QB502 (b) Interpret in detail on pattern and pattern classes.

Explanation on pattern – 5 marks

Explanation on pattern classes with example – 8 marks
Pattern classes refer to categories or types of patterns that share common characteristics or
attributes. Let's explore pattern classes with examples from different domains:

1. Computer Science: Design Patterns

Singleton Pattern: Ensures that a class has only one instance and provides a global point of
access to it. Example: Database connection manager in a web application.

Observer Pattern: Defines a one-to-many dependency between objects so that when one
object changes state, all its dependents are notified and updated automatically.
Example: Event handling in graphical user interfaces.

2. Art: Tessellation Patterns

Regular Tessellation: A repeating pattern of polygons that completely covers a plane

without any gaps or overlaps. Example: Hexagonal tiles in a honeycomb pattern.

Escher's Tessellations: Artistic patterns created by Dutch artist M.C. Escher, involving
intricate interlocking shapes.
QB503 (b) Analyze the process of Pattern Recognition and the components to attribute the
pattern recognition in detail.

What is Pattern Recognition?

Pattern recognition is the process of recognizing patterns by using machine learning algorithm.
Pattern recognition can be defined as the classification of data based on knowledge already
gained or on statistical information extracted from patterns and/or their representation. One of
the important aspects of the pattern recognition is its application potential.

Examples: Speech recognition, speaker identification, multimedia document recognition

(MDR), automatic medical diagnosis. In a typical pattern recognition application, the raw data is
processed and converted into a form that is amenable for a machine to use. Pattern recognition
involves classification and cluster of patterns. In classification, an appropriate class label is
assigned to a pattern based on an abstraction that is generated using a set of training patterns or
domain knowledge. Classification is used in supervised learning. Clustering generated a partition
of the data which helps decision making, the specific decision making activity of interest to us.
Clustering is used in an unsupervised learning. Features may be represented as continuous,
discrete or discrete binary variables. A feature is a function of one or more measurements,
computed so that it quantifies some significant characteristics of the object.

Pattern recognition possesses the following features:

• Pattern recognition system should recognize familiar pattern quickly and accurate
• Recognize and classify unfamiliar objects
• Accurately recognize shapes and objects from different angles
• Identify patterns and objects even when partly hidden
• Recognize patterns quickly with ease, and with automaticity
Pattern Recognition System:

Pattern is everything around in this digital world. A pattern can either be seen physically or it can
be observed mathematically by applying algorithms.

• In Pattern Recognition, pattern is comprising of the following two fundamental things:

• Collection of observations
• The concept behind the observation
• Components in Pattern Recognition System: Pattern recognition systems can be
partitioned into components. There are five typical components for various pattern
recognition systems. These are as following:
• Sensing: It deals with problem arises in the input such as its bandwidth, resolution,
sensitivity, distortion, signal-to-noise ratio, latency, etc. A sensor is a device used to
measure a property, such as pressure, position, temperature, or acceleration, and respond
 with feedback.
• Segmentation and Grouping: Deepest problems in pattern recognition that deals with
the problem of recognizing or grouping together the various parts of an object.
Segmentation is used and it is the process of partitioning a data into multiple segments. It
can also be defined as the technique of dividing or partitioning a data into parts called
segments.
• A Feature Extraction Mechanism: Feature extraction starts from an initial set of
measured data and builds derived values (features) intended to be informative and non-
redundant, facilitating the subsequent learning and generalization steps, and in some
cases leading to better human interpretations. It can be manual or automated. It deals with
the characterization of an object so that it can be recognized easily by measurements.
Those objects whose values are very similar for the objects are considered to be in the
same category, while those whose values are quite different for the objects are placed in
different categories.
• Classification: It deals with assigning the object to their particular categories by using
the feature vector provided by the feature extractor and determining the values of all of
the features for a particular input.
• Post Processing: It deals with action decision-making by using the output of the
classifier. Action such as minimum-error-rate classification will minimize the total
expected cost.
• A Training Set: Training data is a certain percentage of an overall dataset along with
testing set. As a rule, the better the training data, the better the algorithm or classifier
performs.
QB504 (b) Elaborate on the components of the Pattern Recognition system in detail.

Algorithm: Pattern recognition algorithms generally aim to provide a reasonable answer for all
possible inputs and to perform “most likely” matching of the inputs, taking into account their
statistical variation.

