Borscht

Borscht (English: /ˈbɔːrʃt/ ) is a sour soup, made with meat stock, vegetables and seasonings,
common in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. In English, the word borscht is most often
associated with the soup's variant of Ukrainian origin, made with red beetroots as one of the
main ingredients, which give the dish its distinctive red color. The same name, however, is
also used for a wide selection of sour-tasting soups without beetroots, such as sorrel-based
green borscht, rye-based white borscht, and cabbage borscht.

Borscht derives from an ancient soup originally cooked from pickled stems, leaves and umbels
of common hogweed (Heracleum sphondylium), an herbaceous plant growing in damp
meadows, which lent the dish its Slavic name. With time, it evolved into a diverse array of tart
soups, among which the Ukrainian beet-based red borscht has become the most popular. It is
typically made by combining meat or bone stock with sautéed vegetables, which—as well as
beetroots—usually include cabbage, carrots, onions, potatoes, and tomatoes. Depending on
the recipe, borscht may include meat or fish, or be purely vegetarian; it may be served either
hot or cold, and it may range from a hearty one-pot meal to a clear broth or a smooth drink. It
is often served with smetana or sour cream, hard-boiled eggs or potatoes, but there exists an
ample choice of more involved garnishes and side dishes, such as uszka or pampushky, that
can be served with the soup.

Its popularity has spread throughout Eastern Europe and—by way of migration away from the
Russian Empire—to other continents. In North America, borscht is often linked with either
Jews or Mennonites, the groups who first brought it there from Europe. Several ethnic groups
claim borscht, in its various local implementations, as their own national dish consumed as
part of ritual meals within Eastern Orthodox, Greek Catholic, Roman Catholic, and Jewish
religious traditions.

Etymology

The name ultimately derives from the word борщ (borshch, Ukrainian: [bɔrʃt͡ʃ] , Russian: [borɕː] ),
which is common to East Slavic languages, such as Ukrainian and Russian.[3][4][5][6][7][8]
Together with cognates in other Slavic languages,[a] it comes from Proto-Slavic *bŭrščǐ,
'hogweed', and ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *bhr̥stis, 'point', 'stubble'.[9][10][11]
Common hogweed (Heracleum sphondylium) was the soup's principal ingredient[12] before it
was replaced with other vegetables, notably beetroot in the Ukrainian version.
The English spelling borscht[13] comes from
Borscht
Yiddish ‫( בָארשט‬borsht), as the dish was first
popularized in North America by Yiddish-
speaking Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern
Europe.[14]

Ingredients and preparation

Traditional red beetroot borscht is typically A bowl of borscht garnished with sour

made from meat or bone stock, sautéed cream and dill

vegetables, and beet sour (i.e., fermented

Alternative names Borsch, borshch,
beetroot juice). Depending on the recipe,
borsht, bortsch
some of these components may be omitted or
substituted. Type Soup

Place of origin Ukraine[1][2]

Associated cuisine Ukrainian

Armenian
Ashkenazi Jewish
Azerbaijani
Belarusian
Chinese
Borscht can include beef, pork,
Czech
beets, other vegetables, herbs, and
Estonian
spices
Georgian
The stock is typically made by boiling meat, Hongkongese
bones, or both. Beef, pork or a combination of Iranian
both are most commonly used, with brisket, Latvian

ribs, shank and chuck considered to give the Lithuanian

most flavorful results, especially if cooked on a Mennonite

Moldovan
high flame. Marrow bones are considered best
Polish
for the bone stock. Meat stock is usually
Romanian
cooked for about two hours, whereas bone
Russian
stock takes four to six hours to prepare. Meat
Cooking time 30 minutes to 3
and bones are usually removed afterwards and
the meat is only added back into the soup hours

about 10–15 minutes before the borscht is Serving Hot or cold

done. Some recipes call for smoked meats, temperature
resulting in a distinctively smoky borscht, while Main ingredients Beet sour or
others use poultry or mutton stock. Fasting beetroots
varieties are typically made with fish stock to
Ingredients Tomatoes, vinegar,
avoid the use of meat, while purely vegetarian generally used
cabbage and/or
recipes often substitute forest mushroom
potatoes, meat or
broth for the stock.[15] salo

Variations Clear red borscht,

cold borscht,
unsoured borscht

Similar dishes Green borscht,

white borscht as
Borscht cooked in a clay pot inside well as the ancient
a Russian oven in the Poltava
hogweed-made
region in central Ukraine
borscht

Media: Borscht

Girls grating beetroots to make

borscht for a large group.

The vegetables most commonly added to borscht are beetroots, white cabbage, carrots,
parsley root, potatoes, onions and tomatoes. Some recipes may also call for beans, tart
apples, turnip, swede, celeriac, zucchini or bell peppers.[16] Parsnip may be used as a
substitute for parsley root, and tomato paste is often used as well as or instead of fresh
tomatoes.[17] Vegetables are usually julienned, except for potatoes and zucchini, which are
diced. The beetroots may be partially baked before being sprinkled with vinegar or lemon
juice to preserve the color and braised separately from other vegetables.

Onions, carrots, parsley root, turnip and other root vegetables are sautéed (traditionally in
animal fat, especially lard or butter) and then mixed with tomatoes or tomato paste. Dry
beans are boiled separately. Potatoes and cabbage are boiled in the stock for about 15
minutes before the precooked vegetables are added.[18]
The traditional technique of preparing the
Culture of Ukrainian borscht
soup is to precook the vegetables—by
sautéing, braising, boiling or baking— cooking

separately from the meat and only then to

UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage
combine them with the stock. This distinctive
feature of borscht derives from the practice of
slow cooking in the Russian oven (traditional
masonry stove, used for both cooking and
heating), wherein the differences in cooking
times of individual ingredients had to be taken
into account in order to ensure that all
Borscht served in a ceramic bowl with
components reach doneness at the same
bread and salt in a village in the Poltava
time. The importance of this method is
region of Ukraine
reflected in the Russian language, where a
variant in which all vegetables are added raw
Country Ukraine
directly into the stock is referred to by the
diminutive form borshchok[b] rather than Reference 01852 (https://ich.u

borshch.[19] nesco.org/en/RL/01
852)
The soup is typically flavored with a wide
Region Europe and North
selection of herbs, spices and condiments.
America
Salt, black pepper, garlic, bay leaves and dill
are among the most commonly used. Other Inscription history
aromatics often added to borscht include
Inscription 2022 (5th
allspice, celery stalks, parsley, marjoram, hot
extraordinary
peppers, saffron, horseradish, ginger and
session)
prunes. Some recipes require flour or roux to
further thicken the borscht. A common List Need of Urgent
Safeguarding
opinion is that a good borscht should be thick
enough for a spoon to stand upright in it.[17][20]

