SCN 3203: ELEMENTS OF PHYSICS (II)

(Electricity, Magnetism and Electronics)

 Electrostatic: Charges, Electric field, Potential energy of Charges, Electric Potential,
Capacitance.
 Electricity: Current, Ohm’s Law, Kirchoff’s law, Electrical heating (Harmonic
emissions), Electrical Measurements (Ohmmeters and Ammeters).
 Electric Induction: Magnetostatics, Magnetic field flux, Magnetic potential, Magnetism
of current element, Force between current elements, Lenz’s law, Self induction,
Transformer, Displacement current density, Rectifier circuit and diodes.
 Electronics; Semiconductors, Oscilloscopes, Control circuits, Transducers, pH meter,
Photocells, Digital logic.
ELECTROSTATICS
In this topic we shall study the physics of stationary electric charges – electrostatics.
1- ELECTRIC CHARGE
Here are two demonstrations:
i) After rubbing a glass rod with a silk cloth (on a day when the humidity is low), we hang
the rod by means of a thread tied around its center (Fig. 1.l a). Then we rub a second glass
rod with the silk cloth and bring it near the hanging rod. The hanging rod moves away. We
can see that a force repels it from the second rod, but how? There is no contact with that
rod, no breeze to push on it, and no sound wave to disturb it.
ii) we replace the second rod with a plastic rod that has been rubbed with fur. This time, the
hanging rod moves toward the nearby rod (Fig. 1.1b). Like the repulsion, this attraction
occurs without any contact or obvious communication between the rods.

Fig. 1.1: (a) The two glass rods were each rubbed with a silk cloth and one was suspended by thread. When
they are close to each other, they repel each other. (b) The plastic rod was rubbed with fur. When brought
close to the glass rod, the rods attract each other
In the first demonstration, the force on the hanging rod was repulsive, and in the second, attractive.
The forces in these types of demonstrations are due to the electric charge that are set up on the rods
when they are in contact with silk or fur. Electric charge is an intrinsic property of the fundamental
particles that make up objects such as the rods, silk, and fur. That is, charge is a property that comes
automatically with those particles wherever they exist.
Types of charges: There are two types of electric charge; positive charge and negative charge. In
most everyday objects, such as a mug, there are about equal numbers of negatively charged
particles and positively charged particles, and so the net charge is zero, the charge is said to be
balanced, and the object is said to be electrically neutral.
Excess Charge: Normally you are approximately neutral. However, if you live in regions where
the humidity is low, you know that the charge on your body can become slightly unbalanced when
you walk across certain carpets. You can gain negative charge from the carpet (at the points of
contact between your shoes with the carpet) and become negatively charged, or you lose negative
charge and become positively charged. Either way, the extra charge is said to be an excess charge.
You probably don’t notice it until you reach for a door handle or another person. Then, if your
excess charge is enough, a spark leaps between you and the other object, eliminating your excess
charge. Such sparking can be annoying and even somewhat painful. Such charging and discharging
does not happen in humid conditions because the water in the air neutralizes your excess charge
about as fast as you acquire it.
Two of the grand mysteries in physics are;
(i) why does the universe have particles with electric charge and,
(ii) why does electric charge come in two types?
From experiments similar to our two demonstrations scientists discovered that; particles with the
same sign of electrical charge repel each other, and particles with opposite signs attract each other.
We shall put this rule into quantitative form as Coulomb’s law of electrostatic force (or electric
force) between charged particles. The term electrostatic is used to emphasize that, relative to each
other, the charges are either stationary or moving only very slowly.
Demos. Now let’s get back to the demonstrations to understand the motions of the rod.
i) When we rub the glass rod with a silk cloth, a small amount of negative charge moves
from the rod to the silk (a transfer like that between you and a carpet), leaving the rod
with a small amount of excess positive charge. We rub the silk over the rod to increase
the number of contact points and thus the amount, still tiny, of transferred charge. We
hang the rod from the thread so as to electrically isolate it from its surroundings (so that
the surroundings cannot neutralize the rod by giving it enough negative charge to
rebalance its charge). When we rub the second rod with the silk cloth, it too becomes
positively charged. So, when we bring it near the first rod, the two rods repel each other
(Fig. 1.2a).
 ii) Next, when we rub the plastic rod with fur, it gains excess negative charge from the fur.
When we bring the plastic rod (with negative charge) near the hanging glass rod (with
positive charge), the rods are attracted to each other (Fig. 1.2b).

