DNA

DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid

• Nucleic acid
• Made of smaller units called nucleotides
• Function – carries the code for all the
genes of an organism
• Location – stored in nucleus as
chromatin or chromosomes
• Structure – double helix shape (twisted
ladder)
 DNA Nucleotides
• 3 parts:
1. 5 carbon sugar –
2. one of the following four
nitrogen containing bases:
, , ,

3. phosphate group –
Phosphate Group
(PO4)

Nitrogenous Base
(A, T, G, C)

Deoxyribose
(5 carbon [pentose] sugar)
How many nucleotides do you see?

ANSWER: 6
PO4

Deoxyribose
A T Deoxyribose

PO4
PO4
Deoxyribose
G C Deoxyribose
PO4
PO4
Deoxyribose
T A Deoxyribose

PO4
 Types of Nucleotides
Purines Pyrimidines
• Two carbon nitrogen • One carbon nitrogen
ring ring
• Adenine and Guanine • Thymine and Cytosine
 DNA Structure

• Sides of ladder are made of

phosphate groups and
deoxyribose
• The rungs or steps of the ladder
are the bases and exist in pairs.
pairs with
pairs with
 James Watson (1928-present)

• American
Molecular Biologist
• Studied the
structure of DNA
• Confirmed that
DNA is a three-
dimensional
double helix in
1953
 Francis Crick (1916-2004)

• British Molecule
Biologist
• Studied the
structure of DNA
• Confirmed that DNA
is a three-
dimensional double
helix in 1953
Maurice Wilkins (1916-2004)

• New Zealand
Molecular
Biologist
• Produced X-ray
images of DNA
• Sent images to
Watson and Crick
 Rosalind Franklin (1920-1958)
• Discovered structure of DNA using X-
Ray diffraction at King’s College in
London
• Died of ovarian cancer
 Nobel Prize in Physiology and
Medicine
• Watson, Crick and Wilkins
• 1962
 Replication
• Duplication of DNA
– Starts as the double helix
– DNA strands separated or “unzips” between the
bases
– Always occurs in 5’ to 3’ direction
– Free nucleotides bond with the exposed strands
– Creates 2 DNA molecules
• Each molecule contain one original strand and one
new strand
Original DNA Strand
DNA “Unzips”
Free nucleotides attach to exposed
strands
2 EXACT copies of DNA molecules form
 Key Terms
• Leading Strand
– occurs in a continuous 5’ to 3’ direction
• Lagging Strand
– occurs in small fragments (Okazaki fragments) in 5’ to 3’
direction
• Helicase
– unwinds (separates or unzips) DNA double helix
• DNA polymerase
– attaches free nucleotides to original strand to construct
new strand
• Ligase
– bonds the gaps between Okazaki fragments
 Genetic Similarities
• 99.9% of DNA is identical between two humans
• 96-98.8% of DNA is identical between human and
chimp
• 90.2% of DNA is identical between human and cat
• 84% of DNA is identical between human and dog
• 60% of DNA is identical between human and
banana
 Coding vs. Non-coding
• Human genome contains approximately 3 billion
base pairs
• Coding
– information for proteins and traits
– only 1.2% is coding in humans
• Non-coding
– was referred to as “junk” DNA
– controls certain cell processes (start and ending points
of protein synthesis or replication)
– 98.8% is non-coding
 Why is this important?
• Need 2 identical copies of DNA so that cells
can divide (mitosis and meiosis)
 Cell
Division
 Why do cells divide?

•Cell division is necessary

for the normal growth,
repair, and
reproduction of an
organism.
 2 types of cells in Multicellular
Organisms
• Gametes
• Somatic Cells
 Gametes

• AKA “sex cells” or “reproductive

cells”
• Haploid (n)
• One complete set of chromosomes
• In humans, gametes have 23
chromosomes
• Ex. Egg, sperm
Gametes
 Somatic Cells
• AKA “body cells”
• Diploid (2n)
• Two complete sets of chromosomes
(one set comes from mother and one
set from father; the sets are
homologous or homologues)
• In humans, somatic cells have 46
chromosomes
 Somatic Cells

Red blood cell Neuron - brain cell

 Human Chromosomal Numbers
• Gametes (haploid)
– 23 chromosomes
• Somatic Cells (diploid)
– 46 chromosomes
• 23 chromosomes came from mom
• 23 chromosomes came from dad
 Reproduction of Somatic Cells
• One diploid cell divides to form two diploid
cells
• New cells are identical to original cell
• Used by unicellular organisms as asexual
reproduction (offspring from one parent) to
produce clones (offspring is genetically
identical to parent)
• Used by multicellular organisms to grow and
replace cells
 Original Cell

Cell Membrane
Nucleus

Nucleolus

Chromatin

Cytoplasm
Chromosome Number: 4
 Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle
includes the stages
in the
life of the cell.
• 2 main parts:
•1. Interphase (largest portion of
the cell’s life)
•2. Mitosis (M phase)
 Interphase

