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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES 10CS34

DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

(Common to CSE & ISE)
Subject Code: 10CS34 I.A. Marks : 25
Hours/Week : 04 Exam Hours: 03
Total Hours : 52 Exam Marks: 100
PART – A

UNIT – 1 6 H o ur s

Set Theory: Sets and Subsets, Set Operations and the Laws of Set Theory, Counting and
Venn Diagrams, A First Word on Probability, Countable and Uncountable Sets

UNIT – 2 7 H o ur s

Fundamentals of Logic: Basic Connectives and Truth Tables, Logic Equivalence – The
Laws of Logic, Logical Implication – Rules of Inference

UNIT – 3 6 H o ur s

Fundamentals of Logic contd.: The Use of Quantifiers, Quantifiers, Definitions and the
Proofs of Theorems

UNIT – 4 7 H o ur s

Properties of the Integers: Mathematical Induction, The Well Ordering Principle –

Mathematical Induction, Recursive Definitions

PART – B

UNIT – 5 7 H o ur s

Relations and Functions: Cartesian Products and Relations, Functions – Plain and One-to-
One, Onto Functions – Stirling Numbers of the Second Kind, Special Functions, The
Pigeon-hole Principle, Function Composition and Inverse Functions

UNIT – 6 7 H o ur s

Relations contd.: Properties of Relations, Computer Recognition – Zero-One Matrices and

Directed Graphs, Partial Orders – Hasse Diagrams, Equivalence Relations and Partitions

UNIT – 7 6 H o ur s

Groups: Definitions, Examples, and Elementary Properties, Homomorphisms,

Isomorphisms, and Cyclic Groups, Cosets, and Lagrange’s Theorem.

Coding Theory and Rings: Elements of Coding Theory, The Hamming Metric, The Parity
Ch e ck , an d G en e rat o r M at ri c es

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES 10CS34

UNIT – 8 6 H o ur s

Group Codes: Decoding with Coset Leaders, Hamming Matrices Rings and Modular
Arithmetic: The Ring Structure – Definition and Examples, Ring Properties and
Substructures, The Integers Modulo n

Text Book:

1. Ralph P. Grimaldi: Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics,5 Edition, Pearson

Education, 2004. (Chapter 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, Appendix 3, Chapter 2, Chapter 4.1, 4.2,
Chapter 5.1 to 5.6, Chapter 7.1 to 7.4, Chapter 16.1, 16.2, 16.3, 16.5 to 16.9, and Chapter
14.1, 14.2, 14.3).
Reference Books:
1. Kenneth H. Rosen: Discrete Mathematics and its Applications, 7 Edition, McGraw Hill,
2010.
2. Jayant Gangul y: A Treatise on Discrete Mathematical Structures, Sanguine-Pearson,
2010.
3. D.S. Malik and M.K. Sen: Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications,
Cengage Learning, 2004.
4. Thomas Koshy: Discrete Mathematics with Applications, Elsevier, 2005, Reprint 2008.

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES 10CS34

I N DE X S H E E T

PART – A Page no.

UNIT – 1 Set Theory: 5 - 15

UNIT – 2 Fundamentals of Logic: 16 - 29

UNIT – 3 Fundamentals of Logic contd.: 30 - 38

UNIT – 4 Properties of the Integers: 39 - 49

PART – B Page no.

UNIT – 5 Relations and Functions: 50 - 62

UNIT – 6 Relations contd.: 63 - 77

Groups: 78 - 94
UNIT – 7
Coding Theory and Rings: 94 - 108

UNIT – 8 Group Codes: 109 - 120

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES 10CS34

PART – A

UNIT – I Set Theory: 6 H o ur s

 Sets and Subsets,

 Set Operations and the Laws of Set Theory,
 Counting and Venn Diagrams,
 A First Word on Probability,
 Countable and
 Uncountable Sets

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES 10CS34

DISRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

U NI T I 6 H ours
Set Theory

Sets: A set is a collection of ob jects, called elements of the set. A set can be
presented by listing its elements b etween braces: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. The symb ol e is
used to express that an element is (or b elongs to) a set. For instance 3 e A. Its
negation is represented by /e, e.g. 7 /e A. If the set Is finite, its numb er of elements
is represented |A|, e.g. if A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} then |A| = 5

Some important sets are the following:

1. N = {0, 1, 2, 3, · · · } = the set of natural numbers.

2. Z = {·· · , -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · } = the set of integers.
3. Q = the set of rational numb ers.
4. R = the set of real numb ers.
5. C = the set of complex numb ers.

