Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

BIODIVERSITY
DEFINITION

Biological diversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources including,
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they
are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems. The
number and variety of plants, animals and other organisms that exist in an ecosystem is
known as biodiversity. It is a measure of the variety of organisms present in different
ecosystems. The richness of biodiversity depends on the climatic conditions and area of the
region. Biodiversity is the result of 3.5 billion years of evolution.

Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes within a species.

This is the reason why individuals of the same species - such as humans - look different from
each other. Genetic diversity plays a crucial role in the survival and adaptability of a species.
When a population's genetic diversity is high, it has a better chance of adapting to
environmental changes.

➢ Sexual reproduction is important in maintaining genetic diversity as it gives unique

offspring by combining genes of parents.
➢ Mutation of genes, genetic drift and gene flow are also responsible for genetic diversity.

• Importance: Genetic diversity is crucial for the survival and adaptability of a species. It
allows species to adapt to changes in their environment, including changes in climate,
habitat, and disease. The greater the genetic diversity within a species, the more it can
adapt to these environmental stressors. This diversity also contributes to the overall
health and resilience of populations and ecosystems.

• Example: The human immune system is a

great example of genetic diversity. Each
person has a unique set of immune
system genes, which allows the human
population to fight off a wide range of
diseases. Different breeds of dogs. Dogs are
selectively bred to get the desired traits.
Different varieties of rose flower, wheat, etc.

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Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

Species Diversity
Species diversity refers to the variety of species within a particular region. It takes into
account both the number of species in an ecosystem (species richness) and the
evenness of species' abundances.

Species diversity ensures ecosystem resilience, giving ecological communities the scope
they need to withstand stress.

• Species richness: Number of different species present in an ecosystem. Tropical

areas have greater species richness as the environment is conducive for a large
number of species
• Species evenness: Relative abundance of individuals of each of those species.
If the number of individuals within a species is fairly constant across communities,
it is said to have a high evenness and if the number of individuals varies from
species to species, it is said to
have low evenness. High
evenness leads to greater specific
diversity It is possible in an
ecosystem to have high species
richness, but low species
evenness.

Example: Coral reefs are a prime

example of species diversity. They are
home to thousands of different
species, each playing a role in the
ecosystem. The loss of even one
species, such as a type of fish that
helps control algae growth, can lead
to an overgrowth of algae and the subsequent death of the coral.

Ecosystem Diversity
Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of habitats, biological communities, and
ecological processes in the biosphere. It includes the variation in both terrestrial
and aquatic ecosystems.

Ecosystem diversity can be used to find the total number of ecosystems in a certain
place. Each ecosystem has its own way of functioning, which depends on the
interaction of unique communities of species with their physical environment.

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Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

According to Whittaker (1965), the ecosystem or community diversities are of three

types:

(i) α-DIVERSITY: Alpha diversity refers to the average species diversity in a habitat or
specific area. Alpha diversity is a local measure.

(ii) β-DIVERSITY: Beta diversity refers to the ratio between local or alpha diversity and
regional diversity. This is the diversity of species between two habitats or regions.

(iii) γ -DIVERSITY: Gamma diversity is the total diversity of a landscape and is a

combination of both alpha and beta diversity.

Example: The Amazon Rainforest is an example of ecosystem diversity. It contains

millions of species, many of which are not found anywhere else in the world. It also
plays a crucial role in the world's climate by absorbing large amounts of carbon dioxide

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Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

Status of Biodiversity
Biodiversity, encompassing genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity, is
currently facing significant challenges globally. The loss of biodiversity has far-reaching
implications for ecosystems and human societies.

1. Species Decline:
Biodiversity is declining rapidly due to various factors such as land use change, climate
change, invasive species, overexploitation, and pollution. These drivers vary in their
importance among ecosystems and regions, but the overall trend indicates a continuing
loss of biodiversity. The rates of change and loss exceed those of the historical past by
several orders of magnitude and show no indication of slowing down.

➢ Many species are experiencing rapid declines in population. The International

Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List reports that over 28,000 species
are threatened with extinction, representing nearly 27% of all assessed species.