Beet sour

The dominant tastes in borscht are sweet and sour. This combination is traditionally obtained
by adding beet sour.[19] The sour is made by covering sliced beetroots with lukewarm
preboiled water and allowing bacteria to ferment some of the sugars present in beetroots into
dextran (which gives the liquid a slightly viscous consistency), mannitol, acetic acid and lactic
acid.[21] Stale rye bread is often added to hasten the process, but usually omitted in Jewish
recipes, as chametz (leavened bread) would make the sour unfit for Passover meals. Sugar,
salt and lemon juice may also be added to balance the flavor. After about 2–5 days (or 2–3
weeks without the bread), the deep red, sweet and sour liquid may be strained and is ready to
use. It is added to borscht shortly before the soup is done, as prolonged boiling would cause
the tart flavor to dissipate.[17]

The beet sour is known in Slavic languages as kvas[c] (lit. 'sour, acid'; compare kvass) and in
Yiddish as rosl[d] (from a Slavic word originally referring to any brine obtained by steeping
salted meat or vegetables in water; compare Russian rassol,[e] 'pickle juice', Polish rosół,
'broth'). Apart from its employment in borscht, it may also be added to prepared horseradish
or used as pot roast marinade.[22][23]

As the traditional method of making borscht with beet sour often requires planning at least
several days ahead, many recipes for quicker borscht replace the beet sour with fresh
beetroot juice, while the sour taste is imparted by other ingredients. Vinegar, tomato
products, lemon juice or citric acid may be used, as well as dry red wine, dill pickle juice,
murături juice, sauerkraut juice, tart apples, Mirabelle plums, apricots, or a fermented rye flour
and water mixture.[18][24][25][26]
Variations

A tureen of thick A bowl of borscht Borscht without meat A clay bowl of

borscht with beans and other borscht
vegetables

Borscht with sour cream Served with sour

and dill cream and brown
bread

Ukrainian

Poltava borscht with halushky and

noodles

As the home country of beetroot borscht,[27] Ukraine boasts great diversity of the soup's
regional variants,[28][29] with virtually every oblast having its own recipe. Differences between
particular varieties may regard the type of stock used (meat, bone, or both), the type of meat
(beef, pork, poultry, etc.), the choice of vegetables and the method of cutting and cooking
them. For example, although the typical recipe calls for beef and pork, the Kyiv variant uses
mutton or lamb as well as beef, while in the Poltava region, the stock for borscht is cooked on
poultry meat, that is, chicken, duck or goose. The use of zucchini, beans and apples is
characteristic of the Chernihiv borscht; in this variant, beetroots are sautéed in vegetable oil
rather than lard, and the sour taste comes solely from tomatoes and tart apples. The Lviv
borscht is based on bone stock and is served with chunks of Vienna sausages.[30][31]

Polish

Polish clear Christmas Eve barszcz

served over uszka, or ear-shaped
mushroom-filled dumplings

As well as the thick borschts described above, Polish cuisine offers a ruby-colored beetroot
bouillon known as barszcz czysty czerwony, or clear red borscht. It is made by combining
strained meat-and-vegetable stock with wild mushroom broth and beet sour. In some
versions, smoked meat may be used for the stock and the tartness may be obtained or
enhanced by adding lemon juice, dill pickle brine, or dry red wine. It may be served either in a
soup bowl or—especially at dinner parties—as a hot beverage in a twin-handled cup, with a
croquette or a filled pastry on the side. Unlike other types of borscht, it is not whitened with
sour cream.[32]

Barszcz wigilijny, or Christmas Eve borscht, is a variant of the clear borscht that is traditionally
served during the Polish Christmas Eve supper. In this version, meat stock is either omitted or
replaced with fish broth, usually made by boiling the heads cut off from fish used in other
Christmas Eve dishes. The mushrooms used for cooking the mushroom broth are reserved for
uszka (small filled dumplings), which are then served with the borscht.[33]

Jewish

Ashkenazi Jews living in Eastern Europe adopted beetroot borscht from their Slavic neighbors
and adapted it to their taste and religious requirements. As combining meat with milk is
proscribed by kosher dietary laws, Jews have developed two variants of the soup: meat
(fleischik) and dairy (milchik). The meat variant is typically made from beef brisket (pork is
never used[34]) and cabbage, while the dairy one is vegetarian, blended with sour cream or a
mixture of milk and egg yolks. Both variants typically contain beetroots and onions, and are
flavored with beet sour, vinegar or citric acid for tartness and beet sugar for sweetness.
Galician Jews traditionally liked their borscht particularly sweet. Jewish borscht may be
served either hot or cold, typically with a hot boiled potato on the side.[2] In prewar Eastern
Europe it was traditionally put up to ferment around Purim so that it would be ready four
weeks later for the Passover holiday.[35]

Russian

Borscht with beef, sour cream and

fresh herbs

Russian variants include a Siberian style borscht, characterized by meatballs; Pskov borscht
with dried smelt from the local lakes; monastic Lenten borscht with marinated kelp instead of
cabbage and the Russian Navy borscht (flotsky borshch[f]), the defining characteristic of which
is that the vegetables are cut into square or diamond-shaped chunks rather than
julienned.[20][36]
Cold borscht

Chłodnik litewski, or "Lithuanian

cold soup", blended with sour
cream or yogurt, and sprinkled with
chives, as served in Poland. The
same soup is known in Lithuanian
as šaltibarščiai, or "cold borscht".

In the summertime, cold borscht is a popular alternative to the aforementioned variants,

which are normally served hot. It consists of beet sour or beet juice blended with sour cream,
buttermilk, soured milk, kefir or yogurt. The mixture has a distinctive pink or magenta color.[27]
It is served refrigerated, typically over finely chopped beetroot, cucumbers, radishes and green
onion, together with halves of a hard-boiled egg and sprinkled with fresh dill. Chopped veal,
ham, or crawfish tails may be added as well.[37][38][39]

This soup was known in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which comprised the territories of
modern-day Belarus and Lithuania, and it is still part of the culinary traditions of these and
neighboring nations. In Belarusian, it is known as Chaladnik and in Lithuanian as
Šaltibarščiai.[39] The Soviet "Encyclopedia of Housekeeping" has an article on borscht including
a "cold borscht" recipe as borshch kholodniiy.[40]

"Coated" dressed herring salad resembles cold borsht as well, despite not being a soup. The
similarity includes a strong color from using beets, a similar choice of vegetables, and the
decorative addition of boiled eggs.

