Cureten 9 Basic Computer Organization SY SS SEE Even though the size, shape, performance, reliability, and cost of computers have been changing over the last several years, the basic logical structure (based on the stored program concept), as proposed by Von Neuman, hhas not changed. No matter what shape and size of computer we are talking about, all computer systems perform the following five basic functions for converting raw input data into useful information and presenting it to a wer: 1. Inputting. Its the process of entering data and instructions into a computer system. 2. Storing. It is the process of saving data and instructions to make them readily available for initial o¢ ‘additional processing as and when required. 3. Processing. Performing arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply, divide, etc.) or logical operations (comparisons like equal to, less than, greater than, etc.) on data to convert them into useful information known as processing. 4, Output or visual ee - is the process of producing useful information or results for a user, such as printed report splay. 5. Controlling. Directing the manner and sequence in which the above operations are performed is know? as controlling, ‘The goal of this chapter is to familiarize you with the units of a comy st 2 h puter system that perform these function provides an overview of computer systems as computer system architects view them, Internal architecture of computers differs from one system model to aoth - ins \er. However, basic organization remains the same for all computer systems. Figure 2.1 shows a block diagram of basic computer organization. 1Figure, solid Hines indicate flow of instruction and data, and dotted fines represent control exercised by control unit. 1 displays the five major building blocks (functional units) of a digital computer system. These five units correspond (0 the five basic operations performed by all computer systems. Functions of each of these units are described below. Storage unit ‘Secondary storage Program and data ews > Information (Result) | Primary storage at > Indicates flow of : L | instructions and data Indicates the control Logic Unit exercised by the control unit Central Processing Unit (CPU) Figure 2.1. Basic organization of a computer system. INPUT UNIT Data and instructions must enter a computer system before the computer can perform any computation on the supplied data. The input unit that links a computer with its external environment performs this task. Data and instructions enter a computer through an input unit in a form that depends upon the input device used. For example, data can be entered using a keyboard in a manner similar to typing and this differs from the way in which data is entered through a scanner, another type of input device. However, a computer’s memory is designed to accept input in binary code and hence, all input devices must transform input signals to binary codes. Units called input interfaces accomplish this transformation. Input interfaces match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of input devices to the requirements of a computer system. In short, an input unit performs following functions: 1. Ttaccepts (or reads) instructions and data from outside world, It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable form. Units called input interfaces accomplish this task. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the storage unit for storage and further processing. 2, OUTPUT UNIT ‘An output unit performs the reverse operation of that of-an input unt, It supplies information obtained from data world, Hence, it links a computer with its external environment. As computers work with yrocessing to outside Binary code, results produced are also in binary form. Therefore, before supplying the results to outside world, theasic Computer Organization system must convert them to human acceptable (readable) form. Units called output interfaces accomplish this task, Output interfaces match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of output devices (terminals, Printers, etc.) to the requirements of an external environment. In short, an output unit performs following functions: 1, It accepts the produced results, which are in coded form. We cannot understand the coded results easily. 2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form. Units called ouput interfaces _ accomplish this task. 3. It supplies the converted results to outside world. STORAGE UNIT SS Data and instructions entered into a computer system through input units have to be stored inside the computer before actual processing starts. Similarly, results produced by a computer after processing have to be kept somewhere inside the computer system before being passed on to an output unit. Moreover, a computer must also preserve intermediate results for ongoing processing, Storage unit of a computer system caters to all these needs. It provides space for storing data and instructions, intermediate results, and results for output. In short, a storage unit holds (stores): 1. The data and instructions required for processing (received from input units). 2. Intermediate results of processing. 3. Final results of processing, before the system releases them to an output unit. Storage unit of all computers is comprised of following two types of storage: 1. Primary storage. Primary storage of a computer system, also known as main memory, stores pieces of program instructions and data, intermediate results of processing, and recently produced results of those job(s) on which the computer system is currently working. The central processing unit can access these pieces of information directly at a very fast speed because they are represented electronically in the main memory chip's circuitry. However, primary storage is volatile, and it loses the information in it as soon as the computer system switches off or resets. Moreover, primary storage normally has limited storage capacity because it is very expensive. Primary storage of modern computer systems is made up of semiconductor devices. 