2. Regional Assessments:
The sixth session of the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services (IPBES) launched major regional biodiversity assessment reports, highlighting the
current status of biodiversity and land quality globally.

➢ These assessments involved the collaboration of 550 scientists over three years to
provide a comprehensive understanding of the state of biodiversity in different
regions

3. Global Initiatives:
Initiatives like the 30x30 target, which aims to protect 30% of Earth's land and oceans by
2030, are critical in the fight to preserve
biodiversity.

4. Species Extinction:

The rate of species extinction is estimated to

be 100 to 1,000 times higher than the
natural background rate. Many species are
now threatened or endangered, with some
already extinct.

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Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

• The Javan Rhino (Rhinoceros sondaicus) is critically endangered, with fewer than 70
individuals remaining due to habitat loss and poaching.
• The Western Black Rhinoceros was declared extinct in 2011 due to poaching and loss
of habitat.
• The Amur Leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis) is one of the world’s most
endangered big cats, with around 100 individuals left in the wild.
5. Ecosystem Degradation:
Deforestation: Forests, particularly tropical rainforests, are being destroyed
at alarming rates. This destruction reduces habitats for countless species and disrupts
ecological balance.

➢ Example: The Amazon rainforest, often referred to as the "lungs of the Earth," has
seen significant deforestation due to logging, agriculture, and cattle ranching, leading
to loss of habitat for species like the jaguar, harpy eagle, and countless amphibians
and insects.
➢ Coral Reef Destruction: Coral reefs, which are home to a quarter of all marine species,
are under threat from climate change, overfishing, and pollution.

6. Impacts of Climate Change:

Climate change is altering habitats and forcing species to migrate, adapt, or face
extinction. The changing climate
affects food availability, reproductive
patterns, and migration routes.

Example: Polar bears (Ursus

maritimus) are facing habitat loss due
to the rapid melting of Arctic ice,
which significantly reduces their
hunting grounds for seals, their
primary prey. As the ice retreats
earlier and forms later, polar bears
have less time to hunt, leading to
malnutrition and longer fasting
periods. This also forces them to
travel greater distances, increasing
energy expenditure and further straining their already vulnerable populations. The
ongoing loss of sea ice poses a severe threat to the survival of polar bears in the wild.

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Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

7. Conservation Efforts:
Despite the challenges, there are ongoing efforts to conserve biodiversity. Protected
areas, conservation programs, and international treaties aim to preserve species and
habitats.

Example: The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international treaty

aimed at promoting sustainable development and conserving biological diversity. The
IUCN Red List is a critical tool for monitoring the conservation status of species
worldwide.

Urbanization and Agriculture:

The expansion of cities and agricultural lands is
encroaching on natural habitats, leading to
habitat fragmentation and loss.

Example: The conversion of grasslands into

agricultural fields in the American Midwest has
led to a decline in species like the Greater Prairie
Chicken (Tympanuchus cupido), whose habitat
has been severely reduced.

Example of Biodiversity Status: The Philippines, as one of the 18 mega-

biodiverse countries of the world, contains a significant portion of the earth's
biodiversity, including a large number of plant and animal species. This highlights the
importance of understanding and
preserving biodiversity in diverse
regions around the world .

The Philippines,one of the 18 mega-biodiverse countries world,

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Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

Importance of Biodiversity
Biodiversity holds immense value, encompassing various direct and indirect benefits
that are crucial for sustaining life on Earth.

Medicinal Value:
Biodiversity serves as a vital source of medicinal resources, providing a wide array of
plants and animals that are used in the development of medications.

➢ Plants such as Belladonna and, along with snake venom, are valuable in the production
of pharmaceuticals, highlighting the significant role of biodiversity in the field of
medicine.
➢ Pacific yew tree (Taxus brevifolia) provides the compound taxol, used in cancer
treatment. Biodiversity is crucial for discovering new drugs and medical treatments.

➢ The popular antibiotic penicillin is derived from a fungus, and certain species of
bacteria produce the antibiotics tetracycline and streptomycin.

