Learner Guide

Creative Thinking

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Table of Contents
MODULE 1 ANALYSE OPPORTUNITIES FOR INNOVATION .................................................... 3
IDENTIFY CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION ............................................................................................... 4
1.1 THE INNOVATION PROCESS .............................................................................................................. 4
1.2 FEATURES OF AN INNOVATIVE ENVIRONMENT ............................................................................... 10
Class Activity 1: Features of an Innovative Environment .................................................................... 15
MODULE 2 UNDERSTAND TECHNIQUES FOR PROMOTING CREATIVITY ...................... 16
UNDERSTANDING THE TECHNIQUES FOR PROMOTING CREATIVITY ..................................................... 17
2.1 Identify Creativity and Innovation Techniques......................................................................... 17
Class Activity 2: Creativity and Innovation Techniques....................................................................... 57
2.2 Explain the Techniques for Promoting Creativity .................................................................... 58
Class Activity 3: Techniques for Promoting Creativity ........................................................................ 58
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING ................................................................................................ 60

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Module 1
Analyse Opportunities for Innovation

After completing this module, the learner will be able to analyse own unit in terms of
opportunities for innovation, by successfully completing the following:

• Identify features of an environment that promotes innovation

• Analyse own unit in relation to the features of an environment conducive to
innovation
• Interpret the findings of the analysis to determine whether the current
environment promotes innovation
• Identify areas for improvement on the basis of the analysis conducted

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Identify Creativity and Innovation

In order to develop yourself as an innovator, the first step is to identify creativity
around you. Doing this will set the stage for developing and harnessing your
creativity and that of others. Nothing is more difficult than fostering an air of creativity
if you lack that creative edge. Understanding your own creative potential, and that of
those around you, is an important step toward building a creative team or
organization, and improving as an innovator yourself.

1.1 The Innovation Process

Being a leader is more than just telling people to get work done. Even if your charter
isn’t innovation, you need to innovate. Harnessing and fostering innovation within
your team willnot only improve its productivity and morale, but can also lead to
improvements in both company products and processes, as well as enhance the
visibility of you and your team within the company. In this course, you will create and
maintain a business environment that capitalizes on the innovation and creativity of
your team members.

When you hear the word “innovation,” what do you think of? You probably think of the
next big product: a new music player, a new type of video disc, or an environmentally
friendly car.But innovation doesn’t have to be that big. A new approach to your
grocery shopping list or a different way to run a meeting is also an innovation.

Innovation the act of introducing new tangible objects or intangible processes. These
new “things” can be introduced to the market by a company as a whole, or developed
internally to support the company’s operations. Virtually every company is expected
to innovate in the market in order to compete, but not all innovations need be in the
marketplace; innovations in processes that are internal to a company can be just as
important as external ones.

Regardless of its venue, successful innovation generally keeps to an established

process. First, a problem is defined. Next, ideas are generated to address the
problem. Finally, ideas are chosen for implementation, put into practice, and revisited
and revised along the way. Think about any idea you’ve had. Hasn’t it kept to this
process, in one way or another?

Creativity
We can all agree on what innovation means. But what about creativity? Don’t you
need to be creative to innovate? Creativity is the ability to approach problems or
tasks in new and unique ways, to produce solutions or results outside of established
ideas or rules. Unlike popular belief, creativity is not the same as artistic talent.
Creativity exists in every field, from art to science, from traditionally “creative”

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endeavors to those thought of as strictly analytical. Creativity is not directly related to

intelligence; you don’t need to be a genius to be an innovator. While not everyone
considers themselves “creative,” just about everyone is able to take creative
approaches in certain areas.

Creativity can be seen in a number of areas. Consider the areas in which you have
creativity, including areas not given. How can your personal brand of creativity be
integrated into your work?

Visual arts Visual artists are what most people think of when they think “creative.”
They have atalent for drawing, painting, sculpting, or any number of other media. An
artist may be better at just one of them, but can usually picture something clearly in
his mind and then bring it to life on paper or whatever medium he’s using.
Music Musicians are another category of people everyone thinks of as creative
types. They love music, both playing it and composing it. Many times they can even
inject their own brand of creativity into existing music.
Writing Lots of people think of writers as creative, but writers write more than stories
and plays. They can write speeches, commercials, even instruction manuals. In any
case, a writer puts some of himself into everything he writes.
Hands-on Many people think of mechanics or carpenters as creative. Hands-on
people can be tinkerers. They’ve got creativity for hands-on and mechanical
activities. They can build models, wire a house, or fix a toaster; all those things
require them to take creative approaches to physical creation.
Humor Comedians love to make people laugh, but doing that isn’t easy. They need a
creative streak to come up with something new that will tickle people’s funny bones.
Creative humorists can come up with jokes on the fly that people have never heard.
Collaboration Creative collaborators work well with people. If you think that doesn’t
require them to be creative, think again. They need to take creative approaches
when dealing with others, so they can work with them. Collaborators might be good
salespeople, but they’re also good at negotiating, facilitating, and encouraging
creativity.
Problem solving Solving problems of all sorts requires plenty of creativity. The more
difficult problems, in any field, require innovative approaches. This brand of creativity
is helpful for people in scientific areas and even math. Do you think we ever would’ve
gotten to the moon if rocket scientists had no creativity?
Visualization A visualizer has the ability to accurately visualize various concepts,
even if they’re not her own ideas. She can make something work in her mind, just by
thinking or hearing about it. This type of creativity can be really helpful when she’s
trying to figure out if something will work or not. She may be called “visionary.” In any
case, she has a lot of insight into how things look, work, or happen in the real world.
She doesn’t even need to see the real thing to grasp how it works.
Technical Like a scientist, these people can solve problems, but of a technical
nature. Like a chess player, they can “think ahead” to foresee potential problems and
solutions, and build connections between various parts of a problem. If it weren’t for
people like them, the newest versions of software wouldn’t have those features you
use so much, and the latest video games wouldn’t even run!

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Process Dealing with process may or may not be this person’s sole job
responsibility, but she has a knack for process. She can work through the best way to
do something and foresee issues that might come up. She’s also good at facilitating
efficiency, which the people on her team really appreciate. This type of creativity can
save a lot of time by improving how work gets done.
Others What other types of creativity do you see in the world around you? Think
about all you’ve learned about these various creative people, and what it all means
for creativity in general.

Just about everyone has some amount of creativity, even if they don’t recognize it.
1. In what areas do you observe people around you demonstrating creativity?
2. What areas have the potential for creativity that you hadn’t considered before?
3. Are there any potentially creative areas you can think of that are not in the list?

Cognitive Predisposition
Have you heard the terms “left-brained” and “right-brained?” These terms stem from
modern psychology research into cognitive predisposition, which also addresses the
debate between innate and learned creativity. Cognitive predisposition refers to the
way a person innately thinks and approaches problems and situations.

Disposition Description

Left-brain The left side of the brain governs logic. People who favor this hemisphere,
called left-brained people, are logical, sequential, and analytical. They take objective
stances and look at parts rather than wholes. They are traditionally thought of as
not creative.
Right-brain The right side of the brain governs the more creative thought process,
and thus right-brained people are traditionally thought of as creative. They are less
logical and orderly than left-brained people, and tend to look at a whole rather than
smaller parts. They are adept at synthesizing new ideas, and have strong intuition.
Innate creativity Also considered “raw talent,” innately creative people arguably are
born with creativity; it is in their nature. They did not learn to be innovators, it just
seems to come naturally. Studies of right-brained people lend credence to creativity
being innate.
Acquired creativity This form of creativity is learned and honed through practice.
Innovative thought processes are the result of training and effort rather than natural
talent. The conflict between nature and nurture, between innate and acquired
creativity, is still unresolved. Studies seem to indicate that people can learn new
ways in which to be creative and improve their creativity, but without a natural talent,
doing so will be difficult.

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Attain an Innovative Mindset

Once you identify your current level of creativity, you may need to adjust your way of
thinking to step into an innovative role. Even if you already have admirable creative
potential, getting into the right frame of mind is necessary before you can direct the
creative energy of others. If you are able to attain an innovative mindset, it will
alleviate untold frustration when innovations begin popping up around you. It can be
overwhelming to deal with changes and innovations, especially in the workplace, if
you are not operating in a mindset that is open to such innovations and you are not
prepared to adapt to their potential disruptions. Additionally, if you can attain the
proper mindset, you will be able to act much more readily on your own creative ideas.

Innovation
Innovation is the act of creating something new and unique, or the result of such an
act. Innovations can be products or processes; tangible goods or intangible methods
and approaches.

Innovation is the result of creativity, and can be found anywhere, be it in the

workplace, the marketplace, or at home. In your case, you are probably not
responsible for producing innovations in the marketplace, so we will focus on
innovations in the workplace.

While some innovations, known as sustaining innovations, are necessary and

expected, others can be highly disruptive to a business or environment. These
disruptive innovations change the game and upset the balance. We see them in the
marketplace regularly, as new and exciting products force old ones to fade away.
Smaller, internal innovations can be disruptive too. A disruptive innovation is any that
may seem undesirable at first, and pose a risk to either the innovator or its
competitors.

Company Culture
Company culture, in terms of innovation, is the company’s view of and response to
the various aspects of innovation. Aspects include experimentation, risk taking, and
change. Companies with the overall objective to innovate in the marketplace tend to
have a culture that is more accepting of innovation, as do younger companies that
have not yet fallen into the rut of established processes and business models.

Companies with very bureaucratic structures tend to be less accepting of risk,

especially if they have established a process for success. The more successful a
company, the less it innovates, for fear of losing its market share. Its existing process
is what made it successful, after all, so why change it?

Discussion: Your Company Culture

Your company’s culture can have a big influence on how innovation is perceived and
supported.
1. Can you provide examples of innovation in your workplace? Are they sustaining or
disruptive?
2. How would you describe the culture at your company? How does this culture
impact
innovation? Does it encourage or discourage it?
3. What opportunities for changing the culture do you see in your workplace?

Innovative Mindsets
Just as creativity can be found in a variety of settings, different attitudes or mindsets
contribute to innovation. Anyone involved in innovating may need to assume several

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of these mindsets throughout the innovation process. Let’s talk to a few people to see
what their typical mindsets are.

Mindset Description
Open Those with an open mind are willing to try just about anything. They don’t
make judgments about ideas, and don’t get attached to any particular idea or
process. This mindset is important if you’re going to ask anyone else to innovate.
How can you ask people to come up with something new if you’re
closed-minded?
Skeptical Being a skeptic doesn’t mean being doubtful of every new thing that
comes along, but a skeptic can critically evaluate the negatives or drawbacks to the
current state or a new idea. While they may seem negative, skeptics are usually
just trying to see where the holes are in an idea. People with this mindset are good to
have around when brainstorming new ideas and catching potential problems before
they arise.
Experimental While not necessarily actual scientists, this type of person likes to
think of herself as one. She loves to experiment and play with new ideas. She is
needed in order to try out new things, or even to try out the way things currently
are to identify areas for improvement.
Intuitive This person has a great intuition and a knack for feeling out an issue. He
can almost automatically know if something will work, and it’s not that uncommon for
an idea to just come to him, sometimes inspired by things around him or sometimes
out of the blue. Intuitive people often love brainstorming because it gives them a
chance to be openly creative and contribute ideas spontaneously.
Focused In this mindset, a person has the ability to focus on an issue and keep
plugging away at a problem or innovation to get things working. She sticks to
work until it’s done, working through roadblocks and distractions. Without this focus,
a lot of innovations would never be realized, especially in less receptive company
cultures.

Mindset Description
Rational This mindset is very left-brained and logical. Rational people usually
consider things in a very realistic light. Going step-by-step, they can
systematically approach an innovation or issue. This mindset is useful in
understanding all facets of a problem or innovation. But even in a leftbrained,
rational mindset, one can still come up with new ideas, just based
on what makes sense and where they see a gap or need.