•G1 Phase
•S Phase
•G2 Phase
 G1 Phase - “Growth One”

• Characterized by growth
• Cell is preparing for division
• Growth of organelles and
cytosol
 G1 “Growth One”
Growth of cytoplasm

Chromosome Number: 4
 S – Phase “Synthesis”

• Replication – (copying of
genetic material;
chromosomes are doubled to
form sister chromatids held
together by a centromere)
 S “synthesis”
Replication of chromosomes

Chromosome Number: 8
 Sister
Chromatids
 G2 phase – “more growth”
• Characterized by more growth
• Cell is preparing for division
• Growth of organelles & cytosol
 G2 “more growth”
More growth of cytoplasm

Chromosome Number: 8
 Mitosis – M phase

• 4 stages:
– 1. (P) prophase
– 2. (M) metaphase
– 3. (A) anaphase
– 4. (T) telophase
PLUS
• (C) Cytokinesis
– (sometimes considered part of mitosis, sometimes not)
 Prophase
• Disappearance of nuclear envelope &
nucleolus
• Formation of spindle fibers

“Loss, Loss,
Gain”
 Prophase “loss, loss, gain”
Lose nucleolus and nuclear envelope; gain spindle fibers

Chromosome Number: 8
Prophase
 Metaphase
• Lining up of sister
chromatids along
equator (center)
• Spindle fibers
attach to
centromeres of
sister chromatids

“Meta-
Middle”
 Metaphase “Meta-Middle”
Sister chromatids line up in the middle

Chromosome Number: 8
Metaphase
 Anaphase

• Spindle fibers pull

sister chromatids
apart toward the
poles

“One and
Another”
Anaphase “One and Another”
Splitting of sister chromatids

Chromosome Number: 4 + 4
Anaphase
 Telophase
• Cell membrane begins
to form cleavage
furrow (pinching of
cell membrane)
• Nucleolus and nuclear
envelopes appear (2
separate ones)
• Lose spindle fibers “Gain, Gain, Loss +
Cleavage Furrow”
 Telophase “Gain, Gain, Loss + Cleavage Furrow”
Reappearance of nucleolus and nuclear envelope. Lose
spindle fibers. Cell membrane pinches.

Chromosome Number: 4 + 4
Telophase
 Cytokinesis
• Cleavage furrow completes
division of cytoplasm
• 2 new identical cells are formed
• PLANT CELLS: cell plate forms to
divide the cell wall into two
 Cytokinesis
Cell membrane completely divides to form 2 identical
cells

Chromosome Number: 4 / 4
Cytokinesis of Plant Cell
Cancer
 What is cancer?
• Cancer is a group of several diseases caused
by the abnormal growth of cells.
• Growth destroys surrounding tissue and
interferes with proper cell function.
• Cancer cells are called malignant cells.
 Tumors
• Mass of cells formed by cells dividing too quickly
• Benign tumors
– Not caused by cancer
– Do not metastasize (spread to other parts of the
body)
– Usually does not grow back when removed
• Malignant tumors
– Cancer
– Will metastasize if not treated
 Causes of Cancer
• Genetic mutations
• Exposure to carcinogens
– Cancer causing substances
• Over exposure to radiation
• Toxic substances in cigarettes and alcohol
 Symptoms
• Fatigue
• Unexplained weight loss
• Night sweats
• Cough
• Blood found in vomit, urine, or feces
• Persistent pain
• Sores in mouth
• Painless sores
• Growths on the skin
 Diagnosis
• Talk with a doctor about lifestyle issues,
exposure to radiation, or chemicals and family
history.
• Variety of tests can be used to determine if
cancer is present.
 Biopsy
• The removal of a tumor which is then studied
in a laboratory for signs of cancer
 MRI
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging
• Uses magnets and radiation to detect
abnormalities in the structure and function of
organs.
 CAT Scan
• Also known as CT Scan
• Computed Axial Tomography
• Creates cross section views using small
amounts of radiation to view particular organs
to detect abnormalities.
 X-Ray
• Picture of hard tissues of the body using low
dose of radiation to view particular organs to
detect abnormalities.
 Treatment
• Surgically remove the tumor
• Radiation therapy
– Uses x-rays, gamma rays, or other rays to shrink
the tumor
• Chemotherapy
– Use of drugs to kill cancer cells
 Side Effects of Treatment
• Kills healthy cells
• Loss of hair
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Skin changes
• Anemia
• Fatigue
• Loss of appetite
 Prevention
• Healthy lifestyle
– Healthy weight, exercising, and eating a diet of whole natural foods.
• Avoid smoking
• Avoid consuming excessive amounts of alcohol
• Avoid overexposure to the sun
• Avoid eating a lot of meats and processed foods
Is there a definite cure for cancer?
• No.
• Some cancers are more receptive to
treatments while others are not