Fig. 1.2 (a) Two charged rods of the same sign repel each other. (b) Two charged rods of opposite signs attract
each other. Plus, signs indicate a positive net charge, and minus signs indicate a negative net char

Conductors and insulators

We can classify materials generally according to the ability of charge to move through them.
Conductors are materials through which charge can move rather freely; examples include metals
(such as copper in common lamp wire), the human body, and tap water.
Nonconductors—also called insulators—are materials through which charge cannot move freely;
examples include rubber (such as the insulation on common lamp wire), plastic, glass, and
chemically pure water.
Semiconductors are materials that are intermediate between conductors and insulators; examples
include silicon and germanium in computer chips.
Superconductors are materials that are perfect conductors, allowing charge to move without any
hindrance. Here, we discuss only conductors and insulators.
Charged Particles. The properties of conductors and insulators are due to the structure and
electrical nature of atoms. Atoms consist of positively charged protons, negatively charged
electrons, and electrically neutral neutrons. The protons and neutrons are packed tightly together
in a central nucleus.
The charge of a single electron and that of a single proton have the same magnitude but are opposite
in sign. Hence, an electrically neutral atom contains equal numbers of electrons and protons.
Electrons are held near the nucleus because they have the electrical sign opposite that of the protons
in the nucleus and thus are attracted to the nucleus.
When atoms of a conductor like copper come together to form the solid, some of their outermost
(and so most loosely held) electrons become free to wander about within the solid, leaving behind
positively charged atoms (positive ions). We call the mobile electrons conduction electrons. There
are few (if any) free electrons in a nonconductor.
Induced Charge. The experiment of Fig. 1.3 demonstrates the mobility of charge in a conductor.
A negatively charged plastic rod will attract either end of an isolated neutral copper rod. What
happens is that many of the conduction electrons in the closer end of the copper rod are repelled
by the negative charge on the plastic rod. Some of the conduction electrons move to the far end of
the copper rod, leaving the near end depleted in electrons and thus with an unbalanced positive
charge. This positive charge is attracted to the negative charge in the plastic rod. Although the
copper rod is still neutral, it is said to have an induced charge, which means that some of its positive
and negative charges have been separated due to the presence of a nearby charge.

Similarly, if a positively charged glass rod is

brought near one end of a neutral copper rod,
induced charge is again set up in the neutral
copper rod but now the near end gains
conduction electrons, becomes negatively
charged, and is attracted to the glass rod, while
the far end is positively charged.
Note that only conduction electrons, with their
negative charges, can move; positive ions are Fig. 1.3: A neutral copper rod is electrically isolated
from its surroundings by being suspended on a
fixed in place. Thus, an object becomes nonconducting thread. Either end of the copper rod will
positively charged only through the removal of be attracted by a charged rod. Here, conduction
negative charges. electrons in the copper rod are repelled to the far end of
that rod by the negative charge on the plastic rod. Then
that negative charge attracts the remaining positive
charge on the near end of the copper rod, rotating the
copper rod to bring that near end closer to the plastic rod
Coulomb’s law

If two charged particles are brought near each

other, they each exert an electrostatic force on
the other. The direction of the force vectors
depends on the signs of the charges. If the
particles have the same sign of charge, they
repel each other. That means that the force
vector on each is directly away from the other
particle (Fig. 1.4a and b). If we release the
particles, they accelerate away from each
other. If, instead, the particles have opposite
signs of charge, they attract each other. That
means that the force vector on each is directly
Fig. 1.4: Two charged particles repel each other if they
toward the other particle (Fig. 1.4c). If we have the same sign of charge, either (a) both positive or
release the particles, they accelerate toward (b) both negative. (c) They attract each other if they have
each other. opposite signs of charge.