Namesakes without beets

Although borscht is mostly used to describe a beet-based soup, there are soups in some
culinary traditions with the same or similar names, but with sometimes wide variations in
ingredients and preparation methods. In such soups, beetroots are not used or merely
optional. The principal common trait among such borschts is a tart flavor from sour-tasting
ingredients.[19] According to A Gift to Young Housewives, a book from the 19th century,
"borscht" may or may not include beets (depending from recipe to recipe in the book).[41][42]
In Polish cuisine, white borscht (barszcz biały, also known as żur or żurek, 'sour soup'[g]) is
made from a fermented mixture of rye flour or oatmeal and water. It is typically flavored with
garlic and marjoram, and served over eggs and boiled fresh sausage; the water in which the
sausage was boiled is often used instead of meat stock.[44]

Polish white borscht served over

fresh sausage, bacon and eggs

In the Carpathian Mountains of southern Poland, variants of borscht are also made in which
the tart taste comes from dairy products, such as whey or buttermilk.[45] Although the deep
red color of beetroot borscht may remind those unfamiliar with Polish cuisine of blood, the
type of borscht that does contain animal (usually poultry) blood mixed with vinegar is dark
brownish-gray in color and aptly called "gray borscht" (barszcz szary), which is a regional name
of the Polish blood soup better known as czernina.[46]

Sorrel-based Ukrainian green

borscht served with sour cream and
a hard-boiled egg

Green borscht (zeleny borshch[h]), a light soup made from leaf vegetables, is an example
common in Ukrainian and Russian cuisines. The naturally tart-tasting sorrel is most commonly
used, but spinach, chard, nettle, garden orache and occasionally dandelion, goutweed or
ramsons, may be added as well, especially after the spring season for sorrel has
passed.[47][48][49][50] Like beetroot borscht, it is based on meat or vegetable broth and is
typically served with boiled potatoes and hard-boiled eggs, sprinkled with dill.[17] There is also
a variety of Ukrainian green borscht which includes both sorrel and beetroots.[51]
In Romanian and Moldovan cuisines, a mixture of wheat bran or cornmeal with water that has
been left to ferment, similar to, but less cloudy than that used in Polish white borscht, is called
borș.[52][53] It is used to impart a sour taste to a variety of tangy Romanian soups, known as
either also borș or ciorbă. Variants include ciorbă de perișoare (with meatballs), ciorbă de
burtă (with tripe), borș de pește (with fish) and borș de sfeclă roșie (with beetroots).[54][55]

A bowl of Luosong tang, or Chinese

borscht, made from cabbage and
tomatoes, as served in Hong Kong

The Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian version of borscht is a hot soup made with beef
stock, green peppers and other vegetables, which may or may not include beetroots, and
flavored with chopped red chili and fresh cilantro.[56][25] In ethnic Mennonite cuisine, borscht
refers to a whole range of seasonal vegetable soups based on beef or chicken stock—from
spring borscht made with spinach, sorrel and chard to summer borscht with cabbage,
tomatoes, maize and squash to fall and winter borscht with cabbage, beets and potatoes.[57]

In Chinese cuisine, a soup known as Luosong tang,[i] or "Russian soup", is based on red
cabbage and tomatoes, and lacks beetroots altogether; also known as "Chinese borscht", it
originated in Harbin, close to the Russian border in northeast China, and has spread as far as
Hong Kong.[58] In Shanghai's Haipai cuisine, tomatoes are the main ingredient; beef and its
broth, onions and cabbages are also added; while flour, rather than sour cream, is used for
thickening.[59]

Garnishes and sides

Borscht sprinkled with parsley,

served with a dollop of sour Borscht with a side of

cream and a slice of rye bread pampushky, pork cracklings and

 smetana Šaltibarščiai served with a boiled
potato

A bouillon cup of clear borscht, a

type of Borscht with a krokiet
and a brine-pickled gherkin on
the side

The diversity of borscht styles is matched by the wide choice of garnishes and side dishes
with which various types of borscht may be served. Most often, borscht is served with
smetena, a soured dairy product similar to the French crème fraîche.[60] The smetana may be
served in a separate pitcher for the diners to add the desired amount themselves or the
borscht may come already "whitened"[j] with the smetana already added. The cream can also
be thickened with flour before being added to the soup.[61] Yogurt[17] and a mixture of milk
and yolks[62][2] are possible substitutes.

Chopped herbs are often sprinkled on the surface of the soup; dill is most common, but
parsley, chives or scallion are often added as well. Individual helpings may be spiced up with
minced hot peppers or garlic.[61] Many types of borscht are served over halves or quarters of
hard-boiled chicken or quail eggs.[63] Navy beans, broad beans or string beans are also a
common addition.[61][64]

Meat, removed from the stock on which the borscht was based, may be cut into smaller
chunks and either added back into the soup or served on the side with horseradish or
mustard.[65] Bacon and sausages are also commonly used as borscht garnishes.[20] Borscht
based on bone stock may be served Old Polish style, with marrow from the bones.[61]

Some types of the soup, such as Poltava borscht, may be served with halushky, or thick
noodles of wheat or buckwheat flour.[66] Siberian borscht is eaten with boiled meatballs
(frikadelki[k]) of minced beef and onion.[20] In Poland and parts of western Ukraine, borscht is
typically ladled over uszka, or bite-sized ear-shaped dumplings made from pasta dough
wrapped around mushroom, buckwheat or meat filling. Mushroom-filled uszka are particularly
associated with Polish Christmas Eve borscht.[67][68][20]

Borscht, like any other soup in East Slavic cuisines, is seldom eaten by itself, but rather
accompanied by a side dish. At a minimum, spoonfuls of borscht are alternated with bites of a
slice of bread. Buckwheat groats or boiled potatoes, often topped with pork cracklings, are
other simple possibilities,[64] but a range of more involved sides exists as well.

In Ukraine, borscht is often accompanied with pampushky, or savory, puffy yeast-raised rolls
glazed with oil and crushed garlic.[65][69][20] In Russian cuisine, borscht may be served with any
of assorted side dishes based on tvorog, or the East European variant of farmer cheese, such
as vatrushki, syrniki or krupeniki. Vatrushki are baked round cheese-filled tarts; syrniki are
small pancakes wherein the cheese is mixed into the batter; and a krupenik is a casserole of
buckwheat groats baked with cheese.[20]

Pirozhki, or baked dumplings with fillings as for uszka, are another common side for both thick
and clear variants of borscht.[70] Polish clear borscht may be also served with a croquette or
paszteciki. A typical Polish croquette (krokiet) is made by wrapping a crêpe (thin pancake)
around a filling and coating it in breadcrumbs before refrying; paszteciki (lit. 'little pâtés') are
variously shaped filled hand-held pastries of yeast-raised or flaky dough. An even more
exquisite way to serve borscht is with a coulibiac, or a large loaf-shaped pie. Possible fillings
for croquettes, paszteciki and coulibiacs include mushrooms, sauerkraut and minced
meat.[71][72]

History

Precursors

Common hogweed, originally the

principal ingredient of borscht
Borscht derives from a soup originally made by the Slavs from common hogweed (Heracleum
sphondylium, also known as cow parsnip), which lent the dish its Slavic name.[12] Growing
commonly in damp meadows throughout the north temperate zone, hogweed was used not
only as fodder (as its English names suggest), but also for human consumption—from Eastern
Europe to Siberia, to northwestern North America.[73][74]

The Slavs collected hogweed in May and used its roots for stewing with meat.[12] As for the
stems, leaves, and umbels; these would be chopped, covered with water and left in a warm
place to ferment. After a few days, lactic and alcoholic fermentation produced a mixture
described as "something between beer and sauerkraut".[75] This fermented product was then
used for cooking a soup.