If S is one of those sets then we also use the following notations :

1. S + = set of p ositive elements in S , for instance

Z + = {1, 2, 3, ·· · } = the set of positive integers.
2. S - = set of negative elements in S , for instance
Z- = {-1, -2, -3, · · · } = the set of negative integers.
3. S ∗ = set of elements in S excluding zero, for instance R∗ = the set of non zero real
numbers.

Set-builder notation: An alternative way to define a set, called set- builder notation, is
by stating a prop erty (predicate) P (x) verified by exactly its elements, for instance
A = {x e Z | 1 ≤ x ≤ 5} = “set of integers x such that 1 ≤ x ≤ 5”—i.e.: A = {1, 2, 3,
4, 5}. In general: A = {x e U | p(x)}, where U is the universe of discourse in which
the predicate P (x) must be interpreted, or A = {x | P (x)} if the universe of discourse
for P (x) is implicitly understoo d. In set theory the term universal set is often used in
p l a ce o f “u n i v e rs e o f d i s co u rs e” f o r a g i v en p r ed i c at e.

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Principle of Extension: Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same
elements, i.e.: A = B ≡ ∀x (x e A ↔ x e B) .

Subset: We say that A is a subset of set B, or A is contained in B, and we represent

it “A ⊆ B ”, if all elements of A are in B, e.g., if A = {a, b, c} and
B = {a, b, c, d, e} then A ⊆ B.
Proper subset: A is a proper subset of B, represented “A ⊂ B ”, if A ⊆ B
but A = B, i.e., there is some element in B which is not in A.

Empty Set: A set with no elements is called empty set (or null set,
or void set ), and is represented by ∅ or {}.

Note that nothing prevents a set from p ossibly b eing an element of another set (which
is not the same as being a subset!). For i n stance
e l e m e n t o f A,
if A = {1, a, {3, t}, {1, 2, 3}} and B= {3, t}, then obviously B is an
i.e., B e A.

Power Set: The collection of all subsets of a set A is called the power set of A,
and is represented P(A). For instance, if A = {1, 2, 3}, then
P(A) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, A} .

Multisets: Two ordinary sets are identical if they have the same elements, so for
instance, {a, a, b} and {a, b} are the same set b ecause they have exactly the same
elements, namely a and b. However, in some applications it might be useful to
allow rep eated elements in a set. In that case we use multisets, which are
mathematical entities similar to sets, but with p ossibly rep eated elements. So, as
multisets, {a, a, b} and {a, b} would be considered different, since in the first one the
element a o ccurs twice and in the second one it o ccurs only once.
Set Operations:

1. Intersection : The common elements of two sets:

A ∩ B = {x | (x e A) ∧ (x e B)} .
If A ∩ B = ∅, the sets are said to be disjoint.

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES 10CS34

2. Union : The set of elements that belong to either of two sets:

A ∪ B = {x | (x e A) ∨ (x e B)} .

3. Complement : The set of elements (in the universal set) that do not b elong to a
g i v e n s et :
A = { x e U | x / e A} .

4. Difference or Relative Complement : The set of elements that belong to a set but
not to another:
A - B = {x | (x e A) ∧ (x /e B)} = A ∩ B .

5. Symmetric Difference : Given two sets, their symmetric differ- ence is the se t of
elements that b elong to either one or the other set but not both.
A ⊕ B = {x | (x e A) ⊕ (x e B)} .

It can be expressed also in the following way:

A ⊕ B = A ∪ B - A ∩ B = (A - B) ∪ (B - A) .

Counting with Venn Diagrams:

A Venn diagram with n sets intersecting in the most general way divides the plane
into 2n regions. If we have information ab out the numb er of elements of some p ortions
of the diagram, then we can find the numb er of elements in each of the regions and
use that information for obtaining the number of elements in other p ortions of the
plane.

Example : Let M , P and C be the sets of students taking Mathe- matics courses,
Physics courses and Computer Science courses resp ec- tively in a university. Assume
|M| = 300, |P | = 350, |C| = 450,
|M ∩ P | = 100, |M ∩ C | = 150, |P ∩ C | = 75, |M ∩ P ∩ C | = 10. How
many students are taking exactly one of those courses? (fig. 2.7)

We see that |(M ∩P )-(M ∩P ∩C )| = 100-10 = 90, |(M ∩C )-(M ∩

P ∩ C )| = 150 - 10 = 140 and |(P ∩ C ) - (M ∩ P ∩ C )| = 75 - 10 = 65.
Then the region corresp onding to students taking Mathematics courses only has
cardinality 300-(90+10+ 140) = 60. Analogously we compute the numb er of students
taking Physics courses only (185) and taking Computer Science courses only (235).