• Components in Pattern Recognition System: Pattern recognition systems can be

partitioned into components. There are five typical components for various pattern
recognition systems. These are as following:
• Sensing: It deals with problem arises in the input such as its bandwidth, resolution,
sensitivity, distortion, signal-to-noise ratio, latency, etc. A sensor is a device used to
measure a property, such as pressure, position, temperature, or acceleration, and respond
with feedback.
• Segmentation and Grouping: Deepest problems in pattern recognition that deals with
the problem of recognizing or grouping together the various parts of an object.
Segmentation is used and it is the process of partitioning a data into multiple segments. It
can also be defined as the technique of dividing or partitioning a data into parts called
segments.
• A Feature Extraction Mechanism: Feature extraction starts from an initial set of
 measured data and builds derived values (features) intended to be informative and non-
redundant, facilitating the subsequent learning and generalization steps, and in some
cases leading to better human interpretations. It can be manual or automated. It deals with
the characterization of an object so that it can be recognized easily by measurements.
Those objects whose values are very similar for the objects are considered to be in the
same category, while those whose values are quite different for the objects are placed in
different categories.
• Classification: It deals with assigning the object to their particular categories by using
the feature vector provided by the feature extractor and determining the values of all of
the features for a particular input.
• Post Processing: It deals with action decision-making by using the output of the
classifier. Action such as minimum-error-rate classification will minimize the total
expected cost.
• A Training Set: Training data is a certain percentage of an overall dataset along with
testing set. As a rule, the better the training data, the better the algorithm or classifier
performs.

There are typically four main phases in the pattern recognition process: preprocessing, training,
testing, and deployment. These phases involve a series of activities that are designed to develop
and evaluate a pattern recognition system.

Preprocessing: Preprocessing is the process of preparing the data for analysis. This may involve
cleaning the data, scaling the data, or transforming the data in some way to make it more suitable
for analysis.

Training: Training is the process of fitting a model to the data. This typically involves selecting
a model, choosing appropriate hyperparameters, and optimizing the model’s parameters to
minimize a loss function.

Testing: Testing is the process of evaluating the performance of the model on a held-out dataset.
This allows us to estimate the generalization performance of the model and to compare the
performance of different models.

Deployment: Deployment is the process of deploying the trained model in a production

environment. This may involve integrating the model into an existing system or building a new
system based on the model.
QB505 (b) Demonstrate the process of Signatures and Boundary Segments in image
representation in detail.
Explanation on signature with diagram – 7 marks
Explanation on Boundary segment with diagram – 6 marks
Signatures
• 1-D representation of boundary: generated in various ways Simplest approach: plot r ( θ )
• r: distance from centroid of boundary to boundary point
• θ: angle with the positive x-axis
• Translation invariant, but not rotation or scale invariant

Normalization for rotation

(1) Choose the starting point as the furthest point from the centroid OR
(2) Choose the starting point as the point on the major axis that is the furthest from the centroid

Normalization for scale Note: ↑ scale ⇒ ↑ amplitude of signature

(1) Scale signature between 0 and 1 Problem: sensitive to noise
(2) Divide each sample by its variance - assuming it is not zero Alternative approach: plot Φ(θ)
• Φ: angle between the line tangent to the boundary and a reference line
• θ: angle with the positive x-axis Φ( θ ) carry information about basic shape characteristics
Alternative approach: use the so-called slope density function as a signature, that is a
histogram of the tangent-angle values
• Respond strongly to sections of the boundary with constant tangent angles (straight or
nearly straight segments)
• Deep valleys in sections producing rapidly varying angles (corners or other sharp
inflections)

Boundary Segments: This is a type of boundary representation in which a boundary is

decomposed into segments. It is used when the boundary has one or more concavities i.e, curves
that carry shape information. The decomposition procedure is used to
(i) Reduce the complexity of the boundary and
(ii) Simplify the description process Convex Hull, H:
A set ‘A’ is said to be convex if the straight line joining any two points in ‘A’ lies entirely within
‘A’. The convex hull, H of an arbitrary set ‘S’ is the smallest convex set containing S. The set
difference H- S is called the convex deficiency of S. The convex hull of the region enclosed by
the boundary is used as a tool for efficient decomposition of the boundary. Procedure: Consider
the boundary of an object ‘S’ shown in fig a.
(1) First, the convex deficiency of the set i.e, object S is defined, which is the shaded region in
the fig b
(2) Next, the contour i.e, outline of S is followed and the points at which there is a transition into
or out of the convex deficiency are marked.
(3) These points are the partitioning points that give the segmented boundary. The result
obtained is shown in fig. Fig 5.1.1
Representation of Boundary Segments

Advantages:
• The advantage of segmenting a boundary using convex deficiency is that it is
independent of the size and orientation of the given region.
• The convex hull and its deficiency can also be used for describing a region and its
boundary.