Agricultural Value:
Biodiversity provides a variety of crops, livestock, and genetic diversity essential for food
security. Diverse ecosystems support pollinators like bees, which are vital for crop production.
➢ For instance, wild crop relatives can offer genetic traits for resistance to pests and
diseases.
➢ Additionally, the genetic diversity in agriculture helps to make species be more
resilient to climate change and more adapted to changes in the environment. This may
include high temperatures, frosts, droughts, and waterlogged areas. Furthermore,
they also become resistant to various diseases, insects, and parasites.

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Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

ECOLOGICAL VALUES
Biodiversity maintains the integrity of the environment through:

• MAINTAINING CO2/O2 BALANCE:

It is through biodiversity that sequential balance of CO2 and O2 is maintained. The
greenhouse effect is as a result of CO2 accumulation in the atmosphere, ozone layer depletion
also occurs overtime making the earth warmer and more prone to natural calamities.

• Regulation Of Biochemical Cycles:

O2, hydrological cycles etc. Biological resources are important media in biochemical cycles,
without which the cycles are not complete

• ABSORPTION AND BREAKDOWN OF POLLUTANTS AND WASTE:

Absorption and breakdown of pollutants and waste materials through decomposition, e.g. in
food webs and food chains where the flow of energy goes through production consumption
decomposition without which breakdown and absorption of materials will not be complete.
In an ecosystem there is no waste as decomposition will take place to purify our environment
by transforming the waste to other forms of biodiversity.

Biological Control
The use of natural enemies to control species regarded as pests is increasingly widespread
and is often seen as an environmentally friendly alternative to chemical pesticides. This
method, known as biological control, utilizes predators, parasites, and pathogens to manage
pest populations, reducing the need for harmful chemicals and promoting ecological balance.
In the realm of industrial materials, biological resources have been crucial. Many materials,
such as building materials, fibers, dyes, resins, and adhesives, are derived directly from
biological sources. These natural materials have also inspired innovations through
biomimicry, where designs in nature serve as templates for industrial products and structures.
Examples include:

• Crystal Palace Dome: Inspired by the structure of the Amazonian water lily (Victoria
amazonica).
• Air-Conditioning Systems: Modeled after the ventilation systems in termite mounds.
• Echo-Sounders: Developed by studying bats’ echolocation abilities.
• Infrared Sensors: Inspired by the thermosensitive pit organs of rattlesnakes, which
detect heat.
• Ladybugs (Coccinellidae) are natural predators of aphids, small insects that damage
crops by sucking sap from plants. By releasing ladybugs into fields, farmers can
effectively control aphid populations without resorting to chemical pesticides.

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Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

Natural Resources and Biodiversity

Natural resources are materials and components that are found in nature and are essential
for the survival and well-being of all living organisms. They include air, water, soil, minerals,
plants, animals, and ecosystems that provide the foundation for human life and economic
activity. Biodiversity, which refers to the variety of life forms and ecosystems on Earth, is
closely intertwined with natural resources.

Interconnection Between Natural Resources and

Biodiversity
1. Ecosystem Services:
Biodiversity is the backbone of ecosystem services, which are the benefits that humans derive
from natural ecosystems. These include provisioning services (e.g., food, water, timber),
regulating services (e.g., climate regulation, flood control), cultural services (e.g., recreational
and spiritual benefits), and supporting services (e.g., soil formation, nutrient cycling).
Example: Forests, which are rich in biodiversity, provide timber, regulate the climate by
storing carbon, and support the water cycle by influencing rainfall patterns.

Scientists estimate that India

should ideally have 33% of its
land under forests. Today we
have only about 12%. Thus,
we need not only to protect
existing forest but also to
increase our forest cover.

• They stop the rain-bearing winds and cause the rainfall.