The said soup—with aforementioned fermented hogweed concoction used—was

characterized by a mouth-puckering amount of sourness in its taste, while its smell was
described as pungent[76] As the Polish ethnographer Łukasz Gołębiowski wrote in 1830, "Poles
have been always partial to tart dishes, which are somewhat peculiar to their homeland and
vital to their health."[l][77] Simon Syrenius (Szymon Syreński), a 17th century Polish botanist,
described "our Polish hogweed"[m] as a vegetable that was well known throughout Poland,
Ruthenia, Lithuania and Samogitia (that is, most of the northern part of Eastern Europe),
typically used for cooking a "tasty and graceful soup"[n] with capon stock, eggs, sour cream
and millet. More interested in the plant's medicinal properties than its culinary use, he also
recommended pickled hogweed juice as a cure for fever or hangover.[78]

One of the earliest possible mentions of borscht as a soup is found in the diary of German
merchant Martin Gruneweg, who visited Kyiv in 1584. After Gruneweg reached river
Borshchahivka in Kyiv's vicinity on 17 October 1584, he wrote down a local legend saying that
the river was so named because there was a borscht market. However, he doubted the story
noting that "Ruthenians buy borscht rarely or never, because everyone cooks their own at
home as it's their staple food and drink".[79]

Another early written reference to the Slavic hogweed soup can be found in Domostroy
(Domestic Order), a 16th century Russian compendium of moral rules and homemaking
advice. It recommends growing the plant "by the fence, around the whole garden, where the
nettle grows", to cook a soup of it in springtime and reminds the reader to, "for the Lord's
sake, share it with those in need".[19]

Hogweed borscht was mostly a poor man's food. The soup's humble beginnings are still
reflected in Polish fixed expressions, where "cheap like borscht"[o] is the equivalent of "dirt
cheap" (also attested as a calque in Yiddish and Canadian English),[80][81] whereas adding "two
mushrooms into borscht"[p] is synonymous with excess.[82] For the professors of the University
of Kraków, who led a monastic way of life in the 17th century, hogweed borscht was a fasting
dish which they ate regularly from Lent till Rogation days.[83] It was uncommon on the royal
table,[12] although according to the 16th century Polish botanist Marcin of Urzędów—citing
Giovanni Manardo, a court physician to the Jagiellonian kings of Hungary—the Polish-born
King Vladislaus II used to have a Polish hogweed-based dish prepared for him at his court in
Buda.[84]

Diversification

With time, other ingredients were added to the soup, eventually replacing hogweed
altogether, and the names borshch or barszcz became generic terms for any sour-tasting
soup. In 19th century rural Poland, this term included soups made from barberries, currants,
gooseberries, cranberries, celery or plums.[85][86][87]

Rye meal mixed with water and left

to sour is the main ingredient of
Polish white borscht.

When describing the uses of common hogweed, John Gerard, a 17th century English botanist,
observed that "the people of [Poland] and Lithuania [used] to make [a] drink with the
decoction of this herb and leaven or some other thing made of meal, which is used instead of
beer and other ordinary drink".[q][88] It may suggest that hogweed soup was on some
occasions combined with a fermented mixture of water and barley flour, oatmeal or rye flour.
Such soured, gelatinous flour-and-water mixture, originally known as kissel[r][89][90] (from the
Proto-Slavic root *kyslŭ, 'sour'[91][92]) had been already mentioned in The Tale of Bygone Years,
a 12th century chronicle of Kievan Rus',[93][94] and continued to be a staple of Ukrainian and
Russian cooking until the middle of the 19th century.[95] In Poland, a soup based on diluted
kissel became known as either żur[96] (from Middle High German sur, 'sour'[97]) or barszcz and
later—to distinguish it from the red beetroot borscht—as barszcz biały, 'white borscht'.[98]
The earliest known Polish recipes for borscht, written by chefs catering to Polish magnates
(aristocrats), are from the late 17th century. Stanisław Czerniecki, head chef to Prince
Aleksander Michał Lubomirski, included several borscht recipes in his Compendium
ferculorum (A Collection of Dishes), the first cookbook published originally in Polish, in 1682.
They include such sour soups as lemon borscht and "royal borscht", the latter made from
assorted dried, smoked or fresh fish and fermented rye bran.[99] A manuscript recipe
collection from the Radziwiłł family court, dating back to c. 1686, contains an instruction for
making hogweed borscht mixed with poppy seeds or ground almonds. As this was a Lenten
dish, it was garnished, in a trompe-l'œil fashion typical of Baroque cuisine, with mock eggs
made from finely chopped pike that was partly dyed with saffron and formed into oval
balls.[76][100] An alternative recipe for the almond borscht replaced pickled hogweed with
vinegar.[101]

Cabbage soup attributed as

"borscht" may be indistinguishable
from the Russian shchi.

Borscht also evolved into a variety of sour soups to the east of Poland. Examples include onion
borscht, a recipe for which was included in a 1905 Russian cookbook,[102] and sorrel-based
green borscht, which is still a popular summer soup in Ukraine and Russia. A Gift to Young
Housewives by Elena Molokhovets, the best-selling Russian cookbook of the 19th century,[103]
first published in 1861, contains nine recipes for borscht, some of which are based on kvass, a
traditional Slavic fermented beverage made from rye bread.[104] Kvass-based variants were
also known in Ukraine at that time; some of them were types of green borscht, while others
were similar to the Russian okroshka.[48]

Before the advent of beet-based borscht, cabbage borscht was of particular importance.
Made from either fresh cabbage or sauerkraut, it could be indistinguishable from the Russian
shchi.[105] Indeed, the mid-19th century Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian
Language defines borshch as "a kind of shchi" with beet sour added for tartness.[106][19] The
significance of cabbage as an essential ingredient of borscht is manifest in the Ukrainian
proverb, "without bread, it's no lunch; without cabbage, it's no borscht."[s][107]
Novel ingredients: beets, tomatoes and potatoes

Peasants harvesting beets in what

is now Ukraine,[108] painted by Leon
Wyczółkowski in 1893

Beet (Beta vulgaris), a plant native to the Mediterranean Basin, was already grown in
antiquity.[109] Only the leaves were of culinary use, as the tapered, tough, whitish and bitter-
tasting root was considered unfit for human consumption.[110] It is probably that beet greens
were used in variants of green borscht long before the invention of the beetroot-based red
borscht.[19] Beet varieties with round, red, sweet taproots, known as beetroots, were not
reliably reported until the 12th century[111] and did not spread to Eastern Europe before the
16th century.[112]

Mikołaj Rej, a Polish Renaissance poet and moralist, included the earliest known Polish recipe
for pickled beetroots in his 1568 book, Life of an Honest Man.[113] It would later evolve into
ćwikła,[114] or chrain mit burik,[115] a beet-and-horseradish relish popular in Polish and Jewish
cuisines. Rej also recommended the "very tasty brine"[t] left over from beetroot pickling,[116]
which was an early version of beet sour. The sour found some applications in Polish folk
medicine as a cure for hangover and—mixed with honey—as a sore throat remedy.[86]

It may never be known who first thought of using beet sour to flavor borscht, which also gave
the soup its now-familiar red color. One of the earliest mentions of borscht with pickled beets
comes from Russian ethnographer Andrey Meyer, who wrote in his 1781 book that people in
Ukraine make fermented red beets with Acanthus, which they in turn use to cook their
borscht.[117] The book "Description of the Kharkiv Governorate" of 1785, which describes the
food culture of the Ukrainians, says that borscht was the most consumed food, cooked from
beets and cabbage with various other herbal spices and millet, on sour kvass; it was always
made with pork lard or beef lard, on holidays with lamb or poultry, and sometimes with
game.[118] Jerzy Samuel Bandtkie's Polish-German dictionary published in 1806 was the first
to define barszcz as a tart soup made from pickled beetroots.[119]
 The addition of tomatoes may give
borscht an orange tinge instead of
the purplish red imparted by
beetroots.

