14.5 pound force per square
inch (psi), lbf/in2
kilopascal, kPa 0.145 pound force per square
inch (psi), lbf/in2
millimeter of mercury, mmHg 0.0197 pound force per square
inch (psi), lbf/in2
millimeter of water, mmH2O 0.00142 pound force per square
inch (psi), lbf/in2

Torque
Newton-meter, NAm 8.85 pound force-inch, lbfAin

Velocity
centimeter per minute, cm/min 0.394 inch per minute, in/min

Volume
cubic centimeter, cm3 0.061 cubic inch, in3

D-1
D-2
 Appendix E
New Terms and Words

absolute pressure – Gauge pressure plus standard atmospheric pressure.

accumulator – A pressure vessel used to store compressed gas in a fluid power

branch circuit.

actuator – Any linear or rotary device converting fluid power into mechanical motion
and force.

air bearing – A device that uses air pressure to reduce friction between two
surfaces.

atmospheric pressure – The pressure created by the weight of the air surrounding
the earth.

barometer – A device used to measure atmospheric pressure that consists of a

suspended column of mercury.

barometric pressure – Atmospheric pressure as measured by a barometer, ex-

pressed as the height of a column of mercury held up by the pressure of the
atmosphere.

bore – The interior diameter of a hole, tube, or cylinder.

cap end – The end of a cylinder which does not have a piston rod extending out of
it.

check valve – A valve that limits fluid flow to one direction.

compressor – A mechanical device that decreases the volume of a gas, increasing

its pressure.

configurations – In a fluid power valve, the possible combinations of fluid flow paths
that may exist.

cracking pressure – The pressure at which a relief valve, etc., begins to open and
pass fluid.

cylinder – The chamber within which a piston moves; a fluid power device that
converts fluid energy into linear mechanical energy.

directional control valve – A valve that permits the assignment of a direction to a

pressurized fluid.

double-acting – Capable of using fluid power to generate force in two directions.

extend – To open or straighten out; to stretch to fullest length.

fitting – A piece of hardware used to connect, join, or couple conductors to other

components.

E-1
 New Terms and Words

flow – To move or run freely in the manner characteristic of a fluid.

flow control valve – A metering device consisting of a needle valve and a check
valve in parallel within one valve body.

flow rate – The volume of fluid passing a point in a given amount of time.

flowmeter – A device for measuring the flow of fluid through a circuit.

inlet port – A fluid port through which fluid enters a component.

linear – In a straight line.

linear actuator – An actuator which converts energy from compressed air into linear
motion.

lubricator – A device that injects oil into a circuit or component to provide

lubrication.

manifold – A conductor which provides multiple connection ports.

manually operated – Activated by a human operator using a lever, button, foot

pedal, or other mechanical device.

meter-in circuit – A circuit that controls the flow entering an actuator.

meter-out circuit – A circuit that controls the flow leaving an actuator.

motor – Device which converts fluid power energy into rotational motion.

muffler – A device used to attenuate pneumatic exhaust noise.

needle valve – A flow control valve that contains an adjustable variable orifice
created by a needle and seat.

normally non-passing valve – A directional valve through which fluid does not flow
during the normal operation of a fluid power system.

normally passing valve – A directional valve that provides an unrestricted flow path
for fluid during normal operation.

orifice – An opening, hole, or aperture, as of a tube or pipe.

outlet port – A fluid port through which fluid exits a component.

poppet – A sealing element that moves in a plane perpendicular to its seat.

port – An opening in a valve or other device to which a connection may be made.

position – Of a directional control valve, a possible flow path configuration.

pressure – The exertion of force upon a surface by fluid in contact with that surface.

E-2
 New Terms and Words

pressure drop – The difference between upstream and downstream pressures

across a valve, fitting, or other orifice or restriction.

pressure gauge – A device that converts fluid energy into mechanical motion
proportional to the pressure of the fluid, used to measure pressure in a fluid power
circuit.

pressure release valve – A valve fitted on some pressure switches to exhaust

residual air from the compressor to the atmosphere.

pressure switch –An electrical component that opens and closes an electrical
circuit according to the fluid pressure in the sensing port.

psia – Pounds per square inch absolute; the total pressure in a fluid when the weight
of the atmosphere and additional forces are combined.

psig (also expressed as psi) – Pounds per square inch gauge; the pressure in a fluid
from outside forces other than atmospheric pressure.

quick disconnect – A coupling used in fluid power to connect or disconnect fluid

conductors quickly without tools or special devices.

receiver – The storage tank used to store the output of a pneumatic compressor.

regulator – A pressure control device that maintains downstream pressure at a level

equal to or less than system pressure.

relief valve – A valve which limits maximum system pressure by exhausting fluid
when the preset pressure is reached.

rod end – The end of the cylinder which has a piston rod extending out of it.

rotary actuator – A trade name for an actuator that converts fluid energy into
rotational motion.

safety relief valve – A pressure control valve designed to remain closed during
normal operation, opening to protect the system only when a component fails or a
malfunction occurs.

single-acting – Powered by compressed air in only one direction.

stroke – The distance the piston travels during extension and retraction.

theoretical – Based on theory; relating to mathematical calculations made assuming

ideal conditions.

vacuum – The absence of matter, especially air.

E-3
 New Terms and Words

volume – The mass or quantity of a fluid or substance, expressed in gallons, liters,

or cubic units.

way – In a directional control valve, a fluid port that represents a possible flow path.

working pressure – The rating of a conductor that signifies the maximum

continuous system pressure that the conductor is designed to withstand.

E-4
 Bibliography

Hedges, Charles S., Industrial Fluid Power, Volume 1, Third Edition, Dallas, Texas:
Womack Educational Publications, Department of Womack Machine Supply
Company, 1993.
ISBN 0-9605644-5-4

Hedges, Charles S., Industrial Fluid Power, Volume 2, Fourth Edition, Dallas, Texas:
Womack Educational Publications, Department of Womack Machine Supply
Company, 1988.
ISBN 0-943719-01-1

Parker Hannifin Corporation. Industrial Pneumatic Technology. Bulletin 0275-B1.

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