Discussion: Innovative Mindsets in the Workplace

Consider the innovative mindsets you tend to have most often.
1. What mindset do you find yourself in most of the time? Think of the normal job
tasks you have and what mindset you assume for each.
2. How do you see each of the other mindsets as being helpful in your regular work
tasks, or for other tasks?

How to Attain an Innovative Mindset

Attaining an innovative mindset requires examining and altering your way of thinking,
so that your potentially restrained creativity can come forth.

Guidelines
To attain an innovative mindset, consider the following guidelines:
• Look for and try to recognize any instances of learned helplessness you might
have.

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• The first step to overcoming feelings that you lack creativity is to recognize
the feelings and when they occur.
• Go outside your comfort zone.
• Be aware that there is danger of becoming complacent if you remain within
your comfort zone.
• Try things you would normally not try, both inside and outside the workplace.
If you are used to doing things a certain way, try doing them another way. For
instance, if you tend to make snap decisions, try to get the thoughts of other
people instead. If you normally try to do things quickly, slow down and see
how it goes. If you are normally quiet and reserved, try verbalizing to others
what you are thinking. In innovation, this is extremely important, as many
people are hesitant to contribute ideas; if you think of something, bring it up,
don’t just hold on to it.
• If an idea is normally one you are not comfortable with, due to your own
feelings or external factors such as the company culture or the process, give
it more consideration rather than discarding it immediately.
• Prepare your environment for innovation.
• How are you most creative? Is it when you have a lot going on around you, or
when you are not distracted?
• Do you prefer to think when exercising, reading, working?
• Determine what sort of environment is most conducive to your creative
process. No single solution works for everyone.
• Before generating ideas, establish an open mindset.
• Put yourself in the moment, and do not dwell on the problems of the past or
the potential problems of the future. Let go of past failures or fears of
repeating them.
• Avoid thinking in a straight line; linear thought can restrict creativity.
• Avoid focusing rigidly on your goal, and instead be willing to explore various
• options.
• Refrain from making judgments about good or bad, or in regards to a
solution’s usefulness or practicality.
• Remind yourself that when innovating there is no right or wrong answer;
accept uncertainty and ambiguity instead of patently disregarding them.
• Let go of your attachments to expectations, roles, ideas, and so on; go with
the flow.
• When evaluating the present state of a problem, establish a skeptical
mindset.
• Think skeptically about the current state and barriers to change.
• Ask questions like, “Why do we do it this way?”, “What else can we do?”, or
“What would make this better?”
• Don’t be afraid to assume a pessimistic point of view. Think of all the potential
• problems in a solution in order to find a solution with the smallest number of
problems.
• When generating ideas, establish an intuitive mindset.
• Think about how things have worked before and what success other people
have had.
• Use other ideas as springboards for new ones. Consider aspects of each idea
that could be successful, and make connections between various ideas.
• Look for triggers for creativity and your own sources of inspiration.
• To further generate and work with ideas, establish a focused mindset.
• While working on a particular problem, try to eliminate distractions.
• Let your mind focus only on the task at hand.

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• Consider letting your mind wander, but do not take on other thought-intensive
tasks. Clearing your head with a walk or relaxing activity can actually be a
great way to focus.
• When trying out ideas, establish an experimental mindset.
• Be prepared to try various approaches.
• Be willing to see each test run through to completion, even if it seems less
efficient than others. Every experiment has some value.
• Evaluate and compare the results of all tests.
• When deciding on a final solution, establish a rational mindset.
• Weigh the benefits and drawbacks to each potential solution.
• Be prepared to make informed decisions about the relative value of each
solution. In order to do this, carefully study each solution and its positive and
negative points.
• Consider, at this point, the feasibility of an idea in the real world.
• To counterbalance your natural thought tendencies, and your learned
helplessness, try to focus on a mindset that you do not normally have. For
instance, if you tend to have a rigid or rational mindset, force yourself to have
a more open mindset from time to time ,even when not innovating.
• Foster a culture of innovation.
• As a team leader, you should have the ability and freedom, at least within
your team, to establish a culture that supports innovation and creativity.
• Encourage mistakes by not punishing them. If you punish every failure, even
through subtle disapproval, people will quickly learn not to try anything new.
• Remind yourself and others that mistakes and failures are the only ways
innovations will be fine-tuned and developed.
• Be willing to try different things, even if they don’t seem sensible. Only
through exploration will creativity surface.

1.2 Features of an Innovative Environment

We have seen that management need to come up with creative solutions to the
challenges presented by globalisation and the advancement of technology.

You might say that that is easier said than done. In fact, you may be thinking, “I’m not
one of those creative types who can invent great new gadgets or dream up new
ideas in a split second.”

Remember, that often the only difference between creative and uncreative people is
self-perception. Creative people see themselves as creative and give themselves the
freedom to create. Uncreative people do not think about creativity and do not give
themselves the opportunity to create anything new.

Creativity is the bringing into being of something which did not exist before, either as
a product, a process or a thought.
You would be demonstrating creativity if you:
• Invent something which has never existed before
• Invent something which exists elsewhere but you are not aware of
• Invent a new process for doing something
• Reapply an existing process or product into a new or different market

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• Develop a new way of looking at something (bringing a new idea into

existence)
• Change the way someone else looks at something

In fact, we are all creative every day because we are constantly changing the ideas
which we hold about the world about us. Creativity does not have to be about
developing something new to the world, it is more to do with developing something
new to ourselves. The world changes with us when we change ourselves. Our
actions affect the world, and we experience the world in a different way.

Creativity can be used to make products, processes and services better and it can be
used to create them in the first place. By increasing your creativity, you, your
organisation and your customers become happier through improvements in your
quality and quantity of output.

Being creative may just be a matter of setting aside the time needed to take a step
back to ask yourself if there is a better way of doing something. Edward de Bono
calls this a 'Creative Pause'. He suggests that this should be a short break of maybe
only 30 seconds, but that this should be a habitual part of thinking. This needs self-
discipline, as it is easy to forget.

Another important attitude-shift is to view problems as opportunities for improvement.

While this is something of a cliché, it is true. Whenever you solve a problem, you
have a better product or service to offer afterwards
Features of a Culture of Enquiry and Risk-Taking
While one’s innovative abilities are partially genetic, the expression of creative talent
is dependent on several cultural aspects of the work environment that either
stimulate or suppress innovative thinking.
Companies who wish to create an innovative work culture must not only hire creative
individuals, but must also support and embrace an environment that is conducive to
innovation.
Just as we may need to change our thinking about innovation and creativity, we need
to encourage an attitude shift in our team members too. Multiple inputs stimulate
thought and creativity. We all have different experiences, backgrounds, ideas and
perceptions that can lead to greater innovations.
As a leader, you should create opportunities for innovation.
So how can we encourage our immediate team, the larger group and our
stakeholders to participate in the innovation process?
A system should be put in place that allows key stakeholders to contribute to the
innovation process.
Total Quality Management is a method by which management and employees can
become involved in the continuous improvement of goods and services. Ford Motor
Company, Phillips, Toyota and Motorola have all implemented TQM. The objective of
TQM is to do the right things right, the first time, every time”. The activities within
TQM include:
• Buy-in and commitment from the senior management team
• Buy-in and commitment by all employees
• Meeting customer needs and expectations

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• Just in time delivery of products and services

• Improvement teams
• Reducing product and service costs
• Systems that facilitate continuous improvement
• Ownership by line management
• Recognition and reward
• Challenging goals and benchmarks
• Improvement processes and plans
• Strategic planning
Total quality management cannot be achieved without the inclusion of innovative
thinking from various stakeholders. Establishing improvement teams is the key step
in taking innovation forward. The improvement teams will work on the feedback that
is obtained from quality circle meetings and other methods for gathering feedback.
Getting the immediate team to participate in innovation
Set up channels that allow your immediate team to identify problems or opportunities
and to share ideas on innovative actions to address/action these. Select a variety of
channels so that input is encouraged. Channels could include:
• The Idea Room - Ideas are posted on a notice board in the room. Meetings
are held in this room and innovative ideas are explored.
• E-mail - Problems or opportunities are e-mailed to the team and they are
asked to think of ideas to address them prior to the next team meeting.
• Innovation workshops - Workshops are held with the team to brainstorm
innovative ideas for the customer and the department.
• Graffiti wall - A graffiti wall is set up on a notice board for staff to post ideas.
• Quality circle meetings - Meetings are held with the team identify ways in
which quality can be improved upon to meet and surpass customer
expectations.
• Innovation pro-forma - An innovation pro-forma is a template that allows
ideas and solution to be expressed and delivered directly to senior
management. The importance of the process is to get feedback on the ideas
returned to the employees within an agreed upon turn around time.
Refer to the template example of the pro-forma.
Innovation pro-forma

Recommended solutions to address

Current problems experienced:
problems:

Ideas for improving the product and

Recommended steps for improving these:
service offering:

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Recommendations for implementing

Lateral thinking ideas:
ideas:

Answers to be provide within _____

Questions
number of days.

Introduce elements of innovation in regular team meetings

Ensure that innovation is included in the regular team meetings. The innovation pro-
forma and the other channels mentioned provide a framework for including
innovation in team meetings.
First determine which channels you will use in your business to elicit innovative
ideas. Collect all of the ideas and consolidate the feedback into a presentation or
document.

Channels: e-
mail, pro-forma,
idea room,
graffiti wall -
Consolidate

What needs What should Actions for

to change? it change making it
to? happen

During your meeting discuss:

• What needs to change (what are our business pains and opportunities?)
Use this as your framework for innovation by facilitating:
• What should it change to (what will the desired state look like?)
• Actions for making the change happen (how can we get to the desired state?)

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Use creative thinking tips and techniques for idea generation. (Tips and techniques
for brainstorming and creative thinking follow in the next Module).

Creating the right conditions for innovation

The nature of innovation is such that it cannot exist without risk taking. In a study on
innovative organisations, managers invariably identified two critical elements for
innovation:
• Support for risk taking and change
• Tolerance of mistakes.
Innovation means working in new ways and this may lead to errors. A key problem
for managers is how to deal with honest errors - those efforts that, despite the best of
intentions, fall short of expectations. Where performance falls short of expectations,
this should be seen as an opportunity to learn. But this is a very difficult shift in
environments where precision and time constraints are of extreme importance.
There is therefore a close relationship between innovation and risk taking. Indeed,
the relationship is intimate to the extent that organisations cannot engage in
innovation without taking at least a minimum of risk. The tolerance for risk taking is
therefore a gauge for the innovativeness with which an organisation is likely to
pursue its goals.

Impact of personal and organisational values on innovation and risk taking

Personal and organisational values can have a profound effect in either promoting or
constraining risk taking and innovation.
Individual values are the fundamental beliefs a person holds about an issue, a course
of action, or the desirability of a future situation. Individual values are for the most
part not consciously chosen. They tend to be the product of past influences and
experiences, and they evolve gradually. For example, the values of religious
devotees, environmental activists, or pedantic bureaucrats are rarely formed
overnight. They are the result of living in a certain milieu for lengthy periods of time.
Once formed, values are difficult to change. Many armed conflicts, as well as
seemingly irrational behaviours, are the consequences of strongly held beliefs and
values.
To a large extent, values drive individual and organisational behaviour.
"Improving service and performance in the Public Service is a function not only of
systems and structures, but also of people and values. Values influence which tasks
people will do with care, which they will do superficially, and which they will try to
avoid. The role of values has received little attention. Managers tend to give more
attention to systems and structures."1
The conventional view of organisations is that they are run by systems, structures
and rules. This is the truth, of course, but it is not the whole truth. Organisations are
also run by the values and beliefs of their members. It is for this reason that we see
tensions between rules and values which often result in paralysis. If, for example, an
organisation officially announces that there needs to be more risk-taking in order to
foster innovation, and if the underlying values of the organisation and its members

1Auditor General of Canada; http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/pubs_pol/dcgpubs/riskmanagement/rm-riv1-

eng.asp#_Toc456673609

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are risk-aversive, then more risk-taking is unlikely to occur. The case study below
offers an illustration.
Public Service values
On the morning of May 22, 1986, Donald Trump, the New York real estate
developer, called one of his executives, Anthony Gliedman, into his office. They
discussed the inability of the City of New York, despite six years of effort and the
expenditure of nearly $13 million, to rebuild the ice-skating rink in Central Park.
On May 28 Trump offered to take over the rink reconstruction, promising to do
the job in less than six months. A week later Mayor Edward Koch accepted the
offer and shortly thereafter the city appropriated $3 million on the understanding
that Trump would have to pay for any cost overruns out of his own pocket. On
October 28, the renovation was complete, over a month ahead of schedule and
about $750,000 under budget. Two weeks later, skaters were using it.