The fact that certain 19th century Russian and Polish cookbooks, such as Handbook of the
Experienced Russian Housewife (1842) by Yekaterina Avdeyeva[120][121] and The Lithuanian
Cook (1854) by Wincenta Zawadzka,[122] refer to beetroot-based borscht as "Little Russian
borscht"[u] (where "Little Russian" is a term used at the time for ethnic Ukrainians under
imperial Russian rule) suggests that this innovation took place in what is now Ukraine,[2]
whose soils and climate are particularly well suited to beet cultivation. Ukrainian legends,
probably of 19th century origin, attribute the invention of beetroot borscht either to
Zaporozhian Cossacks, serving in the Polish army, on their way to break the siege of Vienna in
1683, or to Don Cossacks, serving in the Russian army, while laying siege to Azov in 1695.[19]

Spanish conquistadors brought potatoes and tomatoes from the Americas to Europe in the
16th century, but these vegetables only became commonly grown and consumed in Eastern
Europe in the 19th century. Eventually, both became staples of peasant diet and essential
ingredients of Ukrainian and Russian borscht. Potatoes replaced turnips in borscht recipes,
and tomatoes—fresh, canned or paste—took over from beet sour as the source of tartness.
The turnip is rarely found in modern recipes, and even then, together with potatoes.[19] In
Ukraine, beet sour and tomatoes were both used for some time until the latter ultimately
prevailed during the last third of the 19th century.[123]

Haute cuisine

Russian and Polish aristocrats used to employ celebrated French chefs, who later presented
their dishes as foreign curios back in France. One of the first French chefs to do so was Marie-
Antoine Carême, who worked briefly for Emperor Alexander I in 1819.[124] In his take on
borscht, the original Russian soup served only as inspiration for an extravagant haute cuisine
dish with an air of eastern exoticism.[125] Apart from vegetables and beet sour, his recipe calls
for a roast chicken, a fried chicken, a duck, a piece of veal, an oxtail, a marrow bone, one
pound of bacon, and six large sausages, and suggests serving with beef quenelles, deviled
eggs and croûtons.[17]

Auguste Escoffier, Carême's apprentice, who was mostly fascinated by the soup's vivid ruby-
red color, simplified his master's recipe, while also securing the place of potage bortsch
(lit. 'borscht soup') in French cuisine.[126] Urbain Dubois and Émile Bernard, both of whom had
been employed at Polish aristocratic courts, presented borscht to the French public as a
Polish soup; their cookbook, La cuisine classique, published in 1856, contains a borscht recipe
under the descriptive name, potage au jus de betteraves à la polonaise (lit. 'Polish-style beet-
juice soup'),[127] which had been changed to potage barsch à la polonaise by the third edition
in 1868.[128] In 1867, beetroot borscht was served, along with herrings, sturgeon, coulibiac,
Pozharsky cutlets and vinaigrette salad,[129] at a Russian-themed dinner at the International
Exposition in Paris, strengthening its international association with Russian culture.[130]

Global spread

A modern bowl of dark-red borscht

garnished with a dollop of sour
cream and a parsley leaf. Note the
bubbles of oil, making borscht close
to vinegret.

Over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, borscht's popularity spread beyond its Slavic
homeland, largely due to such factors as territorial expansion of the Russian Empire, Russia's
growing political clout and cultural stature, and waves of emigration out of the country. As
Russia grew to cover most of northern and central Eurasia, borscht was introduced to the
cuisines of various peoples inhabiting the territories both within and adjacent to the empire,
from Finland[131] to the Caucasus[56][132] and Iran,[133] to Central Asia[134][135] and China, to
Alaska (Russian America).[136]

Borscht's westward expansion was less successful; Germans used to scoff at the soup along
with other East European fare.[2] What helped the spread of borscht, however, was the
popularization by various haute cuisine chefs who had their own dishes to present to West
Europe.

Ukrainian beet-and-cabbage
borscht

Mass migration from the Russian Empire to North America—initially mostly by members of
persecuted religious minorities—was instrumental in bringing borscht across the Atlantic.[137]
Jews from the Pale of Settlement, an area that stretched along the western edges of the
Russian Empire and included much of present-day Ukraine, brought with them Ukrainian
variety of borscht with beetroot.[138]

The earliest waves of migration, however, occurred at a time when cabbage-based borscht
was still the dominant variant of the soup in at least parts of Russia. The Mennonites, who
began arriving in Canada and the United States from Russia's Volga region in the 1870s,[137]
still eschew beetroots in their borscht;[19] instead, Mennonite varieties include Komst Borscht
(with cabbage or sauerkraut) and Somma Borscht (sorrel-based "summer borscht").[137]
According to the Jewish Encyclopedia published in 1906, cabbage-based kraut borscht was
also more popular than the beet-based variant in American Jewish cuisine at the time.[62]
Subsequent Jewish immigration helped popularize the red borscht in America.

In the 1930s, when most American hotels refused to accept Jewish guests due to widespread
anti-Semitism, New York Jews began flocking to Jewish-owned resorts in the Catskill
Mountains for their summer vacations. The area grew into a major center of Jewish
entertainment, with restaurants offering all-you-can-eat Ashkenazi Jewish fare, including
copious amounts of borscht. Grossinger's, one of the largest resorts, served borscht
throughout the day, every day of the year. The region became known, initially in derision, as
the "Borscht Belt", reinforcing the popular association between borscht and American Jewish
culture.[2] As most visitors arrived in the summertime, the borscht was typically served cold.
Marc Gold was one of its largest suppliers, producing 1,750 short tons (1,590 tonnes) a year in
his business's heyday.[139] Gold's borscht consists of puréed beetroots seasoned with sugar,
salt and citric acid;[140] it is usually blended with sour cream and served as a refreshing
beverage, more aptly described as a "beet smoothie". Such type of "purplish, watery broth" is,
according to Nikolai Burlakoff, author of The World of Russian Borsch, "associated in America
with borsch, in general, and Jewish borsch in particular."[141]

Borscht in the USSR

In the Soviet Union, borscht was one of the most popular everyday dishes. It was described by
James Meek, a British correspondent in Kyiv and Moscow, as "the common denominator of
the Soviet kitchen, the dish that tied together ... the high table of the Kremlin and the
meanest canteen in the boondocks of the Urals, ... the beetroot soup that pumped like the
main artery through the kitchens of the east Slav lands."[142] Among Soviet leaders, the
Ukrainian-born Leonid Brezhnev was especially partial to borscht, which his wife continued to
personally cook for him even after they had moved into the Kremlin.[124]

Tubed borscht as space food

The soup has even played a role in the Soviet space program. In March 1961, as part of a
communications equipment test, a pre-recorded recipe for borscht was broadcast from the
Korabl-Sputnik 4 spacecraft. The craft, carrying animals and a mannequin, had been launched
into low Earth orbit in preparation for crewed space flights.[143] Actual borscht eventually
made its way into outer space as space food for Soviet and, later, Russian cosmonauts.
Originally, a puréed version of borscht was supplied in tubes.