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The sum 60 + 185 + 235 = 480 is the numb er of students taking exactly one of those
co u rs es .

Venn Diagrams:
Venn diagrams are graphic representa- tions of sets as enclosed areas in the plane.
For instance, in figure 2.1, the rectangle represents the universal set (the set of all
elements con- sidered in a given problem) and the shaded region represents a set A.
The other figures represent various set operations.

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Laws of set theory:The set op erations verify the following

properties:

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Generalized Union and Intersection: Given a collec- tion of sets A1 , A2 , . . . ,

AN , their union is defined as the set of elements that b elong to at least one of the sets
(here n represents an integer in the range from 1 to N ):

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Analogously, their intersection is the set of elements that b elong to all the sets
simultaneously:

These definitions can be applied to infinite collections of sets as well. For instance
assume that Sm = {kn | k = 2, 3, 4, . . . } = set of multiples of n greater than n. Then

Partitions: A partition of a set X is a collection S of non overlapping non empty

subsets of X whose union is the whole X . For instance a partition of X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9, 10} could be
S = {{1, 2, 4, 8}, {3, 6}, {5, 7, 9, 10}} .
Given a partition S of a set X , every element of X b elongs to exactly one memb er of
S.

Example : The division of the integers Z into even and o dd numbers is a partition: S =
{E, O}, where E = {2n | n e Z}, O = {2n + 1 | n e Z}.

Example : The divisions of Z in negative integers, p ositive integers and zero is a

partition: S = {Z+ , Z -, {0}}.

Ordered Pairs, Cartesian Pro duct:

An ordinary pair {a, b} is a set with two elements. In a set the order of the
elements is irrelevant, so {a, b} = {b, a}. If the order of the elements is relevant,
then we use a different ob ject called ordered pair, represented (a, b). Now (a, b) = (b,
a) (unless a = b). In general (a, b) = (a!, b! ) iff a = a! and b = b! .

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES 10CS34

Given two sets A, B, their Cartesian product A × B is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b)
such that a e A and b e B :
A × B = { (a , b ) | (a e A ) ∧ ( b e B ) } .
Analogously we can define triples or 3-tuples (a, b, c), 4-tuples (a, b, c, d),
. . . , n-tuples (a1 , a2, . . . , am ), and the corresponding 3-fold, 4-fold,. . . ,
n-fold Cartesian pro duc ts:
A1 × A2 × ·· · × Am =
{(a1 , a2, . . . , am ) | (a1 e A1 ) ∧ (a2 e A2 ) ∧ ·· · ∧ (am e Am )} .
If all the sets in a Cartesian pro duct are the same, then we can use an exp onent: A2 =
A × A, A3 = A × A × A, etc. In general:
(m times)
m = A × A ×··· × A .

A First Word on Probability:

Intro duction: Assume that we perform an exp eriment such as tossing a coin or
rolling a die. The set of p ossible outcomes is called the sample space of the exp eriment.
An event is a subset of the sample space. For instance, if we toss a coin three times,
the sample space is
S — {H H H, H H T , H T H, H T T , T H H, T H T , T T H, T T T } .
The event “at least two heads in a row” would be the subset
E — {H H H, H H T , T H H } .

If all p ossible outcomes of an exp eriment have the same likelihood of o ccurrence, then
the probability of an event A ⊂ S is given by Laplace’s rule:

For instance, the probability of getting at least two heads in a row in

the above exp eriment is 3/8.

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Properties of probability:Let P be a probability func- tion on a sample space S .

Then:

THE CONCEPT OF PROBALITY:

Pr(A)=|A| / |S| where |A| is an event and |S| is sample space
Pr(A)=|A| / |S|=(|S|-|A|)/|S|= 1- (|A|/|S|)= 1-Pr(A).
Pr(A)=0 if and only if Pr(A)=1 and Pr(A)=1 if and only if
Pr(A)=0

ADDITION THEROM:

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Suppose A and B are 2 events is a sample space S then A UB is an event in S consisting of

outcomes that are in A or B or both and A ∩ B is an event is S consisting of outcomes
thatarecommon to A and B. accordingly by the principle of addition we have
|AUB|=|A|+|B|-|A ∩B| and formula 1 gives
Pr(AUB)=|AUB|/|S|=(|A|+|B|-|A ∩B|)/|S|
= |A|/|S| + |B|/|S| - |A ∩ B| / |S|
Pr(AUB) =Pr(A)+Pr(B)-Pr(A ∩ B)