2. Secondary storage. Secondary storage of a computer system, also known as auxiliary storage, takes care Of the limitations of primary storage. It supplements the limited storage capacity and volatile characteristic of primary storage. This is because secondary storage is much cheaper than primary storage and it can retain information even when the computer system switches off or resets. A computer system uses secondary storage to store program instructions, data, and information of those jobs on which the computer system is currently not working but needs to hold them for processing later. The most ‘commonly used secondary storage medium is magnetic disk.Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) [21 | ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU) A computer performs all calculation and comparison (decision-making) operations in the ALU. During processing of a job, the computer transfers data and instructions stored in its primary storage to ALU as and when needed. ALU does the processing and the computer temporarily transfers the intermediate results generated there back to primary storage until needed later. Hence, data may move back and forth several times between primary storage and ALU before processing of the job is over. The engineering design of a computer's ALU determines the type and number of arithmetic and logic operations that a computer can perform. However, almost all ALUs ate designed to perform the four basic arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply, and divide) and logic operations or comparisons such as, less than, equal to, and greater than. CONTROL UNIT (CU) ee FFF How does an input device of a computer system know that it is time for it to feed data to storage unit? How does its ALU know what should be done with the data once it receives them. Moreover, how it is that the computer sends only the results for output to an output device and not the intermediate results? All this is possible due to the control unit of the computer system. ‘A computer's control unit does not perform any actual processing of jobs, but acts as the central nervous system for other components of the computer system. It manages and coordinates the operations of all other components, It obtains instructions from a program stored in main memory, interprets the instructions, and issues signals causing other units of the system to execute them. CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) Control unit (CU) and arithmetic logic unit (ALU) of a computer system are together known as the Central Processing Unit (CPU). It is the brain of a computer system. In a human body, the brain takes all major decisions and other parts of the body function as directed by the brain. Similarly, in a computer system, the CPU performs all major calculations and comparisons, and also activates and controls the operations of other units of the computer system. THE SYSTEM CONCEPT ved that we have been referring to a computer as a system (computer system). This is You might have obser aving a common purpose of achieving some objective(s). Hence, a because a system is a group of integrated parts hi system has following three characteristics: 1. Ithas more than one element. 2, Allits elements are related logically. 43. Allis elements are controlled in a manner to achieve the system goal.[chapter asic Computer Organization Since a computer has integrated components (input unit, output unit, storage unit, and CPU), which work together {9 perform the steps called for in an executing program, itis a system. Input and output units cannot function until they receive signals from the CPU. Similarly, storage unit or CPU alone is of no use. Usefulness of each unit depends on other units and is realizable only when we integrate all units to form a system. Hence, we refer to a Computer as a system (computer system). Points to Remember 1, All computer systems perform the following. five basic functions for converting raw input data into useful information ~ inputting, storing, processing, outputting, and controlling Figure 2.1 shows the main components of a computer system. 3. Input unit enables feeding of data and instructions to @ computer system from outside world in computer acceptable form. 4. Input interfaces transform input data and instructions (fed t0 2 computer through its input devices) into binary codes that are acceptable to the computer. Output unit enables a computer system to supply information (obtained from data processing) to ‘outside world in human acceptable (readable) form, 6. Ouput interfaces wansform information (obtained from data processing) from binary form to human acceptable (readable) form. 7. Storage unit of a computer system holds data and instructions to be processed and intermediate and Questions 1. What are the five basic functions performed by a computer system? 2. Draw a block diagram to illustrate basic ‘organization of a computer system and explain the functions of various units 3. What is an input interface? How it differs from an ‘output interface? 4. How many types of storage a computer system ormally uses? Justify the need for each storage type. 10. 1 ‘output results of processing. Two types of storage are = primary and secondary storage. As compared to primary storage, secondary storage is slower in operation, larger in capacity, cheaper in price, and can retain information even when computer system switches off or resets. During data processing, actual execution of instructions takes place in the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of a computer system. Control Unit (CU) of a computer system manages and coordinates the operations of all. other components of the computer system, Control unit and arithmetic logic unit of a computer system together form the Central Processing Unit (CPU), which serves as the brain of the computer system and is responsible for controlling the ‘operations of all other units of the system. We often refer to a computer as a computer system because it consists of integrated components (input unit, output unit, storage unit, and CPU) that work together to perform the steps called for in a program. Differentiate between the characteristics of primary and secondary storage of a computer system. What are the two main components of CPU of a computer system? List the main functions of each component, Write the logical steps taken by a computer system along with the roles ofits main units in each step While wansforming input data to useful information for presentation toa user. What is a system? Why do we often refer toa ‘Computer as a computer system?