All ingredients for the space borscht (which include beef, beetroots, cabbage, potatoes,
carrots, onions, parsley root, and tomato paste) were cooked separately, then combined one
by one in strictly controlled order, sterilized, packed into tubes, sealed airtight and autoclaved.
In the 1970s, the tubes were replaced with packages of rehydratable freeze-dried borscht with
regular-size bits of cooked vegetables.[144]

However, with urbanization and mass construction of Khrushchyovka type housing, borscht
would be affected; there would be no comfortable place to make own days-long dishes with
"kvass" and sour foods, in a tiny apartment. At this rate, the idea of making its beet sour lost
its initial appeal, making borscht in USSR mainly about beets, not about sourness.

Such a typical Soviet-era book as Entsyclopedia Domashnego Hozyaistva (lit. 'Encyclopedia of

Housekeeping') has an article on borscht. The article suggests to make a soup with beets,
other vegetables, and a tartness source ("tomato purée") as a "borscht" in general, but its "no-
nation" primary recipe of meat borscht says "uksus po vkusu (Cyrillic: уксус по вкусу)", e.g.
only to add vinegar upon tasting the resulting soup. Simply put, the borscht's sourness
became an option, not a requirement, for a "generic" Soviet borscht, effectively parting ways
with older concepts of making sour soups (ones both with or without beets).[40]

However, the same article mentions the sour variant of the beet soup: it lists separate
"Ukrainian borscht" and "Cold borscht" recipes. The "Ukrainian borscht" one properly
instructs to make the sour soup with beets by saying "sbryznut' uksusom (Cyrillic:
сбрызнуть уксусом)", e.g. instructs to sprinkle it with some vinegar.

A beet infusion for borscht is also mentioned in the said article. It involves soaking a beet
with boiled water and then adding some vinegar. Again, this makeshift-like substitute for
beet sour is listed in the aforementioned Soviet encyclopedia as a way to color borscht, not
to sour it.

Era of Stagnation also would affect making borscht from time to time to the next level of
simplification: the aforementioned canned tomato products, "paste" or "purée" would be a
"deficit" item, a thing not available regularly in one's nearby convenience stores. On the other
hand, due to urbanization, people wouldn't resort to making own batches of, say, pickled
tomates. As result, many modern recipes of beet soups labeled as "borscht" list neither a
tartness source (lack tomatoes, pickles, etc.) nor a sourness source (lack vinegar, lemon acid
powder, let alone beet sour kvass).

In culture

As a ritual dish

Borscht is often associated with its role in religious traditions of various denominations
(Eastern Orthodox, Greek and Roman Catholic, and Jewish) that are common in Eastern
Europe. In East Slavic countries, "memorial borscht"[v] is served as the first course at a post-
funeral wake. According to a traditional belief, the soul of the departed either feeds on or is
carried up to heaven by puffs of steam rising from bowls of borscht and other hot dishes, such
as blini, porridge, boiled potatoes or freshly baked bread.[145][137] In the region of Polesye,
straddling the Belarusian-Ukrainian border, the same steaming-hot dishes, including borscht,
are given as an offering to the souls of deceased ancestors during the annual semi-pagan
remembrance ceremony known as Dzyady or Forefathers' Night.[146][147]
 A tureen of clear borscht among
other dishes on a Polish Christmas
Eve table

In Poland and Ukraine, borscht is usually one of the dishes served at a Christmas Eve dinner.
Celebrated after the first star has appeared in the sky[148] on December 24 (Roman Catholic)
or January 6 (Greek Catholic), it is a meal which is at the same time festive and fasting, a
multicourse affair (traditionally, with twelve distinct dishes) that excludes ingredients of land-
animal origin.[149] Christmas Eve borscht is, therefore, either vegetarian or based on fish stock
and is not typically mixed with sour cream. In Ukraine, the soup contains vegetables that are
sautéed in vegetable oil rather than lard, as well as beans and mushrooms. It may be also
thickened with wheat flour dry-roasted in a pan instead of the usual roux.[123] The Polish
version of Christmas Eve borscht is a clear ruby-red broth. Both Ukrainian and Polish variants
are often served with uszka.[24][68]

While Christmas in Poland is traditionally linked to red borscht, Lent—the fasting period that
leads up to Easter—is associated with a meatless version of white borscht, or żur. Youths used
to celebrate Holy Saturday, the last day of the fast, with a mock "funeral" of the white borscht,
in which a pot of the soup was either buried in the ground or broken, sometimes—to the
crowd's amusement—while being carried by an unsuspecting boy on his head.[96] On the next
day, the white borscht would reappear on the Easter table, but this time, in its more coveted,
meat-based guise with sausage, bacon and eggs.[76]

In Eastern European Ashkenazi Jewish tradition, vegetarian borscht served with sour cream
and boiled potatoes on the side, known as peysakhdiker borsht, is considered an essential
dish during the Passover period. As the holiday is observed in spring (March or April), the
preparation of Passover borscht used to provide an opportunity to use up the beet sour left
over from pickled beetroots that had been consumed during winter, remaining potatoes that
had been stored throughout the winter and sour cream that was readily available in the new
calving season.[2] Cold borscht blended with sour cream is also popular on Shavuot (Feast of
Weeks), a holiday customarily associated with dairy foods, observed in late May or early
June.[150] Seudah Shlishit, or the third meal of the Shabbat, often includes borscht as well.[2]
In 2022, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
announced that it had placed borscht on the List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of
Urgent Safeguarding due to the risk that Russia's invasion posed to the soup's status as an
element of Ukraine's cultural heritage.[151] The new status means Ukraine could now apply for
special funds to finance projects promoting and protecting the dish.

