Oscillators 9

Positive feedback Now consider what will happen when the loop
gain, βAv, approaches unity (i.e. when the loop
In Chapter 7 we showed how negative feedback gain is just less than 1). The denominator (1 − βAv)
can be applied to an amplifier to form the basis of will become close to zero. This will have the
a stage which has a precisely controlled gain. An effect of increasing the overall gain, i.e. the overall
alternative form of feedback, where the output is gain with positive feedback applied will be greater
fed back in such a way as to reinforce the input than the gain without feedback.
(rather than to subtract from it), is known as
It is worth illustrating this difficult concept using
positive feedback.
some practical figures. Assume that you have an
Fig. 9.1 shows the block diagram of an amplifier amplifier with a gain of 9 and one-tenth of the
stage with positive feedback applied. Note that output is fed back to the input (i.e. β = 0.1). In this
the amplifier provides a phase shift of 180° and case the loop gain (β × Av) is 0.9.
the feedback network provides a further 180°.
With negative feedback applied (see Chapter 7)
Thus the overall phase shift is 0°. The overall
the overall voltage gain will be:
voltage gain, G, is given by:
Av 9 9 9
Vout G= = = = = 4.7
Overall gain, G = 1+ βAv 1+ ( 0.1× 9 ) 1+ 0.9 1.9
Vin
By applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law With positive feedback applied the overall voltage
Vin ' = Vin + βVout gain will be:
Av 10 10 10
thus G= = = = = 90
1− βAv 1− ( 0.1× 9 ) 1− 0.9 0.1
Vin = Vin '− βVout
Now assume that you have an amplifier with
and a gain of 10 and, once again, one-tenth of the
Vout = Av × Vin output is fed back to the input (i.e. β = 0.1). In this
example the loop gain (β × Av) is exactly 1.
where Av is the internal gain of the amplifier.
Hence: With negative feedback applied (see Chapter 7)
A × Vin ' Av × Vin ' the overall voltage gain will be:
Overall gain, G = v = Av 10 10 10
Vin ' − βVout Vin '− β ( Av × Vin ') G= = = = =5
1+ βAv 1+ (0.1 × 10) 1 + 1 2
Av
Thus, G =
1− βAv

Figure 9.1 Amplifier with positive feedback applied

175

TOOLEY 9781138828926 PAGINATION.indb 175 22/04/2015 11:32

 9 Oscillators

With positive feedback applied the overall voltage

gain will be:
Av 10 10 10
G= = = = =∞
1− βAv 1− (0.1 × 10) 1− 1 0

This simple example shows that a loop gain of

unity (or larger) will result in infinite gain and an
amplifier which is unstable. In fact, the amplifier
will oscillate since any disturbance will be
amplified and result in an output.
Figure 9.2 Sine wave oscillator based on a three-
Clearly, as far as an amplifier is concerned, stage C–R ladder network
positive feedback may have an undesirable
effect – instead of reducing the overall gain the
positive so that the output signal arrives back
effect is that of reinforcing any signal present and
at the input in such a sense as to reinforce the
the output can build up into continuous oscillation
original signal.
if the loop gain is 1 or greater. To put this another
way, oscillator circuits can simply be thought of as
amplifiers that generate an output signal without Ladder network oscillator
the need for an input!
A simple phase-shift oscillator based on a three-
stage C–R ladder network is shown in Fig. 9.2.
Conditions for oscillation TR1 operates as a conventional common-emitter
amplifier stage with R1 and R2 providing base
From the foregoing we can deduce that the
bias potential and R3 and C1 providing emitter
conditions for oscillation are:
stabilization.
(a) the feedback must be positive (i.e. the signal
The total phase shift provided by the C–R ladder
fed back must arrive back in-phase with the
network (connected between collector and
signal at the input);
base) is 180° at the frequency of oscillation. The
(b) the overall loop voltage gain must be greater
transistor provides the other 180° phase shift in
than 1 (i.e. the amplifier’s gain must be
order to realize an overall phase shift of 360° or 0°
sufficient to overcome the losses associated
(note that these are the same).
with any frequency selective feedback
network). The frequency of oscillation of the circuit shown
in Fig. 9.2 is given by:
Hence, to create an oscillator we simply need 1
an amplifier with sufficient gain to overcome f =
2π × 6CR
the losses of the network that provide positive
feedback. Assuming that the amplifier provides The loss associated with the ladder network is 29,
180° phase shift, the frequency of oscillation will thus the amplifier must provide a gain of at least
be that at which there is 180° phase shift in the 29 in order for the circuit to oscillate. In practice
feedback network. this is easily achieved with a single transistor.
A number of circuits can be used to provide 180°
phase shift, one of the simplest being a three- Example 9.1
stage C–R ladder network that we shall meet Determine the frequency of oscillation of a three-
next. Alternatively, if the amplifier produces stage ladder network oscillator in which
0° phase shift, the circuit will oscillate at the C = 10 nF and R = 10 kΩ.
frequency at which the feedback network
produces 0° phase shift. In both cases, the
essential point is that the feedback should be