The equation for the electrostatic forces acting on the particles is called Coulomb’s law. Let’s write
the equation in vector form and in terms of the particles shown in Fig. 1.5, where particle 1 has
charge q1 and particle 2 has charge q2 . (These symbols can represent either positive or negative
charge.) Let’s also focus on particle 1 and write the force acting on it in terms of a unit vector 𝑟̂
that points along a radial axis extending through the two particles, radially away from particle 2.
(As with other unit vectors, has a magnitude of exactly 1 and no unit; its purpose is to point, like
a direction arrow on a street sign.) With these decisions, we write the electrostatic force as

𝑞1 𝑞2 The magnitude of the force is linearly

𝐹= 𝑘 𝑟̂ … … … … … . . Equ 1
𝑟2 proportional to the net charge on each object
and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
(coulumb′ s law)

where r is the separation between the particles and k is a positive constant called the electrostatic
constant or the Coulomb constant. (We’ll discuss k below.) Let’s first check the direction of the
force on particle 1 as given by Equ. 1.1. If q1 and q2 have the same sign, then the product q1 q2
gives us a positive result. So, Equ. 1.1 tells us that the force on particle 1 is in the direction of 𝑟̂ .
That checks, because particle 1 is being repelled from particle 2. Next, if q1 and q2 have opposite
signs, the product q1 q2 gives us a negative result. So, now Equ. 1.1 tells us that the force on
particle 1 is in the direction opposite. That checks because particle 1 is being attracted toward
particle 2.

Fig. 1.5: The electrostatic force on particle 1 can be described

in terms of a unit vector along an axis through the two
particles, radially away from particle 2.

An Aside. The form of Equ. 1.1 is the same as that of Newton’s equation for the gravitational force
between two particles with masses m1 and 𝑚2 and separation r:
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹= 𝐺 𝑟̂ … (𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛’𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤) … … 𝐸𝑞𝑢 2
𝑟2
where G is the gravitational constant. Although the two types of forces are different, both equations
describe inverse square laws (the 1/𝑟 2 dependences) that involve a product of a property of the
interacting particles—the charge in one case and the mass in the other. However, the laws differ in
that gravitational forces are always attractive but electrostatic forces may be either attractive or
repulsive, depending on the signs of the charges. This difference arises from the fact that there is
only one type of mass but two types of charge.
The SI unit of charge is the coulomb. For practical reasons having to do with the accuracy of
measurements, the coulomb unit is derived from the SI unit ampere for electric current 𝑖. The
current 𝑖 is the rate 𝑑𝑞/𝑑𝑡 at which charge moves past a point or through a region
𝑑𝑞
𝑖= (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ) … … … … 𝐸𝑞𝑢. 1.3
𝑑𝑡
Rearranging Equ. 1.3 and replacing the symbols with their units (coulombs C, amperes A, and
seconds s) we see that
𝐶 = (1𝐴)(1𝑆)
1
Force Magnitude. The electrostatic constant k in Equ. 1.1 is often written as . Then the
4πε0
magnitude of the electrostatic force in Coulomb’s law becomes
1 |𝑞1 ||𝑞2 |
𝐹= 𝑟̂ ( 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤) … … … Equ. 1.4
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
The constants in Equ. 1.1 and Equ. 1.4 have the value
1
𝑘= = 8.99 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 /𝐶 2
4𝜋𝜀0
The quantity ε0 , called the permittivity constant, sometimes appears separately in equations and is
𝜀0 = 8.85 × 10−12 𝐶 2 /𝑁𝑚2
Working a Problem. Note that the charge magnitudes appear in Equ. 1.1, which gives us the force
magnitude. So, in working problems in this chapter, we use Equ. 1.1; to find the magnitude of a
force on a chosen particle due to a second particle and we separately determine the direction of the
force by considering the charge signs of the two particles.
Multiple Forces. The electrostatic force obeys the principle of superposition (A single force that
has the same magnitude and direction as the calculated net force would then have the same effect
as all the individual forces; this fact, called the principle of superposition for forces).
Suppose we have n charged particles near a chosen particle called particle 1; then the net force on
particle 1 is given by the vector sum