As an ethnic dish

In its currently most popular, beet-based version, borscht most probably originated in what is
now Ukraine.[1][2][19] Borscht's role as a staple of everyday Ukrainian diet is reflected in the
Ukrainian saying, "borscht and porridge are our food"[w][107] (compare the equivalent Russian
saying, where borscht is replaced with shchi[x][130]). The hearty soup in which the beetroot is
just one of sundry vegetables, as opposed to the typically Polish clear beet broth, is still known
in Poland as "Ukrainian borscht".[y][152][153]

Borscht is associated with and claimed by several ethnic groups, especially Ukrainians,
Russians, Poles, Lithuanians and Ashkenazi Jews, as their own national or ethnic dish and
cultural icon.[154][155] Such claims are not necessarily mutually exclusive, as the soup's history
predates the emergence in Eastern Europe of modern nation states with their ever-shifting
borders. Borscht, in the words of Burlakoff, "is perfectly suited to a global culture". He
describes it as "a global phenomenon", in which "local variants are so numerous and diverse
that it is hard sometimes for a non-specialist to grasp that any single example of it is
something that is part of a unified tradition". In his view, borscht "is an almost perfect example
of ... 'glocalization'—a phenomenon that is global in distribution but reflective of local needs
and ways in its variants and adaptation; ... a highly localized product that became globalized,
and in the process adapted to conditions other than the original ones."[124]

However, according to Irina Perianova, a Russian linguist and anthropologist, "people tend to
be very proprietal about their food and proud of it." Perianova offers competing Russian and
Ukrainian views on the origin and ingredients of borscht as an example of "a common
connection between culinary and territorial claims", which results in the culinary area turning
into "a battlefield generating and proliferating all kinds of myths".[154] In 2020 Ukraine began
the process to have borscht recognised as an element of the country's intangible cultural
heritage, an initiative supported by chefs and food writers such as Marianna
Dushar.[156][157][158]
 A bowl of borscht together with its usual
ingredients featured on Ukrainian postage
stamps

In the Soviet Union, government-sponsored cookbooks, such as The Book of Tasty and
Healthy Food curated by Anastas Mikoyan, Cookery and Directory of Recipes and Culinary
Production, promoted a unified Soviet cuisine with standardized and nutritionally "rational"
versions of traditional dishes.[159][160] The same cooking techniques and recipes were taught in
culinary vocational schools throughout the country, establishing a common cooking style in
Soviet cafés and restaurants.[160] Though inspired by the cuisines of the country's various
ethnic groups, many recipes were presented as part of an overall Soviet heritage,
disassociated from their individual geographic origins.[102]

By many people both inside and outside the Soviet Union, borscht was increasingly seen not
as an ethnic Ukrainian soup, but as a Soviet or—metonymically—Russian dish.[161] This
approach was criticized by William Pokhlebkin, a preeminent Russian food writer, who
unequivocally described beet-based borscht as one of the "dishes of Ukrainian cookery" which
"have entered the menu of international cuisine".[z][162] "One could understand", he wrote, "and
forgive foreigners for calling borscht or varenyky Russian national dishes, but when it turns out
that they gleaned the information from Soviet cookbooks or from restaurant menus, one is
embarrassed for our authors and chefs, who popularize the national cuisines of our peoples
[that is, the ethnic groups of the Soviet Union] with such ignorance."[aa][163]

According to Meek:

Pokhlebkin and the Soviet Union are dead, yet Borshchland lives on.
Recipes, like birds, ignore political boundaries. ... The faint outline of the
Tsarist-Soviet imperium still glimmers in the collective steam off bowls of
beetroot and cabbage in meat stock, and the soft sound of dollops of sour
 cream slipping into soup, from the Black Sea to the Sea of Japan and, in
emigration, from Brooklyn to Berlin.[142]

See also

List of soups

Three grand soups in Japanese culture

Shchi – some variants of the dish may contain beets

Cabbage soup – kapusniak/kapustnica variants of cabbage soup are made sour

Comfort food

Borscht Belt – a popular vacation spot for New York City Jews from the 1920s through the
1960s

Notes

a. Belarusian: боршч (borshch); Polish: barszcz.

b. In the Cyrillic script: борщок.

c. Polish: kwas buraczany; Russian: свекольный квас (svekolny kvas); Ukrainian: буряковий
квас (buriakovyi kvas).

d. In the Hebrew script: ‫ ;רָאסל‬also Romanized as rosel, rossel, russel or russell.

e. In the Cyrillic script: рассол.

f. In the Cyrillic script: флотский борщ.

g. Polish terms barszcz biały 'white borscht' and żur or żurek are either used
interchangeably or refer to different soups, depending on the regional dialect and
ingredients used.[43]

h. Russian: зелёный борщ (zelyony borshch); Ukrainian: зелений борщ (zelenyi borshch).

i. In the Chinese simplified script: 罗宋汤.

j. Polish: barszcz zabielany; Russian: забеленный борщ (zabelenny borshch); literally
'whitened borscht', that is, clouded with flour or dairy products. In Yiddish, the process of
whitening borscht is known as farweissen.

k. In the Cyrillic script: фрикадельки.

 l. Polish: Lubili i lubią Polacy kwaśne potrawy, ich krajowi poniekąd właściwe i zdrowiu ich
potrzebne.

m. Polish: barszcz nasz polski.

n. Polish: smaczna i wdzięczna ... polewka.

o. Polish: tanio jak barszcz; Yiddish: bilik vi borscht.

p. Polish: dwa grzyby w barszcz.

q. Original spelling: The people of Polonia and Lituania vse to make drinke with the
decoction of this herbe, and leuen or some other thing made of meale, which is vsed in
stead of beere and other ordinarie drinke.

r. Polish: kisiel; Russian: кисель (kisel'); Ukrainian: кисiль (kysil'); today, these words refer to
a sweet fruit-flavored jelly made from potato starch.

s. Ukrainian: Без хліба – не обід; без капусти – не борщ (Bez khliba – ne obid; bez kapusty
– ne borshch).

t. Polish: rosołek barzo smaczny.

u. Polish: barszcz małorosyjski; Russian: борщ малороссийский (borshch malorossiysky).

v. Russian: поминальный борщ (pominalny borshch).

w. Ukrainian: Борщ та каша – їжа наша (Borshch ta kasha – yizha nasha).

x. Russian: Щи да каша – пища наша (Shchi da kasha – pishcha nasha).

y. Polish: barszcz ukraiński.

z. Russian: некоторые блюда украинской кухни, например борщи и вареники, вошли в

меню международной кухни.

aa. Russian: То, что иностранцы называют борщ или вареники русскими национальными
блюдами, еще можно понять и извинить, но когда выясняется, что эти сведения они
почерпнули из советских кулинарных книг или из меню ресторанов, становится
стыдно за наших авторов и мастеров общепита, так безграмотно пропагандирующих
национальную кухню наших народов.

References

1. Schultze (2000), pp. 65–66.

 2. Marks (2010), pp. 196–200, "Borscht" (https://books.google.com/books?id=gFK_yx7Ps7c
C&pg=PT196) .

3. "borsch, n." (https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/21722?redirectedFrom=borscht) OED

Online. Oxford University Press. March 2023. Retrieved 3 July 2023.

4. Neilson, Knott & Carhart (1947).

5. Dictionary.com, "borscht" (https://www.dictionary.com/browse/borscht) .

6. Harper, "borscht" (https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=borscht) .

7. Mish (2004), p. 144, "borscht or borsch" (https://books.google.com/books?id=TAnheeIPc

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12. Dembińska (1999), p. 127.

13. Encyclopædia Britannica, "Borscht" (https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7449

2/borscht) .

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C&pg=PT261) .

15. Pokhlebkin (2004), p. 83.

16. "Let Me Count the Ways of Making Borscht" (https://www.newyorker.com/culture/annals-

of-gastronomy/let-me-count-the-ways-of-making-borscht) . The New Yorker. 7
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17. Burlakoff (2013), Appendix.