MUTUALY EXCLUSIVE EVENTS:

Two events A and B in a sample space are said to be mutual exclusive if A ∩ B =Ø then
Pr(A ∩B)=0 and the addition theorem reduces to Pr(AUB)= Pr(A)+Pr(B)
If A1,A2…….An are mutualy exclusive events, then Pr(A1UA2U…….UAn)=
Pr(A1)+Pr(A2)+….+Pr(An)

CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY:
If E is an event in a finite sample S with Pr(E)>0 then the probability that an event A in S
occurs when E has already occurred is called the probability of A relative to E or the
conditional probability of A , given E
This probability, denoted by Pr(A|E) is defined by
Pr(A|E)=|A∩ E|/ |E| from this |A∩ E|=|E| . Pr(A|E)
Pr(A∩ E)= |A∩ E|/ S=|=|E|/|S| . Pr(A|E)=Pr(E) . Pr(A|E)
Example : Find the probability of obtaining a sum of 10 after rolling two fair dice. Find
the probability of that event if we know that at least one of the dice shows 5 p oints.

Answer : We call E — “obtaining sum 10” and F — “at least one of the dice shows 5
points”. The numb er of p ossible outcomes is 6 × 6 —
36. The event “obtaining a sum 10” is E — {(4, 6), (5, 5), (6, 4)}, so
|E| — 3. Hence the probability is P (E) — |E|/|S| — 3/36 — 1/12.
Now, if we know that at least one of the dice shows 5 p oints then the
sample space shrinks to
F — { (1 , 5 ) , ( 2 , 5 ), (3 , 5 ) , (4 , 5 ) , ( 5 , 5 ), (6 , 5 ), ( 5 , 1 ), (5 , 2 ) , ( 5 , 3 ), (5 , 4 ), ( 5 , 6 )} ,
so |F | — 11, and the ways to obtain a sum 10 are E n F — {(5, 5)},
|E n F | — 1, so the probability is P (E | F ) — P (E n F )/P (F ) — 1/11.

MUTUALLY INDEPENDENT EVENTS:

The event A and E in a sample space S are said to be mutually independent if the
probability of the occurrence of A is independent of the probability of the occurrence of E,
So that Pr(A)=Pr(A|E). For such events Pr(A ∩ E)=Pr(A).Pr(E)

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This is known as the product rule or the multiplication theorem for mutually independent
events .
A generalization of expression is if A1,A2,A3………..An are mutually independent events
in a sample space S then
Pr(A1∩ A2∩ ……………∩ An)=Pr(A1).Pr(A2)………..Pr(An)
Example : Assume that the probability that a sho oter hits a target is p — 0.7, and that
h i t t i n g t h e t a rg et i n d i f f er en t s h o t s ar e i n d ep e n d e n t ev en t s . F ind :

1. The probability that the sho oter do es not hit the target in one shot.
2. The probability that the sho oter do es not hit the target three times in a row.
3. The probability that the sho oter hits the target at least once after shooting three
times.
Answer :

1. P (not hitting the target in one shot) — 1 — 0.7 — 0.3.

2. P (not hitting the target three times in a row) — 0.33 — 0.027.
3. P (hitting the target at least once in three shots) — 1— 0.027 —
0.973.

COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE SETS

A set A is said to be the countable if A is a finite set .

A set which is not countable is called an uncountable set.

THE ADDITION PRINCIPLE:

• |AUB|=|A|+|B|-|A∩ B| is the addition principle rule or the principle of inclusion –
exclusion.
• |A-B|=|A|-|A∩ B|
• |A ∩ B|= |U|-|A|- |B| +|A∩ B|
• |AUBUC|= |A|+|B|+|C|-|A ∩B|-|B ∩ C|-|A ∩ C|+|A ∩ B ∩ C| is extended addition
principle
• NOTE: |A ∩ B ∩ C|=|AUBUC|
=|U|-|AUBUC|
= |U|-|A|-|B| -|C|+|B ∩C|+|A ∩B|+|A ∩C|- |A ∩B ∩C|
|A-B-C|=|A|-|A ∩ B|-|A ∩ C|+|A ∩ B ∩ C|

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES 10CS34

UNIT – II Fundamentals of Logic: 7 H o ur s

 Basic Connectives and Truth Tables,

 Logic Equivalence
 The Laws of Logic,
 Logical Implication
 Rules of Inference

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES 10CS34

UNIT II 7 H ours

Fundamentals of Logic

Introduction:
Propositions:

A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false (but not b oth). For
instance, the following are prop ositions: “Paris is in France” (true), “London is in
Denmark” (false), “2 < 4” (true), “4 = 7 (false)”. However the following are not
prop ositions: “what is your name?” (this is a question), “do your homework” (this
is a command), “this sentence is false” (neither true nor false), “x is an even
number” (it dep ends on what x represents), “Socrates” (it is not even a sentence).
The truth or falseho o d of a prop osition is called its truth value.
Basic Connectives and Truth Tables:

Connectives are used for making compound propositions. The main ones are
the following (p and q represent given prop ositions):

Name Represented Meaning

Negation ¬p “not p”
Conjunction p∧q “p and q”
Disjunction p ∨q “p or q (or b oth)”
E x cl u s i v e O r p⊕q “either p or q, but not b oth”
Implication p→q “if p then q”
Biconditional p↔q “p if and only if q”

The truth value of a comp ound prop osition depends only on the value of its
components. Writing F for “false” and T for “true”, we can summarize the meaning
o f t h e c o n n e c t i v e s i n t h e fo l l o w i n g w a y :

p q ¬p p∧q p∨q p⊕q p →p ↔ q

T T F T T F T T
T F F F T T F F
F T T F T T T F
F F T F F F T T

Note that ∨ represents a non-exclusive or, i.e., p ∨ q is true when any of p, q is true

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and also when b oth are true. On the other hand ⊕ represents an exclusive or, i.e., p
⊕ q is true only when exactly one of p and q is true.

Tautology, Contradiction, Contingency:

1. A prop osition is said to be a tautology if its truth value is T for any assignment of
truth values to its components. Example : The proposition p ∨ ¬p is a tautology.

2. A prop osition is said to be a contradiction if its truth value is F for any assignment
of truth values to its components. Example : The proposition p ∧ ¬p is a contradiction.

3. A prop osition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is called a

contingency.

p ¬p p ∨ ¬p p ∧ ¬p
T F T F
T F T F
F T T F
F T T F

✻ ✻
tautology contradiction

Conditional Propositions: A prop osition of the form “if p then q” or “p implies

q”, represented “p → q” is called a conditional proposition. For instance: “if John is
from Chicago then John is from Illinois”. The prop osition p is called hypothesis or
antecedent, and the proposition q is the conclusion or consequent.

Note that p → q is true always except when p is true and q is false. So, the following
sentences are true: “if 2 < 4 then Paris is in France” (true → true), “if London is
in Denmark then 2 < 4” (false → true),

“if 4 = 7 then London is in Denmark” (false → false). However the following one

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES 10CS34

is false: “if 2 < 4 then London is in Denmark” (true → false).

In might seem strange that “p → q” is considered true when p is false, regardless

of the truth value of q. This will b ecome clearer when we study predicates such as “if
x is a multiple of 4 then x is a multiple of 2”. That implication is obviously true,
although for the particular
case x = 3 it b ecomes “if 3 is a multiple of 4 then 3 is a multiple of 2”.

The prop osition p ↔ q, read “p if and only if q ”, is called bicon- ditional. It is true
precisely when p and q have the same truth value, i.e., they are both true or b oth
false.

Logical Equivalence: Note that the compound prop osi- tions

p → q and ¬p ∨ q have the same truth values:

p q ¬p ¬p ∨ q p →
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T

When two comp ound prop ositions have the same truth values no matter what trut h
value their constituent propositions have, they are called logical ly equivalent. For
instance p → q and ¬p ∨ q are logically equivalent, and we write it:

p → q ≡ ¬p ∨ q

Note that that two prop ositions A and B are logically equivalent precisely when A ↔
B is a tautology.

Example : De Morgan’s Laws for Logic. The following prop ositions are logically
eq u i v a l en t :

¬(p ∨ q) ≡ ¬p ∧ ¬q
¬(p ∧ q) ≡ ¬p ∨ ¬q

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES 10CS34

p q ¬p ¬q p∨q ¬(p ∨ q) ¬p ∧ ¬q p ∧q ¬(p ∧ q) ¬p ∨ ¬q

T T F F T F F T F F
T F F T T F F F T T
F T T F T F F F T T
F F T T F T T F T T

Example : The following propositions are logically equivalent:

p ↔ q ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p)

Again, this can be checked with the truth tables:

p q p →q →(p → q) ∧ (qp ↔ q
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T T F F F
F F T T T T

Exercise : Check the following logical equivalences:

¬(p → q) ≡ p ∧ ¬q
p → q ≡ ¬ q → ¬p
¬(p ↔ q) ≡ p ⊕ q

Converse, Contrapositive: The converse of a conditional prop osition p → q is

the proposition q → p. As we have seen, the bi- conditional proposition is
equivalent to the conjunction of a conditional proposition an its converse.

p ↔ q ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p)

So, for instance, saying that “John is married if and only if he has a sp ouse” is the
same as saying “if John is married then he has a sp ouse” and “if he has a sp ouse then
he is married”.