This example illustrates the tensions between innovation, risk taking and values, and
the paralysis that can result when the tensions are not resolved. Public servants in
the city administration needed to take into account the values of accountability,
equity, responsiveness, efficiency and fiscal integrity. Yet they also needed to be
innovative, which included some risk taking. And they couldn't reconcile these
conflicting interests with the result that the job did not get done!

Class Activity 1: Features of an Innovative Environment

In small groups, complete the formative activity in your Learner Workbook

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Module 2
Understand Techniques for Promoting Creativity

After completing this module, the learner will be able to demonstrate understanding
of the techniques for promoting creativity, by successfully completing the following:

• Identify creativity and innovation techniques in terms of generally accepted theory

and practice
• Explain three techniques for promoting creativity with practical examples

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Understanding the Techniques for Promoting Creativity

A new way of thinking can only occur in an environment of possibility. It's essential to
develop a cooperative, all-inclusive connection between employees and the company
so that everyone is moving in the same direction — so that there is an overall “we.” In
a competitive environment of “us” and “them,” people are too busy focusing on power
struggles and politics. You might get spurts of creativity from some employees, but
not from everyone. It takes constant practice to keep everyone in the company on
track with innovative or possibility thinking.
This Module focuses on techniques to stimulate creative thinking and encourage a
problem-solving mindset.

2.1 Identify Creativity and Innovation Techniques

Creative Thinking Techniques

The difference between logical and creative thinking
“…Thinking is a skill that can be learned, practised, and developed. But you have to
want to develop that skill. You need to learn how to ride a bicycle or drive a car…”
Edward de Bono
Programmed, logical or convergent thinking recognises that our brains are pattern-
recognition systems, and that they do not function like computers. It takes years of
training before we learn to do simple arithmetic - something that computers do very
easily. On the other hand, we can instantly recognise patterns such as faces,
language and handwriting. The only computers that begin to be able to do these
things do it by modelling the way that human brain cells work. Even then, computers
will need to become more powerful before they approach our ability to handle
patterns.
The benefit of good pattern recognition is that we can recognise objects and
situations very quickly.
Imagine how much time would be wasted if you had to do a full analysis every time
you came across a cylindrical canister of effervescent fluid. Most people would just
open their can of cold drink. Without pattern recognition we would starve or be eaten.
We could not cross the road safely.
Unfortunately, we get stuck in our patterns. We tend to think within them. Solutions
we develop are based on previous solutions to similar problems. Normally it does not
occur to us to use solutions belonging to other patterns.
When we are faced with a familiar problem, logical thinking enables us to tap into our
personal experiences and find a suitable solution with the minimum of effort.
By assessing a situation against your relevant experience, you can choose the most
appropriate path, and move towards a solution. This logical approach is very efficient.
However, it can become a barrier when you have little relevant experience; when
there is more than one potential solution, or when you need a brand new solution.
A person who is able to work outside the boundaries of his / her experiences, will be
more successful in the long run.
We use lateral, creative or divergent thinking techniques to break out of this
patterned way of thinking.

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Creative thinking is the process which we use when we come up with a new idea. It
is the merging of ideas which have not been merged before. This creative thinking
process can be accidental or deliberate.
Without using special techniques creative thinking does still occur, but usually in the
accidental way; like a chance happening making you think about something in a
different way and you then discovering a beneficial change. Other changes happen
slowly through pure use of intelligence and logical progression. When using this
accidental or logical progression process, it often takes a long time for products to
develop and improve. In an accelerating and competitive world this is obviously
disadvantageous.

Using special techniques, deliberate creative thinking can be used to develop new
ideas. These techniques force the merging of a wide range of ideas to spark off new
thoughts and processes.
Developments of products occur much more rapidly using these deliberate
techniques than by accident. Many people known for being creative use these
techniques, but are not aware they are doing so because they have not been formally
trained in them. Lateral thinking techniques help us to come up with startling, brilliant
and original solutions to problems and opportunities.

Each type of approach has its strength. Logical, disciplined thinking is enormously
effective in making products and services better. It can, however, only go so far
before all practical improvements have been carried out. Lateral thinking can
generate completely new concepts and ideas, and brilliant improvements to existing
systems. In the wrong place, however, it can be sterile or unnecessarily disruptive.

Divergent or creative thinking involves opening up your mind to find new solutions
and new ways of doing things. Instead of taking your usual, logical approach to a
problem, you can learn to suspend your judgment and look for different, more
inventive solutions. Once you have generated as many ideas as possible in this way,
use a logical thinking process to refine your ideas and identify the best solution to the
problem.
With practice, ongoing creative thinking (the continuous investigation, questioning
and analysis that develops through education, training and self-awareness) occurs all
the time. Ongoing creativity maximises both accidental and deliberate creative
thinking. Ongoing creativity takes time and deliberate practice to become skilful, but
it's surprising how quickly it becomes an attitude, not a technique.
The first step to take is to learn the creative thinking techniques so that you can
deliberately use them to come up with new ideas. You should then practise the
techniques to increase your skill at ongoing creative thinking. (After a while you may
even find it unnecessary to use specific techniques because you may be having too
many ideas anyway.)
Creative thinking techniques work to stimulate original ideas. New ideas happen
when two or more ideas are accidentally or deliberately merged when they have
never been merged before. Creative thinking techniques provide the method for
deliberately combining ideas in ways which you would not normally come across or
think about. This combination generates a truly original idea for you.

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The creative thinking process looks like this2:

Creative thinking is all about merging two previously unrelated or unmerged

thoughts, products or processes.
In practice, of course, it can be very difficult to find the ideas to merge, and then to
develop that new idea into a workable solution.
Processes for extracting ideas from a stimulus

Extract a concept or principle from the stimulus and reuse it

• How does it work?
• What does it achieve?
• How does it achieve it?
• What does the stimulus do?
• In what order does it work?
• Who is involved and why?
Extract a feature from the stimulus and reuse it
• What are its physical attributes?
• Why is it that shape?
• What process is involved and why?
• Who is crucial to its success?
• What is the timing of events?
Extract a positive attribute from the stimulus and try to replicate it
• What is good about the stimulus?
• Why is the stimulus good at what it does?
• How does it succeed?
• In what situations does it work best?
Extract the differences between the stimulus and the current solution
• How do the stimulus and the current solution achieve the same thing, but in a
different way?

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• Why does the stimulus do something one way and the current solution
another?
• What is the difference in physical characteristics?
• What is the difference in process?
• In what way are they used differently?

Merge the stimulus and problem and then reapply the processes of extraction on the
mixture. After you have exhausted extracting the initial ideas from the stimulus itself,
you should merge the stimulus into the current situation and use the same idea
extraction principles described above to the new mixed product. Remember, this
involves using your imagination - which is a lot cheaper than physical
experimentation - and that you're only using it to stimulate new ideas; it does not
matter if the intermediate ideas don't work.
• Physically include the stimulus in the current situation and see what happens
• Force yourself to use the stimulus as a solution (and extract the ideas this
creates).
• Mix the stimulus with the current object/method and extract the good ideas
from it (and extract the ideas this creates ...)
• Imagine what would happen if you followed the process involved with the
stimulus within your current process.
• Examine what happens on a frame-by-frame basis and examine the benefits
at each frame. Is there a benefit at one time and not at another?
• Under what circumstances is the merged solution useful? (A different time,
place, culture, market, ...)
• Physically include part of the stimulus in the current situation and see what
happens

Take a part of the stimulus (e.g. a feature, a process, a physical section, a person
involved) and place that into the current problem situation and examine what
happens. Start extracting the principles and ideas as before. Look at the intermediate
idea on a frame-by-frame basis and examine under what circumstances the idea
would be useful and generally find some beneficial ideas you can reuse and reapply.

When the stimulus is a question, do the following:

• Answer the question directly without embarrassment or inhibition.
• Answer the question in as many different ways that you can. Most questions
have many answers.
• Answer the question from a variety of different points of view. Give answers
from radically opposing views.
• Answer the principles behind why the question was asked. See the question
as asking many things.
• Answer the question both broadly and in great detail. Summarise and expand
on your answers. Answer the larger question too.

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By following the above guidelines with each thinking technique, you should be able to
extract ideas from every stimulus you are given. You will never be stuck for a new
idea if you apply the above guidelines and use the creative thinking techniques we
are going to study next to supply you with fresh and original stimuli.

We are going to look at a few of the most common creative thinking techniques:
Technique 1: Thought experiments
"We don't see things as they are; we see them as we are."
Thought experiments are highly-structured hypothetical questions that employ “What
if?” scenarios

Thought experiments are designed to:

• Help us understand the way we think through reflection on the process
• Identify flaws in the way we have been educated
• Help us find the right question. For example, it does not matter what the bird
on the roof is singing. The real and proper question is: Why is it beautiful?
• Show how all things are subject to interpretation
• Show how to look at the same thing as everyone else and see something
different
• Encourage different ways of thinking
• Encourage flexibility in thought
• Challenge cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the
way is traditionally used
• Promote thinking beyond the boundaries of already established fact

Example: Matchstick problem

Correct the following equation by only moving one matchstick:

IV = III – I

Technique 2: Challenge facts

How many facts are really facts and how many are just the most reasonable,
educated guess based upon the knowledge known at the time?
It is very rare that anything remains an undeniable fact for too long, especially when
you consider people's views and differently acquired knowledge. We are in a
constant state of change. We think differently as we gain knowledge and skills in
thinking.
From one generation to the next we have different aims, ambitions and morals. What
might be seen as a good thing by one generation could be seen as a bad thing by the

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next. Political parties change their views, as do their voters. Due to personal
circumstances, individuals can change their whole philosophy of life within months.
Technology and other inventions now change the world faster than most people can
keep up. What seemed impossible one week can become plausible the next, reality
within months and an accepted way of life in a year or two. This is not really
surprising when you consider the combined, diverse thought power of billions of
people spread across the globe.
How do you know that what you considered to be a fact in the past has now become
inappropriate due to changes which have happened since then? Might you now be
able to improve your current product because of a change in human values or
lifestyles?
The way to answer these questions is to challenge the facts. You are not saying that
the facts are wrong but you are investigating what might happen if that fact were not
true.
It is important not to see this technique as a way of proving someone wrong or
inaccurate. Everyone does what they think to be right at the time and based upon the
knowledge they have at that time.
If you now have more information or the world has changed in some way, this does
not put any blame on the person who had the original idea or on someone who could
not solve the problem.
Just as you must be considerate towards the people whose facts you are
challenging, you should acknowledge that the world will probably develop a better
way of doing what you are doing now. This does not reflect on your ability, it merely
reflects the way in which the world develops.
At one time all the available evidence gave rise to the fact that the sun went round
the world. If no one had challenged this fact, then we might still believe it.
Even Einstein's theory of relativity has been modified to take into account effects
which were not possible for him to contemplate because technology at the time could
not do what it does now.
The Challenge Facts technique asks you to consider what you think are facts and
investigate what differences and advantages it would make if they were not facts.
You could try to imagine what would be the case if the fact were totally wrong. Or you
could try to modify the fact and see whether that now fits into the current situation
better than the original one. Or is the world likely to change so that the modified fact
will fit in better in the future? If so, what new ideas does this future world suggest? If
you find that your new consideration blatantly doesn't fit, then consider what
advantages this hypothetical situation might have and how you might be able to
incorporate them into your current solution.
You are using the challenge of a fact as a stimulus for new ideas, nothing else.
First list the facts, then write a statement which challenges that fact, then use that
challenge to develop new ideas.
Example:
Fact: Companies pay employees for their time.
Challenge of the fact: Employees pay their company for the use of its facilities.
New idea based on challenging the fact:
Each employee receives a percentage of the profits based on his/her position within
the company and the amount of time and contributions spent on its products or

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services. Out of this amount is taken the amount of money related to that employee's
use of the facilities. In this way the employee is directly affected by the quality of the
product or service and is more motivated to improve it. Also, the employees are
directly affected by the amount of money they use in the course of their work. It could
also mean that employees are free to live their own life and work the way they want
to work.