18. Pokhlebkin (2004), p. 84.

19. Burlakoff (2013), Chapter 2.

20. Zdanovich (2014), "Борщи" (https://books.google.com/books?id=NXmoAgAAQBAJ&pg=P

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22. Marks (2010), pp. 1021–1022, "Rosl" (https://books.google.com/books?id=gFK_yx7Ps7cC

&pg=PT1021) .

23. Small (2009), p. 99.

24. Strybel & Strybel (2005), pp. 190–192.

25. Hercules (2017).

26. "Borsch cu varză" (https://ro.food-and-recipes.com/publication/28576/) . food-and-

recipes.com (in Romanian).

27. Kafka (1998), p. 176.

28. Saberi & Saberi (2014).

29. Volokh & Manus (1983), p. 96.

30. Pokhlebkin (2004), p. 83–86.

31. Kulinariya, pp. 792–793.

32. Strybel & Strybel (2005), pp. 9, 180, 190.

33. Strybel & Strybel (2005), pp. 182, 190.

34. Marks (1999), p. 63.

35. Marks (2010), pp. 195–196, "Borscht" (https://books.google.com/books?id=gFK_yx7Ps7c

C&pg=PT196) .

36. Kulinariya, pp. 213–216.

37. Strybel & Strybel (2005), pp. 211–212.

38. Kuroń (2004), pp. 200–201.

39. Pokhlebkin (2004), p. 108.

40. "БОРЩ | это... Что такое БОРЩ?" (https://housekeeping.academic.ru/93/%D0%91%D

0%9E%D0%A0%D0%A9) . Словари и энциклопедии на Академике.

41. "Navigatable online copy of the 1861 book in .PDF format" (https://sheba.spb.ru/za/molo
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42. "A Gift to Young Housewives" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071021194920/http://nucl

phys.sinp.msu.ru/recipes/molohovec/) (in Russian). Archived from the original (http://n
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43. Żmigrodzki, "biały barszcz" (http://www.wsjp.pl/do_druku.php?id_hasla=10421&id_znacz
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44. Strybel & Strybel (2005), p. 193.

45. Szymanderska (2010), pp. 454–455.

46. Gloger (1900), p. 307 (vol. 3), "Jucha".

47. Łuczaj (2012), p. 21.

48. Artyukh (1977), p. 55.

49. Gurko, Chakvin & Kasperovich (2010), p. 78.

50. Guboglo & Simchenko (1992), p. 98.

51. Kulinariya, p. 792.

52. Gal (2003), "Borș" (http://dexonline.ro/definitie/bor%C8%99/369568) .

53. Reid & Pettersen (2007), p. 52.

54. Rennon (2007), p. 53.

55. Auzias & Labourdette (2012), p. 77.

56. Petrosian & Underwood (2006), pp. 107–108.

57. Fertig (2011), pp. 128–129.

58. Burlakoff (2013), Chapters 3 and 8.

59. Zhou & Sun (2012).

60. The Visual Food Encyclopedia (1996), p. 600.

61. Kuroń (2004), pp. 182–189.

62. Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), p. 257.

63. Kuroń (2004), pp. 186, 189, 201, 245–247.

64. Artyukh (2006), p. 17.

65. Burlakoff (2013), Chapter 1.

66. Pokhlebkin (2004), pp. 86, 93–94.

67. Strybel & Strybel (2005), p. 226.

68. Artyukh (2006), p. 16–17.

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70. Strybel & Strybel (2005), p. 234.

71. Strybel & Strybel (2005), pp. 229–238.

72. Kuroń (2004), pp. 248–253.

73. Łuczaj (2013), pp. 20–21.

74. Kuhnlein & Turner (1986), p. 311.

75. Łuczaj (2013), p. 21.

76. Dumanowski, Barszcz, żur i post.

77. Gołębiowski (1830), pp. 32–34.

78. Syrennius (1613), p. 673.

79. Lepiavko (2020).

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84. Marcin z Urzędowa (1595), pp. 6–7.

85. Rostafiński (1916), pp. 38–39.

86. Gloger (1900), pp. 116–117 (vol. 1), "Barszcz".

87. Gołębiowski (1830), p. 33.

88. Gerard (1636), p. 1009.

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95. Artyukh (1977), p. 38.

96. Gloger (1900), pp. 522–523 (vol. 4), "Żur".

97. Doroszewski (1969), "żur" (http://doroszewski.pwn.pl/haslo/%C5%BCur) .

98. Rostafiński (1916), p. 45.

99. Czerniecki (1682), pp. 71–72.

100. Dumanowski & Jankowski (2011), p. 185.

101. Dumanowski & Jankowski (2011), p. 165.

102. Burlakoff (2013), Chapter 6.

103. Christian (1994).

104. Molokhovets (1998), Recipes 43–48, 74, 75, 77.

105. Burlakoff (2013), Chapters 4,6.

106. Dal (1863–66), "Борщ" (http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enc2p/210234) .

107. Prykazky ta pryslivya....

108. Majkowski (1932), p. 19.

109. Rostafiński (1916), pp. 5–6.

110. Rostafiński (1916), p. 10.

111. Small (2009), p. 97.

112. Rostafiński (1916), p. 11.

113. Rostafiński (1916), pp. 15–16.

114. Rostafiński (1916), p. 17.

115. Marks (2010), pp. 541–543, "Horseradish" (https://books.google.com/books?id=gFK_yx7P

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116. Rej (1567), Księga Druga.

117. Meyer (1781), p. 27.

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119. Rostafiński (1916), p. 41.

120. Avdeyeva (1846), pp. 198–199.

121. Burlakoff (2013), Chapter 5.

122. Zawadzka (1913), p. 12 (http://polona.pl/item/843952/18/) .

123. Artyukh (2006), p. 13.

124. Burlakoff (2013), Chapter 3.

125. Burlakoff (2013), Chapters 3 and 10.

126. Burlakoff (2013), Chapter 10.

127. Dumanowski, Klasyczny barszcz....

128. Dubois & Bernard (1868), p. 22.

129. The Epicure's Year Book, p. 83.

130. Burlakoff (2013), Preface.

131. MacVeigh (2008), p. 193.

132. King (2006), p. 12.

133. Petrosian & Underwood (2006), pp. 108.

134. World and Its Peoples (2006), pp. 617, 706, 1472.

135. Mack & Surina (2005), p. 115.

136. Burlakoff (2013), Chapter 8.

137. Burlakoff (2013), Chapter 4.

138. Goldstein, Darra (2020). Beyond the North wind: revealing Russia, its recipes and lore.

139. Lagnado (2011).

140. Gold's Borscht.

141. Burlakoff (2013), Chapter 7.

142. Meek (2008).

143. Garber (2013).

144. Vedernikov (2015).

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146. Gurko, Chakvin & Kasperovich (2010), p. 73.

147. Vinogradova & Levkievskaya (2012), p. 195.

148. Łozińska & Łoziński (2013), pp. 162–165.

149. Szymula (2012), p. 280.

150. Morel (2008).

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