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1. Homomorphism (in Graph Theory)

A graph homomorphism is a mapping from the vertex set of one graph to the vertex set of
another graph such that if two vertices are adjacent in the first graph, their images under the
homomorphism are adjacent in the second graph. It generalizes the concept of graph
isomorphism but allows for mappings that preserve adjacency without requiring a one-to-one
correspondence of edges and vertices.

Example: If graph has vertices {A, B, C} and edges {AB, BC}, and graph has vertices {1, 2, 3}
and edges {12, 23}, a homomorphism could map A → 1, B → 2, and C → 3, maintaining
adjacency relations.

Question:

What is the difference between an isomorphism and a homomorphism in graphs?

Answer:

Isomorphism: A graph isomorphism is a one-to-one and onto mapping between two graphs that
preserves both vertices and edges. There is a perfect correspondence between the graphs.

Homomorphism: A graph homomorphism is a mapping from one graph to another that

preserves adjacency but doesn't necessarily preserve the exact structure of the graphs. It may
map multiple vertices of the original graph to a single vertex in the target graph.

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2. Operation on Graph

In graph theory, an operation on a graph refers to actions or transformations that can be

performed on a graph, such as combining or modifying graphs.

Graph Union: Combining two graphs by taking the union of their vertex sets and edge sets.

Graph Intersection: A new graph created from the intersection of two graphs, where the vertices
and edges are those that are common to both graphs.
Graph Complement: A new graph where edges are those that do not exist in the original graph.
For any two vertices in the original graph that are not connected, they become connected in the
complement graph.

Question:

What is the result of the union of two graphs? How does it differ from their intersection?

Answer:

Union of Graphs: The union of two graphs and combines all the vertices and edges from both
graphs. The union graph includes all the vertices and edges that appear in either graph.

Intersection of Graphs: The intersection of two graphs includes only the vertices and edges that
are common to both graphs. It retains the vertices and edges that appear in both graphs and
preserves the adjacency relationships between them.

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3. Connectivity (Set, Relation, Function)

Connectivity refers to the ability to reach any vertex from any other vertex in a graph. If a graph
is connected, there exists a path between every pair of vertices.

Set: A set of vertices is connected if there is a path between every pair of vertices in that set.

Relation: A relation defines adjacency between vertices, i.e., two vertices are related if they
share an edge.

Function: A function can be used to map vertices to other vertices in a way that maintains
connectivity, for example, in graph algorithms like depth-first search (DFS) or breadth-first
search (BFS).

Question:

Is a tree a connected graph? Explain why or why not.

Answer:

Yes, a tree is a connected graph because a tree is defined as an acyclic, connected graph. By
definition, there is exactly one path between any pair of vertices in a tree, making it connected.
If a graph is a tree, it cannot have any isolated vertices, ensuring all vertices are reachable from
each other.

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4. Shortest Path Problem

The shortest path problem involves finding the shortest path between two vertices in a graph
where edges may have weights (costs). The goal is to minimize the total weight of the path
between the vertices.

Dijkstra's Algorithm: Works for graphs with non-negative edge weights and efficiently finds the
shortest path from a single source to all other vertices.

Bellman-Ford Algorithm: Works for graphs with negative edge weights and can handle graphs
containing negative weight cycles, but it is less efficient than Dijkstra's for graphs with
non-negative weights.

Question:

What is the difference between Dijkstra's algorithm and Bellman-Ford algorithm in solving the
shortest path problem?

Answer:

Dijkstra’s Algorithm: It only works with graphs that have non-negative edge weights. It finds the
shortest path from a source to all other vertices in time (or with a priority queue). It assumes no
negative weights or negative weight cycles.

Bellman-Ford Algorithm: It can handle graphs with negative edge weights and can detect
negative weight cycles. It has a time complexity of , which is slower than Dijkstra’s for graphs
with positive weights.
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5. Planner or Dual Graph

Dual Graph: A dual graph is associated with a planar graph (a graph that can be drawn on a
plane without edges crossing). The vertices of the dual graph correspond to the faces of the
original planar graph, and an edge exists between two vertices of the dual graph if the
corresponding faces in the original graph share an edge.

Planar Graph: A graph is planar if it can be drawn on a flat plane without any of its edges
crossing.

Question:

In a planar graph, what is the significance of the dual graph and how can it be used in practical
applications?

Answer:

The dual graph helps in solving problems related to graph coloring, network flow, and circuit
design where the relationship between the faces of a graph (in a planar layout) is important. For
example, the dual graph can represent different areas or regions in a geographical map, and it
can be useful in applications like optimizing transportation networks or designing communication
networks.

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6. Colouring

Graph colouring involves assigning colours to vertices such that no two adjacent vertices share
the same colour. The smallest number of colours needed to color a graph is called its chromatic
number.

Applications: Used in scheduling problems (where tasks must be scheduled without conflicts),
register allocation in compilers, and map colouring (to ensure no two adjacent regions share the
same colour).
Question:

What is the chromatic number of a complete graph with vertices?

Answer:

The chromatic number of a complete graph with vertices is . In a complete graph, every vertex
is adjacent to every other vertex, so each vertex must be assigned a unique colour to ensure no
two adjacent vertices share the same colour. Therefore, the chromatic number is equal to the
number of vertices in the graph.

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Each explanation and answer clarifies the fundamental concepts of graph theory, providing both
theoretical insight and practical understanding.