Technique 3 Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a form of creative thinking: it works by merging someone else's
ideas with your own to create a new one. You are using the ideas of others as a
stimulus for your own.
Brainstorming is an excellent way of developing many creative solutions to a
problem. It works by focusing on a problem, and then coming up with very many
radical solutions to it. Ideas should deliberately be as broad and odd as possible, and
should be developed as fast as possible. Brainstorming is a lateral thinking process.
It is designed to help you break out of your thinking patterns into new ways of looking
at things.

Rules of Brainstorming3
Rule 1: Postpone and withhold your judgment of ideas
Do not pass judgment on ideas until the completion of the brainstorming session. Do
not suggest that an idea won't work or that it has negative side-effects. All ideas are
potentially good so don't judge them until afterwards. At this stage, avoid discussing
the ideas at all, as this will inevitably involve either criticising or complimenting them.
Ideas should be put forward both as solutions and also as a basis to spark off
solutions. Even seemingly foolish ideas can spark off better ones. Therefore do not
judge the ideas until after the brainstorming process. Note down all ideas. There is no
such thing as a bad idea.
The evaluation of ideas takes up valuable brain power which should be devoted to
the creation of ideas. Maximise your brainstorming session by only spending time
generating new ideas.

Rule 2: Encourage wild and exaggerated ideas

The 'wilder' the idea is, the better. Shout out bizarre and unworkable ideas to see
what they spark off. No idea is too ridiculous. State any outlandish ideas. Exaggerate
ideas to the extreme.

Rule 3: Quantity counts at this stage, not quality

Go for quantity of ideas at this point; narrow down the list later. All activities should be
geared towards extracting as many ideas as possible in a given period.
The more creative ideas a person or a group has to choose from, the better. If the
number of ideas at the end of the session is very large, there is a greater chance of
finding a really good idea.
Keep each idea short, do not describe it in detail - just capture its essence. Brief
clarifications can be requested. Think fast, reflect later.

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These rules were created by http://www.brainstorming.co.uk/. Please visit http://www.brainstorming.co.uk/, internet
and computer resources for creativity and brainstorming.

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Rule 4: Build on the ideas put forward by others

Build and expand on the ideas of others. Try and add extra thoughts to each idea.
Use other people's ideas as inspiration for your own. Creative people are also good
listeners. Combine several of the suggested ideas to explore new possibilities.
It's just as valuable to be able to adapt and improve other people's ideas as it is to
generate the initial idea that sets off new trains of thought.

Rule 5: Every person and every idea has equal worth

Every person has a valid viewpoint and a unique perspective on the situation and
solution. In a brainstorming session you can always put forward ideas purely to spark
off other people and not just as a final solution. Encourage participation from
everyone.
Each idea presented belongs to the group, not to the person who said it. It is the
group's responsibility and an indication of its ability to brainstorm if all participants
feel able to contribute freely and confidently.

Principles behind brainstorming4

The fear of making mistakes
In nature, mistakes can mean dying, injury or being eaten by predators. In the human
jungle, mistakes usually lead to mental pain rather than physical pain. Some people
fear that their whole existence is at risk if they say the wrong words in front of their
manager. The fear of making mistakes at work can be the greatest fear of all because
it can lead to the destruction of an individual's vision of his/her future. Some people
see the smallest of mistakes at work leading to lack of promotion, reduced salary,
and even unemployment - and all of the social problems associated with this. They
see their family and social life held together by the fact that they are working and
earning money. And now you put these people in a room and tell them to put forward
crazy ideas which may not work!
Everyone has thousands of good ideas within them just waiting to come out. Even if
you don't know what yours are, you will have them and those ideas will help improve
the world. The problem is creating an environment where those ideas can come out
without feeling the fear of making mistakes. This environment is the brainstorming
environment. This is a situation where the group has actively decided not to judge
anyone by what they put forward. Here, making "mistakes" and putting forward ideas
which don't work is not only acceptable but is actually encouraged. Your ideas are
never criticised and never judged. Your ideas can never be a mistake because they
can be used either as a solution or as a stimulus for others.
Brainstorming is designed to remove, or at least reduce, the fear of making mistakes.
The professionalism and attitude of the participants is the key to how much
inhibitions are reduced. This is why sticking strictly to the rules, coupled with good
training and a good facilitator, are so important.
The fear of the manager
Now, imagine you are with your manager and your manager's manager in a room for
a normal business meeting. They ask you for your ideas on how well your
department is run and how they should change their management style. Some of us
do actually have managers whom we can approach with confidence and who are
actually pleased when we tell them. However, in most situations this is highly

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awkward and many of your true ideas will be kept to yourself, however valid and
valuable they are.
This is because of the fear of making suggestions which challenge those people who
can affect your personal future. There are many situations where valuable ideas are
not put forward because of fear of "the manager", such as:
• Job interviews
• Sales presentations
• Press releases
• Government strategy meetings open to the public
We need to create a special situation where the participants do not feel that their
actions will harm them when they put forward ideas which challenge the views and
feelings of those in authority. Brainstorming sessions are ideal for this as good
managers realise that they can get valuable feedback and suggestions which they
would not normally get. If you really want to improve yourself as a manager and get
good quality feedback, try a brainstorming session on company improvement, but be
very careful not to criticise at any point and remember to thank anyone for their ideas
which were frightening to say. Your staff will reduce their fear of you if you join in
actively and purposefully help to start the session by putting forward ridiculous ideas,
however challenging this is to you personally!

Principles relating to Rule 1: Withholding judgment

• Ideas which initially seem like they won't work can sometimes have enormous
benefits when modified.
• You will reduce the inhibitions in others.
• You will encourage others to give you the freedom to share your own ideas.
• Original ideas are more likely to surface.
• Ideas which stimulate good solutions are more likely to be shared.
• The generation of new ideas is maximised because no brain power is used on
evaluation.
Principles relating to Rule 2: Encourage wild and exaggerated ideas
• It's easier to tame wild ideas into a valid solution than it is to boost normal
ideas into an original solution.
• Ideas which stimulate good solutions are more likely to be shared.
• Wild ideas are better at stimulating new thought patterns.
• Original ideas are encouraged by such actions.
• A loss of inhibitions is more likely.
Principles relating to Rule 3: Quantity counts at this stage, not quality
• It's easier to pick out good ideas from a large list than a small list. Idea
evaluation is often easier than idea generation, so give yourself lots of ideas
to analyse later.
• It's easier to create a good idea from combining lots of little ideas.

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• A fast output of ideas reduces the likelihood of evaluation and so helps a loss
of inhibitions.
• People get more absorbed by the process and think more freely.
• Quantity, in this case, brings quality.
• The focus on each idea is minimal at this stage and so participants feel less
pressure on each idea.
Principles relating to Rule 4: Build on the ideas put forward by others
• Every idea put forward has a principle or concept that will be useful.
• Wild ideas can be turned into valid solutions.
• You encourage others to put forward stimulating ideas by using those ideas.
• You build freedom for yourself when you put forward stimulating ideas.
• It's often easier to adapt someone else's idea than to generate a completely
original one.
Principles relating to Rule 5: Every person and every idea has equal worth
• You will get solutions from a wider range of people.
• The breadth of ideas will cover different personality types.
• You will encourage others to listen to your own ideas.
• Every idea has equal worth as a stimulus.
• You will know that you have created a healthy brainstorming environment if
everyone feels confident to contribute
While there are risks involved in the early stages of establishing brainstorming
sessions, the overall benefits are enormous and with a little preparation and thought
you can run brainstorming sessions which will improve your own and your
organisation's prospects in both the short and long term.
Brainstorming is a well-established technique for generating new ideas and solutions.
However, it still has some faults. Brainstorming is supposed to allow people to ignore
their natural inhibitions; but, in reality, this is often difficult to do. It is also very hard for
people naturally to think in new directions without assistance.

Brainstorming by yourself without the need for a group

You will be pleased to learn that you can brainstorm effectively by yourself without
the need for a group. This means that you can hold a brainstorming session
absolutely any time - and as many times as you want - with no money, time or
difficulty spent organising a group of people.
In fact, many individuals find that they can be more creative on their own rather than
as part of a traditional brainstorming group.
Times when you may want to brainstorm by yourself
• You work by yourself
• You work for yourself and are self-employed
• There is no one available for a group session
• The people around you do not like brainstorming sessions

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• The people around you will not follow the brainstorming rules
• It is too time-consuming or expensive for you to hold a group brainstorming
session
• You want to take credit for the ideas all by yourself
• The problem is too small to justify gathering a large group of people
• You work in an uncreative or very critical organisation

How to brainstorm by yourself

• Use creative thinking techniques to start off your approach from a different
angle
• Spark off new ideas by getting stimuli from books, pictures, websites, etc.
instead of relying on other people
• Challenge your current ways of thinking
• Think of all possibilities
• When you get stuck for an idea, instantly move on to a next stimulus
If you use a structured problem-solving approach to generate and analyse new ideas
you will be at a great advantage over people who do not think that they can be
creative by themselves. It is possible to be more creative by yourself using creative
techniques than you might be in a group of people in a badly-run brainstorming
session.

Possible problems with Brainstorming

• You don't have the time or resources for a group session
• People don't lose their inhibitions
• The session doesn't flow naturally and people feel uncomfortable
• People constantly struggle to think in new ways
• You need a group of people to do it and cannot do it by yourself
• There are too many awkward periods of silence and discomfort
• The sessions are dominated by one or two people
• Some people do not contribute
• The facilitator needs to give constant encouragement to the participants
• The same ideas are repeated again and again
• No successful outcome or solution is reached
Possible causes of the problems:
• Many people are uncomfortable in the brainstorming environment
• People do not believe they can be creative
• Authority is accidentally used which makes people feel scared of their actions
• No real objectives are set
• Participants do not know how to think creatively

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• Participants do not use creative thinking techniques

• A poor mixture of participants is present
• Different personality types need different brainstorming styles
• None or not enough training has been given
• Not enough guidance and encouragement is given by the facilitator
• No warm-up exercise was used
• The brainstorming environment is hostile to creativity
• People are not using other people's ideas to stimulate their own

Technique 4: Mind maps

For the last few hundred years it has been popularly thought that man's mind worked
in a linear or list-like manner, a falsehood based on speech and print. In speech we
are restricted by the nature of time and space to communicating one word at a time.
Recent evidence shows the brain to be far more multi-dimensional and pattern
making, suggesting that in the speech /print arguments there must be fundamental
flaws.
How does the brain which is speaking, and the brain which is receiving the words
deal with them internally? Although a single stream of words is being processed, a
continuing and enormously complex process of sorting and selecting is taking place
in your mind during a conversation, reading a book, or listening to a lecture.
A linear presentation is not necessary for understanding and in many cases is a
disadvantage. Your mind is perfectly capable of taking in information which is non-
linear.
Therefore, the human brain is very different from a computer. Whereas a computer
works in a linear fashion, the brain works associatively as well as linearly -
comparing, integrating and synthesising as it goes.
Association plays a dominant role in nearly every mental function, and words
themselves are no exception. Every single word and idea has numerous links
attaching them to other ideas and concepts.
Mind Maps™, developed by Tony Buzan, are an effective method of note-taking, as
they help organise information, and are useful for the generation of ideas by
association.