• They provide shelter to wild animals and birds.
• They improve the sanitary condition of a place.
• They are a source of revenue to the government.
• They also provide us herbal medicines

Compiled By :- Muhammad Tayyab Noor(102)

Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

Compiled By :- Muhammad Tayyab Noor(102)

Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

2. WATER RESOURCES
While 67% of Earth’s surface is covered by water,
only less than 2.7% of global water is freshwater.
Most of the freshwater (2.05%) are locked in ice
caps and glaciers. Only less than 0.7% is available
for human use. With the growth of human
population there is an increasing need for larger
amounts of water to fulfil a variety of basic needs.
Today in many areas this requirement cannot be
met. Overutilization of water occurs at various
levels. Most people use more water than really
needed. Most of us waste water during a bath by
using shower or during washing of clothes.

• Many agriculturists use more water than

necessary to grow crops. There are many
ways in which farmers can use less water without reducing the yields such as the use
of drip irrigation systems.
• Agriculture also pollutes surface water and underground water stores by the excessive
use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Methods such as the use of biomass as
fertilizers and non-toxic pesticides such as neem products reduces the agricultural
pollution of surface and ground water.
• Industry tends to maximize short-term economic gains by not bothering about its
liquid waste and releasing it into the streams, rivers, sea.

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Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

3. Mineral Resources
Minerals are naturally occurring substances with definite chemical compositions and
identifiable physical properties, formed over
millions of years in the Earth's crust. Key
industrial raw materials include metallic minerals
like iron, aluminum, zinc, manganese, and
copper. Non-metallic resources such as coal, salt,
clay, cement, and silica are also essential, along
with building materials like granite, marble, and
limestone. Precious minerals like diamonds,
emeralds, rubies, and metals like gold, silver, and
platinum are valued for their beauty and use in
jewelry. Fossil fuels, including oil, gas, and coal,
are formed from ancient organic matter.

➢ The extraction process, known as mining, involves either surface or deep (shaft)
mining. While mining is a hazardous occupation, surface mining is generally less
dangerous than underground mining, and metal mining is less hazardous than coal
mining. Miners face long-term occupational hazards, including respiratory diseases like
black lung from dust, exposure to poisonous fumes from dynamite explosions, and
radiation risks in uranium mines.
4. Food Resources
Modern food production primarily relies on agriculture, animal husbandry, and fishing.
Major food resources include wheat, rice, maize, potato, barley, oats, pulses, vegetables,
fruits, sugarcane, milk, meat, and fish.

Current Issues:
➢ Modern agricultural practices, though effective, often lead to environmental
pollution through the excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides. These practices can
be unsustainable and harmful to ecosystems.
➢ Crops vulnerable to pests can face devastating losses, impacting farmer income and
food security.

Global Food Production:

➢ Developed Countries: Many
developed countries have sufficient
food resources and advanced
agricultural techniques.
➢ Developing Countries: Rapid
population growth in developing
countries often outpaces food

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production. In 64 of 105 developing countries, food production does not keep up with
population growth due to limited resources or financial constraints.

Malnutrition Statistics:
➢ World: 848 million malnourished
➢ Developed Countries: 16 million
➢ Developing Countries: 832 million
➢ India: 230 million

5. LAND RESOURCES

Land Resources includes Hills, Valleys, Plains, River basins and Wetland. Land is a finite natural
resource. Man needs land for building homes, cultivating food, developing industries for
providing goods, and for creating towns and cities. Thus a rational use of land needs careful
planning. One can develop most of these different types of land uses almost anywhere, but it
is very important to protect wilderness area in the form of national parks and sanctuaries. If
land is utilized properly, it can be
considered as renewable resources.
Land is also converted into a non-
renewable resource when highly
toxic industrial and nuclear wastes
are dumped on it. Farmland is under
threat due to more and more
intensive utilization. Every year,
between 5 to 7 million hectares of land worldwide is added to the existing degraded farmland.
The use of more and more chemical fertilizers poisons to the soil so that eventually the land
becomes unproductive. As urban centres grow and industrial expansion occurs, the
agricultural land and forest shrinks. This is a serious loss and long-term ill effect on the human
civilization. Soil erosion is also considered as one kind of land degradation.