𝐹⃗1,𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹⃗12 + 𝐹⃗13 + 𝐹⃗14 + 𝐹⃗15 + ⋯ … . . 𝐹⃗1𝑛 … … . . Equ. 1.5

in which, for example, is the force on particle 1 due to the presence of particle 4.
If you want to know the net force acting on a chosen charged particle that is surrounded by other
charged particles, first clearly identify that chosen particle and then find the force on it due to each
of the other particles. Draw those force vectors in a free-body diagram of the chosen particle, with
the tails anchored on the particle. Then add all those forces as vectors. The result is the net force
(or resultant force) acting on the particle.
Sample Problem 1. Finding the net force due to two other particles.
(a) Fig. 1.6a shows two positively charged particles fixed in place on an 𝑥 axis. The charges
are q1 = 1.602 × 10−19 𝐶 and q2 = 3.2 × 10−19 𝐶, and the particle separation is 𝑅 =
0.0200 m. What are the magnitude and direction of the electrostatic force 𝐹⃗12 on particle
1 from particle 2?
Strategy
Because both particles are positively charged, particle 1 is repelled by particle 2, with a
force magnitude given by Equ. 1.1. Thus, the direction of force 𝐹⃗12 on particle 1 is away
from particle 2, in the negative direction of the 𝑥 axis, as indicated in the free-body diagram
of Fig. 1.6b
 Fig. 1.6: (a) Two charged particles of charges 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are fixed in place on an x axis. (b) The free-body
diagram for particle 1, showing the electrostatic force on it from particle 2. (c) Particle 3 included. (d)
Free-body diagram for particle 1. (e) Particle 4 included. (f) Free-body diagram for particle 1.

Two particles: Using Equ. 1.1 with separation R substituted for r, we can write the
magnitude 𝐹⃗12 of this force as
1 |q1 ||q2 |
F12 = r̂
4πε0 R2

9
(1.602 × 10−19 C )(3.2 × 10−19 C)
2 2
F12 = 8.99 × 10 Nm /C ×
(0.0200 m)2
= 1.15 × 10−24 N
Thus, force 𝐹12 has the following magnitude and direction (relative to the positive direction
of the x axis):
1.15 × 10−24 N and 1800
We can also write in unit-vector notation as

𝐹⃗12 = −(1.15 × 10−24 N)𝑖̂

(b) Fig. 1.6c is identical to Fig. 1.6a except that particle 3 now lies on the 𝑥 axis between
3
particles 1 and 2. Particle 3 has charge q3 = −3.2 × 10−19 𝐶 and is at a distance 4 𝑅 from
particle 1. What is the net electrostatic force F1,𝑛𝑒𝑡 on particle 1 due to particles 2 and 3?
Strategy
The presence of particle 3 does not alter the electrostatic force on particle 1 from particle
2. Thus, force still acts on particle 1. Similarly, the force F12 that acts on particle 1 due to
 particle 3 is not affected by the presence of particle 2. Because particles 1and 3 have charge
of opposite signs, particle 1 is attracted to particle 3. Thus, force F13 is directed toward
particle 3, as indicated in the free-body diagram of Fig. 1.6d.
Three particles: To find the magnitude of F13 , we can rewrite Equ. 1.4 as
1 |q1 ||q3 |
F13 =
4πε0 3 2
(4 𝑅)

(1.602 × 10−19 C )(3.2 × 10−19 C)

F13 = 8.99 × 109 Nm2 /C 2 ×
3 2
(4) (0.0200 m)2

= 2.5 × 10−24 N
We can also write F13 in unit-vector notation:

𝐹⃗13 = (2.5 × 10−24 N)𝑖̂

The net force 𝐹⃗1,𝑛𝑒𝑡 on particle 1 is the vector sum of 𝐹⃗12 and 𝐹⃗13 . that is, from Equ. 1.5,
we can write the net force 𝐹⃗1,𝑛𝑒𝑡 on particle 1 in unit-vector notation as

𝐹⃗1,𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹⃗12 + 𝐹⃗13

𝐹⃗1,𝑛𝑒𝑡 = −(1.15 × 10−24 𝑁)𝑖̂ + (2.5 × 10−24 𝑁)𝑖̂

= (9.00 × 10−25 𝑁)𝑖̂

Thus, 𝐹⃗1,𝑛𝑒𝑡 has the following magnitude and direction (relative to the positive direction of
the x axis):
9.00 × 10−25 N and 00
(c) Fig. 1.6e is identical to Fig. 1.6a except that particle 4 is now included. It has charge q4 =
3
−3.2 × 10−19 𝐶, is at a distance 4 𝑅 from particle 1, and lies on a line that makes an angle
𝜃 = 60𝑜 with the 𝑥 axis. What is the net electrostatic force 𝐹⃗1,𝑛𝑒𝑡 on particle 1 due to
particles 2 and 4?
Strategy

The net force 𝐹⃗1,𝑛𝑒𝑡 is the vector sum of 𝐹⃗12 and a new force 𝐹⃗14 acting on particle 1 due
to particle 4. Because particles 1 and 4 have charge of opposite signs, particle 1 is attracted
to particle 4. Thus, force 𝐹⃗14 on particle 1 is directed toward 𝐹⃗14 particle 4, at angle 60°, as
indicated in the free-body diagram of Fig. 1.6f.
Four particles: We can rewrite Equ. 1.4 as
 1 |𝑞1 ||𝑞4 |
𝐹14 =
4𝜋𝜀0 3 2
(4 𝑅)

(1.602 × 10−19 𝐶 )(3.2 × 10−19 𝐶)

𝐹14 = 8.99 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 /𝐶 2 ×
3 2
(4) (0.0200 𝑚)2

= 2.5 × 10−24 N
Then from Equ. 1.2, we can write the net force on particle 1 as

𝐹⃗1,𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹⃗12 + 𝐹⃗14

Because the forces 𝐹⃗12 and 𝐹⃗14 are not directed along the same axis, we cannot sum simply
by combining their magnitudes. Instead, we must add them as vectors, using one of the
following methods

Method 1. Summing in unit-vector notation. First, we rewrite 𝐹⃗14 as

𝐹⃗14 = (𝐹⃗14 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑖̂ + (𝐹⃗14 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑗̂

Substituting 2.5 × 10−24 N for 𝐹⃗14 and 60° for 𝜃, this becomes

𝐹⃗14 = (1.025 × 10−24 𝑁)𝑖̂ + (1.775 × 10−24 𝑁)𝑗̂

Then we sum:

𝐹⃗1,𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹⃗12 + 𝐹⃗14

= −(1.15 × 10−24 N)𝑖̂ + (1.025 × 10−24 𝑁)𝑖̂ + (1.775 × 10−24 𝑁)𝑗̂
= (1.25 × 10−25 𝑁)𝑖̂ + (1.775 × 10−24 𝑁 )𝑗̂
Method 2. Summing components axis by axis. The sum of the x components gives us

𝐹⃗1,𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑥 = 𝐹⃗12,𝑥 + 𝐹⃗14,𝑥 = 𝐹⃗12 + 𝐹⃗14 cos 60𝑜

= −(1.15 × 10−24 N) + (2.5 × 10−24 N) cos 60𝑜
= 1.25 × 10−25 N
The sum of the 𝑦 components gives us;

𝐹⃗1,𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑦 = 𝐹⃗12,𝑦 + 𝐹⃗14,𝑦 = 0 + 𝐹⃗14 sin 60𝑜