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Because of the large amount of association involved, they can be very creative,
tending to generate new ideas and associations that have not been thought of
before. Every item in a map is in effect, a centre of another map.
The creative potential of a mind map is useful in brainstorming sessions. You only
need to start with the basic problem as the centre, and generate associations and
ideas from it in order to arrive at a large number of different possible approaches. By
presenting your thoughts and perceptions in a spatial manner and by using colour
and pictures, a better overview is gained and new connections can be made visible.
Mind maps are a way of representing associated thoughts with symbols rather than
with extraneous words- something like organic chemistry. The mind forms
associations almost instantaneously, and "mapping" allows you to write your ideas
quicker than expressing them using only words or phrases.
Key features of mind maps are:
• Organisation
• Key Words
• Association
• Clustering
• Visual Memory
• Conscious involvement
Imagine your hobby is reading short stories, you read five a day, and you keep notes
so that you will not forget any of them. On each of these cards you record key words
and phrases. How would you choose the key words? Image words? Imaginative?
Evocative?
Reviewing these notes five years later may be difficult, depending on how the words
were chosen. A good key word or phrase is one which funnels into itself a wide range
of special images, and which, when it is triggered, funnels back the same images. It
will tend to be a strong noun or verb.
A creative word is one which is particularly evocative and image forming, but far more
general than a directed key word. Words are 'multi-ordinate' meaning that each word
is like a little centre on which there are many, many little hooks. Each hook can attach
to other words.
Key words are essential for memory recall, forging new associations and recall of
other experiences or sensations. Taking notes, thinking of new ideas and
summarising information is best done using association of keywords, and not in a
linear, written form.
To make a mind map, one starts in the centre of the page with the main idea, and
works outward in all directions, producing a growing and organised structure
composed of key words and key images.
If the brain is to relate to information most efficiently, the information must be
structured in such a way as to "slot-in" as easily as possible. It follows that if the brain
works primarily with key concepts in an interlinked and integrated manner, then so
should our notes and word relations be structured in a similar manner.
Rather than starting from the top of a page and working down in sentences or lists,
one should start from the centre with the main idea and branch out as dictated by the
individual ideas and general form of the theme.

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The disadvantages of standard notes:

• They obscure key words. This prevents the brain from making appropriate
associations between the key concepts.
• They make it difficult to remember. Monotonous single colour notes are
boring. Most notes look like lists.
• They waste time by encouraging or requiring unnecessary noting, reading
and rereading unnecessary notes, and searching for key words.
• They fail to stimulate the brain creatively. Linear presentations prevent the
brain from making associations, thus counteracting creativity and memory.
Reading a list implies an `end' or `finish' , whereas a mind map encourages
the brain to build on existing thoughts and ideas.
A mind map has a number of advantages over the linear form of note-taking:
• The centre with the main idea is more clearly defined
• The relative importance of each idea is clearly indicated. More important
ideas will be nearer the centre.
• The links between key concepts will be immediately recognised.
• Recall and review will be more effective and more rapid
• Addition of new information is easy
• Each map will look different from other maps, aiding recall
• In the more creative areas of note making, the open-ended nature of the map
will enable the brain to make new connections far more readily.
Example:
Consider the problem of "What are some alternative uses for a paper clip"
If you started to write a list, you would become bored and would probably slow down.
Alternatively, a mind map allows building on previous ideas, attributes, or stepping
stone ideas.

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Mind maps use pictures:

The reason why pictures are `worth a thousand words' is that they make use of a
massive range of cortical skills: colour, form, line, dimension, texture, visual rhythm
and especially imagination - a word taken from the Latin imaginari, literally meaning
`to picture mentally'.
Images are therefore often more evocative than words, more precise and potent in
triggering a wide range of associations, thereby enhancing creative thinking and
memory.

Mind maps harness the full range of your cortical skills:

Hierarchies and categories:

A classic study done in 1969 demonstrated the importance of hierarchies in an aid to
memory. Generating ideas with a mind map is much easier than making lists,
because key words or "Basic Ordering Ideas" can be used as triggers. Linear notes
in the form of lists directly oppose the workings of the mind, in that they generate an
idea and then deliberately cut it off from ideas the preceding and following it.

Wholeness/Gestalt:
Harnessing the brain's tendency to function in gestalts or wholes, allows the addition
of blank lines to the key words on the Mind Map, enticing the brain to `fill in' the
beckoning areas.
Once the brain realises it can associate anything with anything else, it will almost
instantaneously find associations, especially when given the trigger of an additional
stimulus.
The Mind Map is based on the logic of association, not the logic of time (as in a list)
The Basic Ordering Ideas in any Mind Map are those words or images which are the
simplest and most obvious ordering devices. They are the key concepts, gathering
the greatest number of associations to themselves. A good way to find these Basic
Ordering Ideas is to ask:
• What knowledge is required?
• If this were a book, what would the chapter headings be?
• What are my specific objectives?
• What are the most important seven (7) categories in the area under
consideration?
• What are the basic questions?
• Why? What? Where? Who? How? When? often serve remarkably well as
major branches in a Mind Map.

Techniques for drawing Mind Maps:

• Use emphasis
• Always use a central image
• Use images throughout your Mind Map

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• Use three or more colours per central image

• Use dimension in images
• Use variations of size of printing, line and image
• Use organised spacing
• Use appropriate spacing
• Use Association
• Use arrows when you want to make connections within and across the branch
pattern
• Use colours
• Use codes
• Be Clear
• Use only one key word per line
• Print all words
• Print key words on lines
• Make line length equal to word length
• Connect lines to other lines
• Make the central lines thicker
• Make your images as clear as possible
• Keep your paper placed horizontally in front of you
• Keep your printing as upright as possible
• Develop a personal style
• Pay attention to layout
• Use hierarchy
• Use numerical order

Examples:

Arrows
These can be used to show how concepts which appear on different parts of a
pattern are connected. The arrow can be single or multi-headed and can show
backward and forward directions.

Codes
Asterisks, exclamation marks, crosses and question marks as well as many other
indicators can be used next to words to show connection or other 'dimensions'.

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Geometrical shapes
Squares, oblongs, circles, ellipses, etc can be used to mark areas or words which are
similar in nature - for example triangles might be used to show areas of possible
solution in a problem-solving pattern.

Geometrical shapes can also be used to show order of importance. Some people, for
example, prefer to use a square always for their main centre, oblongs for the ideas
near the centre, triangles for ideas of next importance, and so on.

Artistic three dimension

Each of the geometrical shapes mentioned, and many others, can be given
perspective, for example, making a square into a cube. The ideas printed in these
shapes will thus 'stand off' the page.

Creativity images
Creativity can be combined with the use of dimension by making aspects of the
pattern fit the topic. Someone, for example, when doing a pattern on atomic physics,
used the nucleus of an atom and the electrons that surrounded it, as the centre for
his pattern.

Colour
Colour is particularly useful as a memory and creative aid. It can be used, like
arrows, to show how concepts which appear on different parts of the pattern are
connected. It can also be used to mark off the boundaries between major areas of a
pattern.

Creative Thinking Mind Maps

Objectives:
• To explore all the creative possibilities of a given subject
• To clear the mind of previous assumptions about the subject, thus providing
space for new creative thought

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• To generate ideas that result in specific action being taken, or physical reality
being created or changed.
• To encourage more consistent creative thinking
• To create new conceptual frameworks within which previous ideas can be
reorganised.
• To capture and develop 'flashes' of insight when they occur.
• To plan creatively (Mind Map diaries with a yearly plan, monthly plan and daily
plan maps)

Computer Mind Mapping

At the moment computer Mind Mapping cannot compete with the infinite visual
variety, portability and `minimum tool requirement' of traditional Mind Mapping
techniques. However the areas where computers can offer a significant improvement
to personal productivity are the areas of automatic Mind Map generation; Mind Map
editing; data storage and retrieval, text input and organisation of data. The creation of
many variations of the same Mind Map is also facilitated and accelerated.
Mind Maps are an external 'photograph' of the complex inter-relationships of your
thoughts at any given time. They enable your brain to 'see itself' more clearly, and will
greatly enhance the full range of your thinking skills: they will add increasing
competence, enjoyment, elegance and fun to your life.

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Problem Solving Techniques

Problem solving forms part of thinking. Considered the most complex of all
intellectual functions, problem solving has been defined as higher-order cognitive
process that requires the modulation and control of more routine or fundamental
skills (McCarthy & Worthington, 1990). It occurs if an organism or an artificial
intelligence system does not know how to proceed from a given state to a desired
goal state. It is part of the larger problem process that includes problem finding and
problem shaping5.

Characteristics of difficult problems

As elucidated by Dietrich Dorner and later expanded upon by Joachim Funke, difficult
problems have some typical characteristics. Recategorised and somewhat
reformulated from these original works, these characteristics can be summarised as
follows:
• Intransparency (lack of clarity of the situation)
• Complexity (large numbers of items, interrelations, and decisions)
• Dynamism (time considerations)

The resolution of difficult problems requires a direct attack on each of these

characteristics that are encountered.

Problem-solving steps6
Problem solving is a tool, a skill and a process. It is a tool because it can help you
solve an immediate problem or to achieve a goal. It is a skill because once you have
learnt it you can use it repeatedly, like the ability to ride a bicycle, add numbers or
speak a language. It is also a process because it involves taking a number of steps.
You can engage in problem solving if you want to reach a goal and experience
obstacles on the way. It is very likely that in working towards your goals you will
encounter some barriers.
At the point at which you come up against a barrier you can engage in a problem
solving process to help you achieve your goal. Every time you use a problem solving
process you are increasing your problem-solving skills.
Much of what managers do is solve problems and make decisions. New managers,
in particular, often make decisions by reacting to problems. They are "under the gun",
stressed and very short on time. Consequently, when they encounter a new problem
or decision they must make, they react with a decision that seemed to work before.
It's easy with this approach to get stuck in a circle of solving the same problem over
and over again. Therefore, as a manager, get used to an organised approach to
problem solving and decision making. Not all problems can be solved and decisions
made by the following, rather rational approach.
However, the following basic guidelines will get you started. Don't be intimidated by
the length of the list of guidelines. After you've practised them a few times, they'll
become second nature to you- so that you can deepen and enrich them to suit your
own needs and nature.
(It might be more advisable to view a "problem" as an "opportunity". Therefore, you
might substitute "problem" for "opportunity" in the following guidelines.)

5
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6
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Step 1: Define the problem

This is often where people struggle. They react to what they think the problem is.
Some problems are big and unmistakable, such as failure of an air-freight delivery
service to get packages to customers on time. Other problems may be continuing
annoyances, such as regularly running out of toner for an office copy machine.
The first step in reaching a solution is pinpointing the problem area. Seek to
understand more about why you think there's a problem.
Ask yourself and others, the following questions:
- What can you see that causes you to think there's a problem?
- Where is it happening?
- How is it happening?
- When is it happening?
- With whom is it happening? (HINT: Don't jump to "Who is causing the
problem?" When we're stressed, blaming is often one of our first
reactions. To be an effective manager, you need to address issues more
than people.)
- Why is it happening?
- Write down a five-sentence description of the problem in terms of "The
following should be happening, but isn't ..." or "The following is happening
and should be: ..." As much as possible, be specific in your description,
including what is happening, where, how, with whom and why.