176

TOOLEY 9781138828926 PAGINATION.indb 176 22/04/2015 11:32

 Oscillators 9

Solution The frequency at which the phase shift will be

zero is given by:
Using
1
1 f =
f = 2π × C 1C 2R1R 2
2π × 6CR
gives When R1 = R2 and C1 = C2 the frequency at
1 which the phase shift will be zero will be given by:
f= 1 1
6.28 × 2.45 × 10 × 10−9 × 10 × 103 f = =
2π × C R
2 2 2πCR
from which
1 10 4 where R = R1 = R2 and C = C1 = C 2.
f= = = 647 Hz
6.28 × 2.45 × 10 −4
15.386
Example 9.2
Fig. 9.4 shows the circuit of a Wien bridge
Wien bridge oscillator oscillator based on an operational amplifier.
If C1 = C 2 = 100 nF, determine the output
An alternative approach to providing the phase frequencies produced by this arrangement
shift required is the use of a Wien bridge (a) when R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ and (b) when
network (Fig. 9.3). Like the C–R ladder, this R1 = R2 = 6 kΩ.
network provides a phase shift which varies with
frequency. The input signal is applied to A and B Solution
while the output is taken from C and D. At one
(a) When R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ
particular frequency, the phase shift produced by
the network will be exactly zero (i.e. the input and 1
f =
output signals will be in-phase). If we connect the 2πCR
network to an amplifier producing 0° phase shift where R = R1 = R1 and C = C1 = C 2.
which has sufficient gain to overcome the losses
Thus
of the Wien bridge, oscillation will result.
1
The minimum amplifier gain required to sustain f=
6.28 × 100 × 10−9 × 1× 103
oscillation is given by:
C1 R 2 10 4
Av = 1+ + f= = 1.59 kHz
C 2 R1 6.28

In most cases, C1 = C 2 and R1 = R2, hence the

minimum amplifier gain will be 3.

Figure 9.4 Sine wave oscillator based on a Wien

Figure 9.3 A Wien bridge network bridge network (see Example 9.2)
177

TOOLEY 9781138828926 PAGINATION.indb 177 22/04/2015 11:32

 9 Oscillators

(b) When R1 = R1 = 6 kΩ
1
f =
2πCR
where R = R1 = R1 and C = C1 = C2.
Thus
1
f=
6.28 × 100 × 10−9 × 6 × 103

10 4
f= = 265 Hz
37.68

Multivibrators
There are many occasions when we require a
square wave output from an oscillator rather than
a sine wave output. Multivibrators are a family of
Figure 9.5 This high-speed bistable multivibrator
oscillator circuits that produce output waveforms
uses two general-purpose silicon transistors and
consisting of one or more rectangular pulses. The
works at frequencies of up to 1 MHz triggered
term ‘multivibrator’ simply originates from the fact
from an external signal
that this type of waveform is rich in harmonics
(i.e. ‘multiple vibrations’).
Multivibrators use regenerative (i.e. positive)
feedback; the active devices present within the
oscillator circuit being operated as switches, being
alternately cut-off and driven into saturation.
The principal types of multivibrator are:
(a) astable multivibrators that provide a
continuous train of pulses (these are
Figure 9.6 Astable multivibrator using BJTs
sometimes also referred to as free-running
multivibrators);
(b) monostable multivibrators that produce a the sufficient base current will be available to
single output pulse (they have one stable state completely saturate the respective transistor. The
and are thus sometimes also referred to as values of the collector load resistors, R1 and R2,
‘one-shot’); are very much smaller than R3 and R4. When
(c) bistable multivibrators that have two stable power is first applied to the circuit, assume that
states and require a trigger pulse or control TR2 saturates before TR1 when the power is first
signal to change from one state to another. applied (in practice one transistor would always
saturate before the other due to variations in
component tolerances and transistor parameters).
The astable multivibrator
As TR2 saturates, its collector voltage will fall
Fig. 9.6 shows a classic form of astable rapidly from +VCC to 0 V. This drop in voltage will
multivibrator based on two transistors. Fig. 9.7 be transferred to the base of TR1 via C1. This
shows how this circuit can be redrawn in an negative-going voltage will ensure that TR1 is
arrangement that more closely resembles a two- initially placed in the non-conducting state. As
stage common-emitter amplifier with its output long as TR1 remains cut-off, TR2 will continue to
connected back to its input. In Fig. 9.6, the values be saturated. During this time, C1 will charge via
of the base resistors, R3 and R4, are such that R4 and TR1’s base voltage will rise exponentially
178
 9 Oscillators