= (2.5 × 10−24 𝑁)(𝑠𝑖𝑛 60𝑜 )
= 1.78 × 10−24 𝑁
The net force has the magnitude
 𝐹⃗1,𝑛𝑒𝑡 = √𝐹⃗1,𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑥
2
+ 𝐹⃗1,𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑦
2
= 1.78 × 10−24 𝑁

To find the direction of 𝐹⃗1,𝑛𝑒𝑡 , we take

𝐹⃗1,𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑦
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = −86.00
𝐹⃗1,𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑥

However, this is an unreasonable result because 𝐹⃗1,𝑛𝑒𝑡 must have a direction between the
directions of 𝐹⃗12 and 𝐹⃗14 . To correct 𝜃, we add 180°, obtaining
−86.00 + 180 = 94°
Properties of electric charge
1. Charge is quantized
we now know that fluids themselves, such as air and water, are not continuous but are made up of
atoms and molecules; matter is discrete. Experiments shows that “electrical fluid” is also not
continuous but is made up of multiples of a certain elementary charge. Any positive or negative
charge q that can be detected can be written as
𝑞 = 𝑛𝑒 𝑛 = ±1, ±2, ±3 … … ..
in which e, the elementary charge, has the approximate value
𝑒 = 1.602 × 10−19 𝐶
The elementary charge e is one of the important constants of nature. The electron and proton both
have a charge of magnitude e.
When a physical quantity such as charge can have only discrete values rather than any value, we
say that the quantity is quantized.
Sample problem 2: Mutual electric repulsion in a nucleus
The nucleus in an iron atom has a radius of about 4.0 × 10−15 m and contains 26 protons. (a)
What is the magnitude of the repulsive electrostatic force between two of the protons that are
separated by 4.0 × 10−15 m?
Solution
The protons can be treated as charged particles, so the magnitude of the electrostatic force on one
from the other is given by Coulomb’s law
1 (𝑒)2
F=
4πε0 r 2

9
(1.602 × 10−19 𝐶 )2
2 2
= 8.99 × 10 𝑁𝑚 /𝐶 × = 14 N
(4.0 × 10−15 m)2
(b) What is the magnitude of the gravitational force between those same two protons?
Solution
Because the protons are particles, the magnitude of the gravitational force on one from the other
is given by Newton’s equation for the gravitational force (Equ. 1.2).
With 𝑚𝑝 (= 1.67 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔) representing the mass of a proton, Equ. 1.2 gives us
𝑚𝑝2
F=𝐺
r2
(6.67 × 10−11 Nm2 /kg 2 )( 1.67 × 10−27 kg)2
= = 1.2 × 10−35 N
(4.0 × 10−15 m)2
2. Charge is conserved
If you rub a glass rod with silk, a positive charge appears on the rod. Measurement shows that a
negative charge of equal magnitude appears on the silk. This suggests that rubbing does not create
charge but only transfers it from one body to another, upsetting the electrical neutrality of each
body during the process. This hypothesis of conservation of charge. An important example of the
conservation of charge occurs in the radioactive decay of nuclei, in which a nucleus transforms
into (becomes) a different type of nucleus. For instance, a uranium-238 nucleus (238U) transforms
into a thorium-234 nucleus (234Th) by emitting an alpha particle. Because that particle has the
same makeup as a helium-4 nucleus, it has the symbol 4He. The number used in the name of a
nucleus and as a superscript in the symbol for the nucleus is called the mass number and is the
total number of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus. For example, the total number in 238U is
238. The number of protons in a nucleus is the atomic number Z.
238
U→234Th + 4He
the parent nucleus 238U contains 92 protons (a charge of +92e), the daughter nucleus 234Th contains
90 protons (a charge of +90e), and the emitted alpha particle 4He contains 2 protons (a charge of
+2e). We see that the total charge is +92e before and after the decay; thus, charge is conserved.
(The total number of protons and neutrons is also conserved: 238 before the decay and 234 + 4 =
238 after the decay.)