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Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

Impacts on Biodiversity
Human activities and natural processes can significantly affect biodiversity in various ways.
These impacts can be negative or, less commonly, positive, depending on the nature and scale
of the activity. Here’s an overview of the major impacts on biodiversity:

MAJOR IMPACTS ON BIODIVERSITY

More specific threats to biodiversity are posed by deforestation (estimated at 1% annually),

overgrazing, soil erosion, rampant hunting and fishing, and agricultural practices. As a result,
it is estimated that at least 12% of the flora is threatened and several of the faunal species
are threatened too. However, the real status of most species remains unknown. Some of the
main threats to biodiversity are:

HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND LOSS OF HABITAT

Human activities are causing a loss of biological diversity among animals and plants globally
estimated at 50 to 100 times the average rate of species loss in the absence of human
activities. Two most popular species in rich biomes are tropical forests and coral reefs.
Tropical forests are under threat largely from conversion to other land-uses, while coral reefs
are experiencing increasing
levels of over exploitation and
pollution. If current rate of loss
of tropical forests continues
for the next 30 years, the
projected number of species
that the remaining forests
could support would be
reduced by 5 to 10 percent
relative to the forest in the absence of human disturbance. The rate of decline would
represent 1000 to 10,000 times the expected rate of extinction without deforestation by
humans. Some studies suggest that, globally, as many as one half of all mammal and bird
species may become extinct within 200 to 300 year.

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Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

Biodiversity loss can result from a number of activities, including:

1. Pollution

The introduction of harmful substances into the environment.

➢ Impacts: Contaminates air, water, and soil, affecting wildlife health and disrupting
ecosystems.
➢ Examples: Chemical runoff from agriculture, plastic waste in oceans, air pollution from
industrial activities.

2. Climate Change

Long-term changes in temperature and weather patterns due to human activities.

➢ Impacts: Alters habitats and food availability, leading to shifts in species distribution,
altered migration patterns, and increased extinction risks.
➢ Examples: Melting polar ice affecting polar bears, ocean acidification impacting coral
reefs.

3. Overexploitation

Excessive use of natural resources beyond their capacity to regenerate.

➢ Impacts: Depletes resources and leads to population declines or extinctions of species.

➢ Examples: Overfishing depletes fish stocks, overhunting threatens wildlife
populations.

4. Invasive Species

Non-native species introduced to new environments where they can outcompete native
species.

➢ Impacts: Disrupts local ecosystems, outcompetes native species for resources, and
alters habitat structure.
➢ Examples: Zebra mussels in freshwater systems, cane toads in Australia.

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Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

5. Land Use Changes

Definition: Alterations to land for purposes such as agriculture, urbanization, or infrastructure

development.

➢ Impacts: Leads to habitat loss, fragmentation, and changes in land cover, affecting
species and ecosystems.
➢ Examples: Conversion of forests into agricultural land, urban sprawl reducing natural
areas.

6. Resource Extraction

Definition: The removal of natural resources from the environment, often through mining or
drilling.

➢ Impacts: Can lead to habitat destruction, pollution, and disturbance of ecosystems.

➢ Examples: Mining for minerals and fossil fuels, oil drilling affecting marine and
terrestrial habitats.

7. Altered Fire Regimes

Definition: Changes in the frequency, intensity, or type of fires due to human activities or
climate change.

➢ Impacts: Affects plant and animal species adapted to specific fire regimes, alters
habitat structure.
➢ Examples: Increased wildfire frequency in some regions, suppression of natural fire
cycles affecting fire-adapted ecosystems.

8. Agricultural Intensification

Definition: Practices aimed at increasing agricultural productivity through technology,

monocultures, and chemical inputs.

➢ Impacts: Reduces habitat diversity, promotes monocultures, and increases pollution,

impacting biodiversity.
➢ Examples: Large-scale monoculture crops, use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.

9. Human-Wildlife Conflict

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Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

Conflicts arising between human activities and wildlife, often leading to harm or displacement
of species.

➢ Impacts: Results in direct harm to wildlife, habitat loss, and reduced biodiversity.
➢ Examples: Livestock predation by carnivores, crop damage by herbivores.