• Defining complex problems:

If the problem still seems overwhelming, break it down by repeating steps above until
you have descriptions of several related problems.

• Verifying your understanding of the problems:

It helps a great deal to verify your problem analysis by conferring with a peer or
someone else.

• Prioritise the problems:

If you discover that you are looking at several related problems, then prioritise which
ones you should address first. Note the difference between "important" and "urgent"
problems. Often, what we consider to be important problems to consider are really
just urgent problems. Important problems deserve more attention. For example, if
you're continually answering "urgent" phone calls, then you've probably got a more
"important" problem and that's to design a system that screens and prioritises your
phone calls.

• Understand your role in the problem:

Your role in the problem can greatly influence how you perceive the role of others.
For example, if you're very stressed out, it'll probably look like others are, too, or, you
may resort too quickly to blaming and reprimanding others. Or, if you are feeling very
guilty about your role in the problem, you may ignore the accountabilities of others.

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Step 2: Look at potential causes for the problem

Learn more about the problem situation. Look for possible causes and solutions. This
step may mean checking files, calling suppliers, or brainstorming with fellow workers.
For example, the air-freight delivery service referred to in Step 1 would investigate
the tracking systems of the commercial airlines carrying its packages to determine
what went wrong.
-
In this phase, it's critical to get input from other people who notice the
problem and who are affected by it.
-
It's often useful to collect input from other individuals one at a time (at
least at first). Otherwise, people tend to be inhibited about offering their
impressions of the real causes of problems.
-
Write down what your opinions are and what you've heard from others.
If you think there might be performance problems associated with an
employee, it's often useful to seek advice from a peer or your supervisor
in order to verify your impression of the problem.
- Write down a description of the cause of the problem and in terms of
what is happening, where, when, how, with whom and why.

Step 3: Identify alternatives for approaches to resolve the problem

At this point, it's useful to keep others involved (unless you're facing a personal
and/or employee performance problem).
- Brainstorm for solutions to the problem. (We will learn about
brainstorming in the next section)
- Distinguish between fact and opinion, for example, it is a fact that
packages are missing; it is an opinion that they are merely lost and will
turn up eventually.
- Draw conclusions from the gathered evidence and pose solutions.
- Finally, weigh the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative.
What are the costs, benefits, and consequences? What are the
obstacles, and how can they be handled? Most important, what solution
best serves your goals and those of your organisation? Here's where
your creativity is especially important.

Step 4: Select an approach to resolve the problem

When selecting the best approach, consider:
- Which approach is the most likely to solve the problem for the long term?
- Which approach is the most realistic to accomplish for now?
- Do you have the resources?
- Are they affordable?
- Do you have enough time to implement the approach?
- What is the extent of risk associated with each alternative?

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In our example in Step 1, the freight company decided to give its unhappy customers
free delivery service to make up for the lost packages and downtime.

Step 5: Plan the implementation of the best alternative (this is your

action plan)
- Carefully consider "What will the situation look like when the problem is
solved?"
- What steps should be taken to implement the best alternative to solving
the problem?
- What systems or processes should be changed in your organisation, for
example, a new policy or procedure? Don't resort to solutions where
someone is "just going to try harder".
- How will you know if the steps are being followed or not? (these are your
indicators of the success of your plan)
- What resources will you need in terms of people, money and facilities?
- How much time will you need to implement the solution? Write a schedule
that includes the start and stop times, and when you expect to see certain
indicators of success.
- Who will primarily be responsible for ensuring implementation of the plan?

Write down the answers to the above questions and consider this as your action
plan. Communicate the plan to those who will involved in implementing it and, at
least, to your immediate supervisor. (An important aspect of this step in the problem-
solving process is continual observation and feedback.)

Step 6: Monitor implementation of the plan

Monitor the indicators of success:
- Are you seeing what you would expect from the indicators?
- Will the plan be done according to schedule?
- If the plan is not being followed as expected, then consider: Was the plan
realistic? Are there sufficient resources to accomplish the plan on
schedule? Should more priority be placed on various aspects of the plan?
Should the plan be changed?

Step 7: Verify if the problem has been resolved

One of the best ways to verify if a problem has been solved is to resume normal
operations in the organisation.
For future reference, consider the following:
- What changes should be made to avoid this type of problem in the future?
Consider changes to policies and procedures, training, etc.
- Lastly, consider "What did you learn from this problem solving?" Consider
new knowledge, understanding and/or skills.

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- Consider writing a brief memo that highlights the success of the problem
solving effort, and what you learned as a result. Share it with your
supervisor, peers and subordinates.

Overview of Process7

Examples of problem-solving techniques:

Technique 1: Problem Definition

(including problem analysis, redefinition, and all aspects associated with defining the
problem clearly)

• Paraphrasing Key Words

This technique requires you to alter the meanings of key words in the problem
statement (or any sentence that contains key words) to reveal assumptions and
generate alternative perceptions.

• Replacing Key words with Synonyms

This method, devised by Edward de Bono (1970), requires you to identify key
words in the sentence, substitute them one at a time with other words that have
the equivalent general meaning, and create different emphases and a different
rhetoric.

It can be achieved in a simple and informal way from general knowledge, or at a

deeper level with imaginative use of a thesaurus. Look at the example below,

7
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which an average word-processor thesaurus gave the direct and indirect

synonyms for the 3 key words in the problem statement:

We have Overused Reprographic Resources

We have Wasted Copying Property
We have Squandered Remaking Machines and people
We have Derelict Transcribing Mechanisms
We have Superfluous Facsimile Holdings
We have Excessive Mimicking Agency
We have Bountiful Mirroring Investment
We have Generous Reproducing Means
We have Redundant Mimeographing Belongings
We have Ignored Cloning Facility

Altering just one word at a time produces very distinct shifts in the meaning and
boundary assumptions such as:
• We have over-capitalised reprographic resources
• We have underused cloning resources
• We have underused reprographic belongings

Obviously the amount of potential paraphrasing is very large, just using the
synonyms in the table above, this simple problem statement may well be
reworded in at least 1000 (10 x 10 x 10) ways, many of which correspond to very
different meanings. Paraphrasing as such can be used either to alter the problem
statement itself, or to trigger different streams of ideas about possible solutions.

• Use Synonym Pairs to Trigger Ideas

A variation of the method above devised by Olson (1980) takes just 2 key words
from the problem statement (ideally a grammatically linked pair such as noun-
verb, verb-noun, verb-adverb, adjective-noun), generates lists of synonyms for
each word (as above), and then uses word pairs generated from the 2 synonym
lists to stimulate ideas. For example:
- Select grammatical keyword pair: I choose: Reprographic resources
(adjective-noun pair).
- Generate synonyms: e.g. the two right hand columns of synonyms in
the table above.
- Select some interesting word pairs: e.g.: mimicking agency;
transcribing investment; cloning capital; mimeographing belongings etc.
- Use these to trigger ideas: e.g. from mimicking agency: Develop an
agency to make copies of photos; develop a service for transcribing
hand-written records; start a service to print cheque-books or pay-in
books or toy money for children, etc.

Technique 2: Assumption Busting

• List assumptions
List all the assumptions you have about the “problem”, especially the obvious
ones that you would not consider challenging...

• Challenge assumptions
Test each assumption. Ask under what conditions it would not be true.

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You will start to make assumptions as you challenge some assumptions, simply
add these to the list, and challenge them later.

• Find several ways in which you can force the assumption to be true
This is the opposite way of challenging the assumption from 2.

Technique 3: Idea Generation

Talking Pictures8 is from the book Instant Creativity by Brian Clegg and Paul Birch.
When you need a little extra boost for a group that have got a little stale during the
Idea Generation phase, split up into teams, giving each a digital camera and access
to a printer (you could use a Polaroid, or provide a set of bizarre photographs you
have, but it's best to get the teams to capture them).

Get the teams to spend about 5 minutes outside of the immediate area, taking
pictures of either unusual objects, or objects from unusual angles. The more bizarre
the better.

Bring the groups back together and distribute their pictures to the other groups.

Each group should now use the pictures provided to create associations that occur to
them and then use these associations for idea generation. At the end of the session
you can either collect all of the ideas together by writing them onto flipcharts or you
can ask the groups to have listed their own and have these displayed for general
perusal.

This techniques uses random stimuli with the advantage of a challenge / competition
thrown in. The humour generated from the unusual objects / angles also raises the
energy levels of the group, along with the fact that they have been up and moving
about.

Technique 4: Consensus Mapping9

The consensus mapping technique helps a facilitator and group reach consensus
about how best to arrange a network of up to maybe 20 – 30 activities that have to be
sequenced over time into a useable plan of action (e.g. outlining a 10-year network of
sequentially linked activities to deal with a complex environmental pollution issue).
These will usually be activities that could be done in a range of orders – i.e. the order
has to be approved – it is not given by the internal logic of the activities themselves.

The technique has parallels to many of the usual project planning methods (and
could if necessary feed into them) but operates at a purely qualitative, outline, level.

Here is the suggested procedure:

1. Present the ideas: Devise a master list, via any suitable means, detailing all
the ideas to be used in the single coherent action plan required, e.g.
brainstorm the activities needed to implement some idea or project. Everyone
copies the master list onto Post-its, or equivalent, one idea per slip.
2. Form groups: The facilitator forms 2 – 4 task groups, each of 5 – 9
individuals in each.

8
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9 Retrieved from "http://www.mycoted.com/Consensus_Mapping"

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3. Private clustering: Individuals in groups makes their own private attempt to

group the ideas into related clusters or categories.
4. Sharing in triads: Join together in pairs or triads within each task group to
describe one another’s clusters.
5. Group clustering: Individual task groups combine to try merging their private
clustering into a shared clustering they can all accept.
6. Group review: following group clustering, clarification of the original ideas,
and re-evaluation of them takes place.
7. Facilitators create and present an integrated map: each task group
delivers their group clusters to the facilitator. They then take a break. During
the break, staff members consolidate the group cluster maps into a single
overall cluster map, containing all the ideas, categories, and relationships
generated by the groups. This integrated map is presented to the group as a
whole when they come back together.
8. Map reconfiguration: The whole group splits itself again into the respective
task groups, and each one uses the integrated map for motivation and stimuli
for developing its own map in which cluster of activities are linked
sequentially. Links made of ribbon or yarns are better than pen lines at this
stage, because they can be changed.
9. Plenary presentation: Each task group exhibits its map of sequentially linked
clusters to the others.
10. Map consolidation: Representatives from each task group meet to construct
a single final map that combines the features of all the maps.

The complete procedure works best with a trained group, but the mapping element
could easily be adapted to informal solo use.

Technique 5: Synectics10
Synectics is based on a simple concept for problem solving and creative thinking -
you need to generate ideas, and you need to evaluate ideas. Whilst this may be
stating the obvious, the methods used to perform these two tasks are extremely
powerful.