Drawback:
• Factors like digitalization, noise and variations in segmentation may lead to irregular
boundaries of regions.
• Such boundaries produce convex deficiencies with small, meaningless components
scattered randomly throughout the boundary.
• This results in an inefficient decomposition process.
QC502 (a) Briefly explain in detail about the Visual Descriptors.

Visual descriptors
In computer vision, visual descriptors or image descriptors are descriptions of the visual features
of the contents in images, videos, algorithms, or applications that produce such descriptions.
They describe elementary characteristics such as the shape, the color, the texture or the motion,
among others.

Introduction (4 marks)
As a result of the new communication technologies and the massive use of Internet in our
society, the amount of audio-visual information available in digital format is increasing
considerably. Therefore, it has been necessary to design some systems that allow us to describe
the content of several types of multimedia information in order to search and classify them.
The audio-visual descriptors are in charge of the contents description. These descriptors have a
good knowledge of the objects and events found in a video, image or audio and they allow the
quick and efficient searches of the audio-visual content.
This system can be compared to the search engines for textual contents. Although it is
certain, that it is relatively easy to find text with a computer, is much more difficult to find
concrete audio and video parts. For instance, imagine somebody searching a scene a happy
person. The happiness is a feeling and it is not evident its shape, color and texture description in
images. The description of the audio-visual content is not a superficial task and it is essential for
the effective use of this type of archives. The standardization system that deals with audio-visual
descriptors is the MPEG-7 (Motion Picture Expert Group - 7).
Types of visual descriptors
Descriptors are the first step to find out the connection between pixels contained in a digital
image and what humans recall after having observed an image or a group of images after some
minutes. Visual descriptors are divided in two main groups:
• General information descriptors: they contain low level descriptors which give a
description about color, shape, regions, textures and motion.
• Specific domain information descriptors: they give information about objects and
events in the scene. A concrete example would be face recognition.

General information descriptors:

General information descriptors consist of a set of descriptors that covers different basic and
elementary features like: color, texture, shape, motion, location and others. This description is
automatically generated by means of signal processing.
• COLOR (2marks): the most basic quality of visual content. Five tools are defined to
describe color. The three first tools represent the color distribution and the last ones
describe the color relation between sequences or group of images:
o Dominant Color Descriptor (DCD)
o Scalable Color Descriptor (SCD)
o Color Structure Descriptor (CSD)
o Color Layout Descriptor (CLD)
o Group of frame (GoF) or Group-of-pictures (GoP)

• TEXTURE (2marks): also, an important quality in order to describe an image. The

 texture descriptors characterize image textures or regions. They observe the region
homogeneity and the histograms of these region borders. The set of descriptors is formed
by:
o Homogeneous Texture Descriptor (HTD)
o Texture Browsing Descriptor (TBD)
o Edge Histogram Descriptor (EHD)
• SHAPE (2marks): contains important semantic information due to human‘s ability to
recognize objects through their shape. However, this information can only be extracted
by means of a segmentation similar to the one that the human visual system implements.
Nowadays, such a segmentation system is not available yet, however there exists a serial
of algorithms which are considered to be a good approximation. These descriptors
describe regions, contours and shapes for 2D images and for 3D volumes. The shape
descriptors are the following ones:
o Region-based Shape Descriptor (RSD)
o Contour-based Shape Descriptor (CSD)
o 3-D Shape Descriptor (3-D SD)
• MOTION (2marks): defined by four different descriptors which describe motion in
video sequence. Motion is related to the objects motion in the sequence and to the camera
motion. This last information is provided by the capture device, whereas the rest is
implemented by means of image processing. The descriptor set is the following one:
o Motion Activity Descriptor (MAD)
o Camera Motion Descriptor (CMD)
o Motion Trajectory Descriptor (MTD)
o Warping and Parametric Motion Descriptor (WMD and PMD)

• LOCATION (2marks): elements location in the image is used to describe elements in

the spatial domain. In addition, elements can also be located in the temporal domain:
o Region Locator Descriptor (RLD)
o Spatio Temporal Locator Descriptor (STLD)