10. SOIL EROSION

Soil erosion is the displacement of the upper layer of soil, it is one form of soil degradation. This natural
process is caused by the dynamic activity of erosive agents, that is, water, ice (glaciers), snow, air
(wind), plants, animals, and humans. Irrigated Agriculture. It is another major threat to both the
riverine and mangrove forests of Pakistan,
which are fast disappearing Riverine
forests were rich in a wide variety of plants
such as Obhan, and animals like hog, deer,
jungle cat, fishing cat, and gray and black
partridges. Mangrove forests are
particularly important habitats for certain
fish species as noted earlier. Both have
been identified as endangered
ecosystems, and if they disappear, they
take with them a unique association of species. Marginal changes in water releases at certain times
are critical to the preservation of riverine habitats, it might be possible to accommodate them, but if
they require water diversions at times when irrigation demands are high and water supplies are short,
the chances of being able to maintain them are low.

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Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
The Global Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), signed in 1992 at the Earth Summit,
defines biodiversity as the variety of living things on Earth, including plants, animals, and
microorganisms. This includes differences within species, between species, and across
ecosystems.

• Loss of biodiversity is a major issue with many ethical and sometimes religious
concerns.
• Human activities, like deforestation, are causing rapid destruction of habitats, such as
rainforests, and leading to a loss of species.
• The phrase "don't put price tags on my butterflies" highlights the concern that putting
economic value on nature might harm its intrinsic worth.
• More species are becoming endangered and natural habitats are being destroyed or
changed, which disrupts ecosystems.
• In Europe, even though it covers only 7% of the Earth's land, it has a lot of biodiversity
due to its varied landscapes and historical influences. Major causes of habitat loss in
Europe are agriculture, forestry, and transport.
• Measuring the impact on biodiversity is important to provide clear data, though it is
a complex task and doesn’t replace the need for detailed, specific plans to protect
habitats.

1. HABITAT LOSS AND DEGRADATION

Habitat loss and degradation is the biggest cause of biodiversity loss in many regions.

➢ Large-scale changes like turning forests into

plantations or building big dams can
drastically alter habitats.
➢ Gradual changes happen when forests or
grasslands are broken up by farming or
growing populations.

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Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

➢ These changes le ad to the loss of plant species and force many animals out of their
natural homes.

Key statistics:

➢ Three-quarters of threatened bird species are at risk because of habitat loss.

➢ Three-quarters of threatened mammal species are also affected by habitat loss.
➢ In places with severe forest loss, like South and Southeast Asia, many unique primate
species are at risk of extinction.
➢ 68% of threatened reptiles and 58% of threatened amphibians are declining due to
habitat loss.

Pollution impacts can be immediate or build up over time:

➢ Oil spills can kill a wide range of

marine life quickly.
➢ Other pollutants like radioactive
wastes or pesticides can harm
organisms slowly, especially those
higher up the food chain.
➢ Pollution can cause algae blooms that
produce toxins harmful to marine life
and disrupt ecosystems.
➢ Coral bleaching is a common result of pollution-related stress.

2. OVER-EXPLOITATION OF BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES

Over-exploitation of wildlife is a major issue in South and East Asia, driven by high demand
for animal parts in national and international markets.

• Over-hunting for traditional medicine or curios has

severely impacted species like the tiger, which is nearly
extinct in South Asia, and the seahorse, which is

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Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

harvested at unsustainable rates—around 20 million per year. Seahorses have low

reproductive rates and are socially complex, making them highly vulnerable.

• Tortoises and river turtles are also

heavily exploited. In Southeast Asia,
they are used for meat, eggs, and
traditional medicine, with at least
five species now facing high
conservation concern under CITES
(Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora).

Fish over-exploitation is critically affecting both freshwater and marine

ecosystems:
• 68% of threatened marine fish species in the region are impacted by over-fishing.
• Sturgeon populations in Central Asia are nearly depleted due to widespread poaching.
• Poor fishing practices such as blast fishing, cyanide fishing, and coral harvesting also
contribute to the decline of marine resources.

3. INTERNATIONAL TRADE

International trade is contributing to the over-exploitation of certain species due to high

demand for traditional medicines, rare foods, curios, and aquarium specimens.