Figure 9.9 Astable oscillator using operational

amplifiers

Assume that the output from IC2 is initially at,

or near, +VCC and capacitor, C, is uncharged. The
voltage at the output of IC2 will be passed, via R, Figure 9.10 Single-stage astable oscillator using
to IC1. Capacitor, C, will start to charge and the an operational amplifier
output voltage of IC1 will begin to fall.
Eventually, the output voltage will have fallen to a
value that causes the polarity of the voltage at the divider formed by R1 and R2. This circuit can
non-inverting input of IC2 to change from positive make a very simple square wave source with
to negative. At this point, the output of IC2 will a frequency that can be made adjustable by
rapidly fall to −VCC. Again, this voltage will be replacing R with a variable or preset resistor.
passed, via R, to IC1. Capacitor C will then start Assume that C is initially uncharged and the
to charge in the other direction and the output voltage at the inverting input is slightly less than
voltage of IC1 will begin to rise. the voltage at the non-inverting input. The output
Some time later, the output voltage will have voltage will rise rapidly to +VCC and the voltage at
risen to a value that causes the polarity of the the inverting input will begin to rise exponentially
non-inverting input of IC2 to revert to its original as capacitor C charges through R.
(positive) state and the cycle will continue Eventually the voltage at the inverting input will
indefinitely. have reached a value that causes the voltage
The upper threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum at the inverting input to exceed that present at
positive value for Vout) will be given by: the non-inverting input. At this point, the output
⎛ R1 ⎞ voltage will rapidly fall to −VCC. Capacitor C will
VUT = VCC × ⎜ ⎟ then start to charge in the other direction and
⎝R2 ⎠
the voltage at the inverting input will begin to fall
The lower threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum exponentially.
negative value for Vout) will be given by: Eventually, the voltage at the inverting input will
⎛ R1 ⎞ have reached a value that causes the voltage at
VLT = −VCC × ⎜ ⎟
⎝R2 ⎠ the inverting input to be less than that present at
the non-inverting input. At this point, the output
voltage will rise rapidly to +VCC once again and the
Single-stage astable oscillator cycle will continue indefinitely.
The upper threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum
A simple form of astable oscillator that produces
positive value for the voltage at the inverting
a square wave output can be built using just one
input) will be given by:
operational amplifier, as shown in Fig. 9.10. The
⎛ R2 ⎞
circuit employs positive feedback with the output VUT = VCC × ⎜ ⎟
fed back to the non-inverting input via the potential ⎝ R1+ R 2 ⎠

180
 Oscillators 9

The lower threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum 100 kHz to around 20 MHz and for overtone
negative value for the voltage at the inverting operation from 20 MHz to well over 100 MHz.
input) will be given by: Fig. 9.12 shows a simple crystal oscillator circuit
⎛ R2 ⎞ in which the crystal provides feedback from the
VLT = −VCC × ⎜ ⎟ drain to the source of a junction gate FET.
⎝ R1+ R 2 ⎠

Finally, the time for one complete cycle of

Practical oscillator circuits
the output waveform produced by the astable
oscillator is given by: Fig. 9.13 shows a practical sine wave oscillator
⎛ ⎛ R 2 ⎞⎞ based on a three-stage C–R ladder network. The
T = 2CR ln ⎜1+ 2 ⎜ ⎟⎟ circuit provides an output of approximately 1 V
⎝ ⎝ R1 ⎠⎠
peak–peak at 1.97 kHz.
A practical Wien bridge oscillator is shown in
Crystal controlled oscillators Fig. 9.14. This circuit produces a sine wave output
at 16 Hz. The output frequency can easily be
A requirement of some oscillators is that they varied by making R1 and R2 a 10 kΩ dual-gang
accurately maintain an exact frequency of potentiometer and connecting a fixed resistor of
oscillation. In such cases, a quartz crystal can 680 Ω in series with each. In order to adjust the
be used as the frequency determining element. loop gain for an optimum sine wave output it may
The quartz crystal (a thin slice of quartz in a be necessary to make R3/R4 adjustable. One way
hermetically sealed enclosure, see Fig. 9.11) of doing this is to replace both components with
vibrates whenever a potential difference is applied a 10 kΩ multi-turn potentiometer with the sliding
across its faces (this phenomenon is known contact taken to the inverting input of IC1.
as the piezoelectric effect). The frequency of
oscillation is determined by the crystal’s ‘cut’ and
physical size.
Most quartz crystals can be expected to
stabilize the frequency of oscillation of a circuit
to within a few parts in a million. Crystals can
be manufactured for operation in fundamental
mode over a frequency range extending from

Figure 9.12 A simple JFET oscillator

Figure 9.11 A quartz crystal (this crystal is cut to

be resonant at 4 MHz and is supplied in an HC18 Figure 9.13 A practical sine wave oscillator based
wire-ended package) on a phase shift ladder network
181