• Preliminary planning
In advance, hold a preliminary planning meeting with the problem owner(s). This
checks that there are genuine problem owners, wanting new options that they
themselves can implement, within their authority; helps you to understand the
problem-owners' perceptions of the problem area; gives a feel for the number and
quality of solutions needed; helps to ensure realistic expectations about results;
and allows you to agree team membership.
Procedure during the session:
- Problem owner provides headline and wish: They describe the issue,
how it is experienced, the background, what has been tried, and the
possible scope of action. It is then expressed in one or more ‘big wish’
statements of the form: ‘I wish (IW)...’ or ‘How to (H2) ...’. Note that this is
not a ‘problem definition’ but a wish reflecting the way the issue is
experienced. The group listen imaginatively, rather than analytically.
- Group generates large numbers of ‘springboards’: The mood here
should be expansive and unconstrained. The springboards use the same

10 Retrieved from "http://www.mycoted.com/Synectics"

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formats as the ‘big wish’ (IW, H2, etc.). They are not ideas for solutions,
but articulate further wishes to open up space for invention: ‘It would be
nice if we could do X but we don’t yet know how to.’
- Select an interesting springboard: The mood now switches to a more
focused approach than in Steps 1-2. Problem owner and group members
choose their favourite springboards (more on the basis of interest or
appeal than on the basis of logical relevance). They share their choices,
but final choice rests with the problem-owner. However, the process can
always be repeated, so the choice is not critical. The assumption is that
within any springboard will be creative possibilities that can usefully be
explored.
- Ideas to help achieve the selected springboard are generated (see
creative-thinking techniques). The problem-owner selects some that seem
interesting.
- Check understanding of these by paraphrasing them and checking
with their authors until the paraphrase is correct. An idea is selected for
the Itemised Response.
- Itemised response. Every conceivable positive feature of the selected
idea is listed. Then (and only then), a single concern / problem / issue is
expressed as a problem for solution (e.g. ‘How to ...’). Solutions for these
are expressed by all in terms of ‘What you do is (WYDI)...’.
- Recycle or end: Back to ideas generation until sufficient ideas for this
springboard have been explored and the problem-solver has a solution
s/he is happy to run with, or until time runs out.

Technique 6: Appreciation
(Extracting Maximum Information From Facts)
Appreciation is a very simple but powerful technique for extracting the maximum
amount of information from a simple fact.

Starting with a fact, ask the question 'So what?' - i.e. what are the implications of that
fact? Keep on asking that question until you have drawn all possible inferences.

Example:
Appreciation is a technique used by military planners, so we will take a military
example:

Fact: It rained heavily last night

So What?
- The ground will be wet

So What?
- It will turn into mud quickly

So What?
- If many troops and vehicles pass over the same ground, movement will be
progressively slower and more difficult as the ground gets muddier and more
difficult.

So What?

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- Where possible, stick to paved roads. Otherwise expect movement to be

much slower than normal.

While it would be possible to reach this conclusion without the use of a formal
technique, Appreciation provides a framework within which you can extract
information quickly, effectively and reliably.

Asking 'so what?' repeatedly helps you to extract all important information implied by
a fact.

Technique 7: Drill Down

(Breaking Problems Down Into Manageable Parts)
Drill Down is a simple technique for breaking complex problems down into
progressively smaller parts.

To use the technique:

- Start by writing the problem down on the left-hand side of a large
sheet of paper.
- Next, write down the points that make up the next level of detail on the
problem a little to the right of this. These may be factors contributing to
the problem, information relating to it, or questions raised by it. This
process of breaking the problem down into its component part is called
'drilling down'.

For each of these points, repeat the process. Keep on drilling down into points until
you fully understand the factors contributing to the problem.

If you cannot break them down using the knowledge you have, then carry out
whatever research is necessary to understand the point.

Drilling into a question helps you to get a much deeper understanding of it. The
process helps you to recognise and understand the factors that contribute to it.

Drill Down prompts you to link in information that you had not initially associated with
a problem. It also shows exactly where you need further information.

Example:
The owner of a windsurfing club is having complaints from its members about the
unpleasant quality of the water close to the clubhouse.
This seems like a huge problem.
She carries out the analysis on the next page:

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This gives her a starting point in which to begin thinking about the problem. It
highlights where she does not fully understand the problem, and shows where she
needs to carry out further research.
'Drill Down' helps you to break a large and complex problem down into its component
parts, so that you can develop plans to deal with these parts. It also shows you which
points you need to research in more detail.

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Technique 8: Cause and Effect diagrams

(Identify the Likely Causes of Problems. Also called Fish or Fishbone Diagrams,
and Ishikawa Diagrams)

• Identify the problem:

Write down the exact problem you face in detail. Where appropriate identify who
is involved, what the problem is, and when and where it occurs. Write the
problem in a box on the left hand side of a large sheet of paper. Draw a line
across the paper horizontally from the box. This gives you space to develop
ideas.

• Work out the major factors involved:

Next identify the factors that may contribute to the problem. Draw lines off the
spine for each factor, and label it. These may be people involved with the
problem, systems, equipment, materials, external forces, etc. Try to draw out as
many possible factors as possible. If you are trying to solve the problem as part of
a group, then this may be a good time for some brainstorming (see later). Using
the 'Fish bone' analogy, the factors you find can be thought of as the bones of the
fish.

• Identify possible causes:

For each of the factors, brainstorm possible causes of the problem that may be
related to the factor. Show these as smaller lines coming off the 'bones' of the
fish. Where a cause is large or complex, then it may be best to break it down into
sub-causes. Show these as lines coming off each cause line.

• Analyse your diagram:

By this stage you should have a diagram showing all the possible causes of your
problem. Depending on the complexity and importance of the problem, you can
now investigate the most likely causes further. This may involve setting up
investigations, carrying out surveys, etc. These will be designed to test whether
your assessments are correct.

Example:
The example below shows a Cause & Effect diagram drawn by a manager who is
having trouble getting cooperation from a branch office:

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If the manager had not thought the problem through, he might have dealt with the
problem by assuming that people were being difficult. Instead he might think that the
best approach is to arrange a meeting with the Branch Manager. This would allow
him to brief the manger fully, and talk through any problems that he may be facing.
Cause & Effect analysis (or fishbone analysis) provide a structured way to help you
think through all possible causes of a problem. This helps you to carry out a thorough
analysis of a situation.

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Technique 9: SWOT
(Discover new opportunities. Manage and eliminate threats.)
To carry out a SWOT Analysis, write down answers to the following questions:
Strengths:
• What advantages does your company have?
• What do you do better than anyone else?
• What unique or lowest-cost resources do you have access to?
• What do people in your market see as your strengths?
Consider this from an internal perspective, and from the point of view of your
customers and people in your market. And be realistic: It's far too easy to fall prey to
"not invented here syndrome". Also, if you are having any difficulty with this, try
writing down a list of your characteristics. Some of these will hopefully be strengths!

In looking at your strengths, think about them in relation to your competitors - for
example, if all your competitors provide high quality products, then a high quality
production process is not a strength in the market, it is a necessity.

Weaknesses:
• What could you improve?
• What should you avoid?
• What are people in your market likely to see as weaknesses?
Again, consider this from an internal and external basis: Do other people seem to
perceive weaknesses that you do not see? Are your competitors doing any better
than you? It is best to be realistic now, and face any unpleasant truths as soon as
possible.

Opportunities:
• Where are the good opportunities facing you?
• What are the interesting trends you are aware of?
Useful opportunities can come from such things as:
• Changes in technology and markets on both a broad and narrow scale
• Changes in government policy related to your field
• Changes in social patterns, population profiles, lifestyle changes, etc.
• Local Events
A useful approach to looking at opportunities is to look at your strengths and ask
yourself whether these open up any opportunities.

Alternatively, look at your weaknesses and ask yourself whether you could open up
opportunities by eliminating them.

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Threats:
• What obstacles do you face?
• What is your competition doing?
• Are the required specifications for your job, products or services changing?
• Is changing technology threatening your position?
• Do you have bad debt or cash-flow problems?
• Could any of your weaknesses seriously threaten your business?
Carrying out this analysis will often be illuminating - both in terms of pointing out what
needs to be done, and in putting problems into perspective.

Strengths and weaknesses are often internal to your organisation. Opportunities

and threats often relate to external factors. For this reason the SWOT Analysis is
sometimes called Internal-External Analysis and the SWOT Matrix is sometimes
called an IE Matrix Analysis Tool.

You can also apply SWOT Analysis to your competitors. As you do this, you'll start to
see how and where you should compete against them.

Example:
A start-up small consultancy business might draw up the following SWOT matrix:
Strengths:
• We are able to respond very quickly as we have no red tape, no need for higher
management approval, etc.
• We are able to give really good customer care, as the current small amount of work
means we have plenty of time to devote to customers
• Our lead consultant has strong reputation within the market
• We can change direction quickly if we find that our marketing is not working
• We have little overhead, so can offer good value to customers
Weaknesses:
• Our company has no market presence or reputation
• We have a small staff with a shallow skills base in many areas
• We are vulnerable to vital staff being sick, leaving, etc.
• Our cash flow will be unreliable in the early stages
Opportunities:
• Our business sector is expanding, with many future opportunities for success
• Our local council wants to encourage local businesses with work where possible
• Our competitors may be slow to adopt new technologies
Threats:
• Will developments in technology change this market beyond our ability to adapt?
• A small change in focus of a large competitor might wipe out any market position we
achieve
The consultancy may therefore decide to specialise in rapid response, good value services to
local businesses. Marketing would be in selected local publications, to get the greatest
possible market presence for a set advertising budget. The consultancy should keep up-to-
date with changes in technology where possible.

Key points:

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SWOT Analysis is a simple but powerful framework for analysing your company's
Strengths and Weaknesses, and the Opportunities and Threats you face. This helps
you to focus on your strengths, minimise threats, and take the greatest possible
advantage of opportunities available to you.

Technique 10: Risk analysis

Risk is 'the perceived extent of possible loss'. Different people will have different
views of the impact of a particular risk - what may be a small risk for one person may
destroy the livelihood of someone else.

Almost everything we do in today's business world involves a risk of some kind:

customer habits change, new competitors appear, factors outside your control could
delay your project. But formal risk analysis and risk management can help you to
assess these risks and decide what actions to take to minimise disruptions to your
plans. They will also help you to decide whether the strategies you could use to
control risk are cost-effective.

One way of putting figures to risk is to calculate a value for it as:

Risk = probability of event x cost of event

Doing this allows you to compare risks objectively.

To carry out a risk analysis, follow these steps:

1. Identify Threats
The first stage of a risk analysis is to identify threats facing you. Threats may be:
• Human - from individuals or organisations, illness, death, etc.
• Operational - from disruption to supplies and operations, loss of access to
essential assets, failures in distribution, etc.
• Reputational - from loss of business partner or employee confidence, or
damage to reputation in the market.
• Procedural - from failures of accountability, internal systems and controls,
organisation, fraud, etc.
• Project - risks of cost over-runs, jobs taking too long, of insufficient product or
service quality, etc.
• Financial - from business failure, stock market, interest rates, unemployment,
etc.
• Technical - from advances in technology, technical failure, etc.
• Natural - threats from weather, natural disaster, accident, disease, etc.
• Political - from changes in tax regimes, public opinion, government policy,
foreign influence, etc.

This analysis of threat is important because it is so easy to overlook important

threats. One way of trying to capture them all is to use a number of different
approaches:
• Firstly, run through a list such as the one above, to see if any apply
• Secondly, think through the systems, organisations or structures you operate,
and analyse risks to any part of those

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• See if you can see any vulnerabilities within these systems or structures
• Ask other people, who might have different perspectives.

2. Estimate Risk:
Once you have identified the threats you face, the next step is to work out the
likelihood of the threat being realised and to assess its impact.
One approach to this is to make your best estimate of the probability of the event
occurring, and to multiply this by the amount it will cost you to set things right if it
happens. This gives you a value for the risk.

3. Manage Risk:
Once you have worked out the value of risks you face, you can start to look at ways
of managing them. When you are doing this, it is important to choose cost effective
approaches - in most cases, there is no point in spending more to eliminating a risk
than the cost of the event if it occurs. Often, it may be better to accept the risk than to
use excessive resources to eliminate it.

Risk may be managed in a number of ways:

• By using existing assets: Here existing resources can be used to counter
risk. This may involve improvements to existing methods and systems,
changes in responsibilities, improvements to accountability and internal
controls, etc.
• By contingency planning: You may decide to accept a risk, but choose to
develop a plan to minimise its effects if it happens. A good contingency plan
will allow you to take action immediately, with the minimum of project control if
you find yourself in a crisis management situation.
• By investing in new resources: Your risk analysis should give you the basis
for deciding whether to bring in additional resources to counter the risk. This
can also include insuring the risk: Here you pay someone else to carry part of
the risk - this is particularly important where the risk is so great as to threaten
your or your organisation's solvency.