• Market prices illustrate the impact: a single tiger’s body parts can be worth up to US$5
million, and high-quality dried seahorses
can sell for US$1,200 per kilogram in parts
of China.
• Tortoises and river turtles are heavily
traded in Northeast Asia, with about
300,000 kilograms of live animals traded
annually, valued at least US$1 million.
• Traditional herbal medicines are in growing demand, with 4,000 to 6,000 species of
medicinal plants traded globally. China accounts for about 30% of these exports. The

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Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

US market for herbal medicines was nearly US$1.5 billion in the early 1990s, and the
European market is even larger.
• The Asian rattan palm, used in the global furniture industry worth US$3.5 to 6.5 billion
annually, is declining due to over-harvesting
and deforestation. Some furniture makers are
now sourcing rattan from Nigeria and other
parts of Africa due to depleting supplies in
tropical Asia.

Bioinvasion

Bioinvasion occurs when new (or "exotic") species are introduced into a habitat, often
causing significant ecological harm. This is the second biggest cause of biodiversity loss
after habitat loss and is linked to trade and travel.

Exotic species introduction can happen through various means:

• Used tires from Japan brought the Asian tiger mosquito to New Zealand and
Australia.
• Ballast water from ships introduced poisonous plankton, causing harmful "red
tides" in Australian fisheries in
the 1980s.
• Domestic cats in New Zealand
have contributed to the decline of
many bird species.
• Exotic rats, like black and brown
rats, have harmed island bird
populations.
• The brown tree snake from Papua New Guinea has driven nine out of 18 native
bird species on Guam to extinction.

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Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

• Australia has experienced high mammalian extinction rates due to introduced

species like rabbits, foxes, and cats, combined with land-use changes. Since
European settlement in the 18th century, 19 mammal species have gone extinct,
and about a quarter of the remaining species are threatened.

Agricultural species can become invasive in new areas:

• Cardamom is problematic in Sri Lankan and Indian forests.

• Black pepper has invaded forest edges in Malaysia.
• Chromolaena odorata, useful as a fallow crop in Indonesia, has become a major pest
for tropical crops like rubber and oil palm and is highly invasive in tropical reserves.

Cardamom
Black Pepper Chromolaena odorata

Consequences Of Biodiversity Loss:

1. Impacts on Ecosystems
Loss of biodiversity changes the mix of species in an ecosystem, which can lead to local and
global extinctions.
Ecosystem Disruptions: Removing key species, like predators or herbivores, can cause major
changes. For example:

• Triggerfish removal leads to a rise in burrowing urchins, which then cause more reef
erosion.
• Loss of top predators affects the balance of species relationships and ecosystem
health.

Compiled By :- Muhammad Tayyab Noor(102)

Biodiversity Notes 8th Semester

• Impact on Large Mammals: Large mammals help maintain ecosystems by dispersing

seeds, creating habitats, and regulating prey populations. Their decline can disrupt
these roles.
• Whaling Effects: Reduced whale populations affect deep-sea ecosystems, where
whale remains support unique communities of worms and other invertebrates.
• Genetic Impacts: Introduction of exotic species can mix genetic stocks, affecting
native populations:
• Genetic Mixing: Exotic species breeding with natives can dilute native genes.
• Crops and Wild Plants: Interbreeding between crops and wild relatives can lead to the
spread of traits like herbicide resistance.

2. Impacts on Humankind
• Pressure on Food and Medicine: The loss of biodiversity affects the availability of
food, grains, and medicinal products, crucial for poor and indigenous communities.
• Livelihoods: Communities dependent on natural resources are forced to find new
livelihoods, often suffering as a result.
• Nutritional Decline: Biodiversity loss can reduce food quality, leading to malnutrition
and health issues, especially among children.
• Medicinal Resources: Many medicines come from diverse plant and animal species.
Losing these species risks primary healthcare for millions. Efforts are underway to
document traditional knowledge before it’s lost.

Compiled By :- Muhammad Tayyab Noor(102)