4. Reviews:
Once you have carried out a risk analysis and management exercise, it may be worth
carrying out regular reviews. These might involve formal reviews of the risk analysis,
or may involve testing systems and plans appropriately.

Risk analysis allows you to examine the risks that you or your organisation faces. It is
based on a structured approach to thinking through threats, followed by an evaluation
of the probability and cost of events occurring.

Risk analysis forms the basis for risk management and crisis prevention. Here the
emphasis is on cost effectiveness. Risk management involves adapting the use of
existing resources, contingency planning and good use of new resources.

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Technique 11: Five Forces

Porter’s 5 Forces tool is a simple but powerful tool for understanding where power
lies in a business situation. This tool was created by Harvard Business School
professor, Michael Porter, to analyse the attractiveness and likely-profitability of an
industry. Since publication, it has become one of the most important business
strategy tools. The classic article which introduces it is “How Competitive Forces
Shape Strategy” in Harvard Business Review 57, March – April 1979, pages 86-93.

With a clear understanding of where power lies, you can take fair advantage of a
situation of strength, improve a situation of weakness, and avoid taking wrong steps.
This makes it an important part of your planning toolkit.

Conventionally, the tool is used to identify whether new products, services or

businesses have the potential to be profitable. However it can be very illuminating
when used to understand the balance of power in other situations.

Five Forces Analysis assumes that there are five important forces that determine
competitive power in a situation. These are:
1. Supplier Power: Here you assess how easy it is for suppliers to drive up
prices. This is driven by the number of suppliers of each key input, the
uniqueness of their product or service, their strength and control over you, the
cost of switching from one to another, and so on. The fewer the supplier
choices you have, and the more you need suppliers' help, the more powerful
your suppliers are.
2. Buyer Power: Here you ask yourself how easy it is for buyers to drive prices
down. Again, this is driven by the number of buyers, the importance of each
individual buyer to your business, the cost to them of switching from your
products and services to those of someone else, and so on. If you deal with
few, powerful buyers, they are often able to dictate terms to you.
3. Competitive Rivalry: What is important here is the number and capability of
your competitors – if you have many competitors, and they offer equally
attractive products and services, then you’ll most likely have little power in the
situation. If suppliers and buyers don’t get a good deal from you, they’ll go
elsewhere. On the other hand, if no-one else can do what you do, then you
can often have tremendous strength.
4. Threat of Substitution: This is affected by the ability of your customers to
find a different way of doing what you do – for example, if you supply a unique
software product that automates an important process, people may substitute
by doing the process manually or by outsourcing it. If substitution is easy and
substitution is viable, then this weakens your power.
5. Threat of New Entry: Power is also affected by the ability of people to enter
your market. If it costs little in time or money to enter your market and
compete effectively, if there are few economies of scale in place, or if you
have little protection for your key technologies, then new competitors can
quickly enter your market and weaken your position. If you have strong and
durable barriers to entry, then you can preserve a favourable position and
take fair advantage of it.

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These forces can be neatly brought together in a diagram like the one below:

To use the tool to understand your situation, look at each of these forces one-by-one.

Brainstorm the relevant factors for your market or situation, and then check against
the factors listed for the force in the diagram above.

Example:
Martin Johnson is deciding whether to switch career and become a farmer – he’s
always loved the countryside, and wants to switch to a career where he’s his own
boss. He creates the following Five Forces Analysis as he thinks the situation
through:

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This worries him:

• The threat of new entry is quite high: if anyone looks as if they’re making a
sustained profit, new competitors can come into the industry easily, reducing
profits;
• Competitive rivalry is extremely high: if someone raises prices, they’ll be
quickly undercut. Intense competition puts strong downward pressure on
prices;
• Buyer Power is strong, again implying strong downward pressure on prices;
and
• There is some threat of substitution. Unless he is able to find some way of
changing this situation, this looks like a very tough industry to survive in.
Maybe he’ll need to specialise in a sector of the market that’s protected from
some of these forces, or find a related business that’s in a stronger position.

Porter’s Five Forces Analysis is an important tool for assessing the potential for
profitability in an industry. With a little adaptation, it is also useful as a way of
assessing the balance of power in more general situations.

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It works by looking at the strength of five important forces that affect competition:
• Supplier Power: The power of suppliers to drive up the prices of your inputs;
• Buyer Power: The power of your customers to drive down your prices;
• Competitive Rivalry: The strength of competition in the industry;
• The Threat of Substitution: The extent to which different products and
services can be used in place of your own; and
• The Threat of New Entry: The ease with which new competitors can enter the
market if they see that you are making good profits (and then drive your
prices down).

By thinking through how each force affects you, and by identifying the strength and
direction of each force, you can quickly assess the strength of the position and your
ability to make a sustained profit in the industry.

You can then look at how you can affect each of the forces to move the balance of
power more in your favour.

Technique 12: PEST analysis

PEST Analysis is a simple but important and widely-used tool that helps you
understand the big picture of the Political, Economic, Socio-Cultural and
Technological environment you are operating in. PEST is used by business leaders
worldwide to build their vision of the future.

It is important for the following main reasons:

• Firstly, by making effective use of PEST Analysis, you ensure that what you
are doing is aligned positively with the powerful forces of change that are
affecting our world. By taking advantage of change, you are much more likely
to be successful than if your activities oppose it;
• Secondly, good use of PEST Analysis helps you avoid taking action that is
doomed to failure for reasons beyond your control
• Thirdly, PEST is useful when you start operating in a new country or region.
Use of PEST helps you break free of unconscious assumptions, and helps
you quickly adapt to the realities of the new environment.

PEST is a simple mnemonic standing for Political, Economic, Socio-Cultural and

Technological. Using the tool is a three stage process:
• Firstly, you brainstorm the relevant factors that apply to you;
• Secondly, you identify the information that applies to these factors
• Thirdly, you draw conclusions from this information.

Tip:
The important point is to move from the second step to the third step: it is sterile
just to describe factors without thinking through what they mean. However, be
careful not to assume that your analysis is perfect: use it as a starting point, and
test your conclusions against the reality you experience.

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The following factors may help as a starting point for brainstorming (but make sure
you include others that may be appropriate to your situation):

Political:
• Government type and stability
• Freedom of press, rule of law and levels of bureaucracy and corruption
• Regulation and de-regulation trends
• Social and employment legislation
• Tax policy, and trade and tariff controls
• Environmental and consumer-protection legislation
• Likely changes in the political environment

Economic:
• Stage of business cycle
• Current and project economic growth, inflation and interest rates
• Unemployment and labour supply
• Labour costs
• Levels of disposable income and income distribution
• Impact of globalisation
• Likely impact of technological or other change on the economy
• Likely changes in the economic environment

Socio-Cultural:
• Population growth rate and age profile
• Population health, education and social mobility, and attitudes to these
• Population employment patterns, job market freedom and attitudes to work
• Press attitudes, public opinion, social attitudes and social taboos
• Lifestyle choices and attitudes to these
• Socio-Cultural changes

Technological Environment:
• Impact of emerging technologies
• Impact of Internet, reduction in communications costs and increased remote
working
• Research & Development activity
• Impact of technology transfer
Things that make activity more difficult for people or organisations raise the cost of
doing business: activity is either blocked altogether, or costs more in time/ money as
difficulties are circumvented. The higher the cost of doing business in a region, the
more project profitability is squeezed or eliminated.

And given that businesspeople normally have at least some level of intelligence,
businesses and projects that could otherwise operate are never launched - meaning
that less economic activity takes place. And the lower the amount of economic
activity, the poorer and less capable societies tend to be.

Another broad principle is wherever there is rapid or major change in an area, there
are likely to be new opportunities and threats that arise. Smart people and
companies will take advantage of the opportunities and manage the threats.

Remember that few situations are perfect: it is up to us to make the most of the
situation in which we find ourselves.

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PEST Analysis is a useful tool for understanding the “big picture” of the environment
in which you are operating, and the opportunities and threats that lie within it. By
understanding your environment, you can take advantage of the opportunities and
minimise the threats.

PEST is a mnemonic standing for Political, Economic, Social and Technological.

These headings are used firstly to brainstorm the characteristics of a country or
region and, from this, draw conclusions as to the significant forces of change
operating within it. This provides the context within which more detailed planning can
take place to take full advantage of the opportunities that present themselves.
Common pitfalls of problem-solving efforts
• Identifying the wrong problem. Sometimes what really needs to decided is
very obvious, but other times the issue is harder to spot. For example, let’s
say your colleague cancelled a study session with you to hang out with other
friends. Is the problem that you are hurt by your friend’s actions or that you
are worried about his study habits? Figuring out the focus of your decision
can save you from big headaches later on.
• Listening to only one source. This will hurt your chances of coming up with
a broad choice of alternatives and coming up with the best solution.
Overestimating how helpful or reliable one person can be is also dangerous,
because nobody can completely understand the particular dynamics of your
situation.
• Listening to too many sources. It is important to collect as much
information as possible to help you make your decision, but an overload of
input may prevent you from following your gut instinct. Trusting your intuition
is a key component of successful decision-making.
• Overshooting on the outcome. When considering your options, take care to
also assess how probable the outcomes of each option truly are. A decision
that looks attractive but is totally unfeasible will not help you solve the
problem.
• Bad timing. Sometimes it’s best to hold off on making a decision, but other
times delaying a response can makes things a lot worse. Taking your time will
probably result in a higher-quality decision, but expediting the process could
also give you more time to fix things in the event of an undesirable outcome.
Since each choice is often case-specific, consider how the pros and cons of
timing will affect your decision and the ensuing outcome.

Class Activity 2: Creativity and Innovation Techniques

In small groups, complete the formative activity in your Learner Workbook

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2.2 Explain the Techniques for Promoting Creativity

Many people believe that creativity is somehow dependent on "natural talent". Most
researchers, however, indicate that the skills involved in creativity are something that
can be taught and learned.
In A Whack on the Side of the Head, Roger von Oech (1983) describes the
characteristics that promote the creative process:
• Generate as many answers as possible. Don't look for the one "right answer".
• Don't ask if something is "logical".
• Set aside all rules.
• Don't judge the quality of an idea by looking at its "practicality".
• Allow ambiguity.
• Don't worry about being wrong.
• Indulge yourself...let yourself play.
• Let yourself go into new areas.
• Be foolish and silly.
• Accept your own creativity.
• Make yourself receptive to new ideas.
Scott Witt adds that confidence, independence, and curiosity are the prime
ingredients of ingenuity. Witt maintains that creative people have unbending
confidence in their ability to come up with solutions to problems, and that they enjoy
leaving the beaten path and exploring unusual possibilities.
Recent research by Terry Greene and Helga Noice states that the act of
complimenting students on their clothing, hair and/or jewellery will improve their
performance on creativity tests. Creativity is somehow related to the emotional state
of the creator.
Michael Hutchison in Megabrain (1986) points out the importance of stimulating the
brain with challenges, change, ambiguities, and novel experiences.

Class Activity 3: Techniques for Promoting Creativity

In small groups, complete the formative activity in your Learner Workbook

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 Summative Assessment Guidelines

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 References

References and Further Reading

• Smit, PJ & GJ de J Cronjé (eds). 1999. Management Principles. Juta & Co.
Ltd.
• http://home.developmentgateway.org for information on business
environments
• Vertigo Interactive Design, 2002, ‘Problem solving’, viewed 14 December
2005, http://www.vis-it.com/application.asp#problem.
• Information on problem-solving techniques retrieved from:
http://www.mindtools.com
• Information on creativity retrieved from: www.brainstorming.co.uk
• http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/pubs_pol/dcgpubs/riskmanagement/rm-riv1-
eng.asp#_Toc456673609
• http://www.management-issues.com/2009/3/5/opinion/20th-century-
managers-inhibit-21st-century-work.asp

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