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Note that the converse is not equivalent to the given conditional prop osition, for
instance “if John is from Chicago then John is from Illinois” is true, but the converse
“if John is from Illinois then John is from Chicago” may be false.
The contrapositive of a conditional prop osition p → q is the propo- sition ¬q →
¬p. They are logically equivalent. For instance the con- trap ositive of “if John is
from Chicago then John is from Illinois” is “if
John is not from Illinois then John is not from Chica go”.
LOGICAL CONNECTIVES: New propositions are obtained with the aid of word
or phrases like “not”,”and”,”if….then”,and “if and only if”. Such words or phrases are
called logical connectives. The new propositions obtained by the use of connectives are
called compound propositions. The original propositions from which a compound
proposition is obtained are called the components or the primitives of the compound
proposition. Propositions which do not contain any logical connective are called simple
propositions

NEGATION: A Proposition obtained by inserting the word “not” at an appropriate place

in a given proposition is called the negation of the given proposition. The negation of a
proposition p is denoted by ~p(read “not p”)

Ex: p: 3 is a prime number

~p: 3 is not a prime number

Truth Table: p ~p

0 1
1 0
CONJUNCTION:
A compound proposition obtained by combining two given propositions by inserting the
word “and” in between them is called the conjunction of the given proposition.The
conjunction of two proposition p and q is denoted by p^q(read “p and q”).
• The conjunction p^q is true only when p is true and q is true; in all other cases it is
false.
• Ex: p:√2 is an irational number q: 9 is a prime number
p^q: √2 is an irational number and 9 is a prime number
• Truth table: p q p^q
0 0 0
0 1 0

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1 0 0
1 1 1

DISJUNCTION:

A compound proposition obtained by combining two given propositions by inserting the

word “or” in between them is called the disjunction of the given proposition.The
disjunction of two proposition p and q is denoted by p�q(read “p or q”).

• The disjunction p�q is false only when p is false and q is false ; in all other cases it
is true.

• Ex: p:√2 is an irational number q: 9 is a prime number

p�q : √2 is an irational number or 9 is a prime number Truth table:

• p
q p�q
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
EXCLUSIVE DISJUNCTION:

• The compound proposition “p or q” to be true only when either p is true or q is true

but not both. The exclusive or is denoted by symbol v.

• Ex: p:√2 is an irrational number q: 2+3=5

Pvq: Either √2 is an irrational number or 2+3=5 but not both.

• Truth Table:

p q pvq
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
CONDITIONAL(or IMPLICATION):

• A compound proposition obtained by combining two given propositions by using

the words “if” and “then” at appropriate places is called a conditional or an implication..

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• Given two propositions p and q, we can form the conditionals “if p, then q” and “if
q, then p:. The conditional “if p, then q”is denoted by p→q and the conditional “if q, then
p” is denoted by q →p.

• The conditional p→q is false only when p is true and q is false ;in all other cases it
is true.

• Ex: p: 2 is a prime number q: 3 is a prime number

p→q: If 2 is a prime number then 3 is a prime number; it is true

• Truth Table:

p q p→q
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 1

BICONDITIONAL:

• Let p and q be two propositions,then the conjunction of the conditionals p→q and
q→p is called bi-conditional of p and q. It is denoted by p↔q.

• p↔q is same as (p→q)�( q→p ). As such p↔q is read as “ if p then q and if q

then p”.

• Ex: p: 2 is a prime number q: 3 is a prime number p↔q are true.

Truth Table: p q p→q q→p p↔q

0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1

COMBINED TRUTH TABLE

P q ~p p^q p�q pvq p→q p↔q

0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

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1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
TAUTOLOGIES; CONTRADICTIONS:

A compound proposition which is always true regardless of the truth values of its
components is called a tautology.

A compound proposition which is always false regardless of the truth values of its
components is called a contradiction or an absurdity.

A compound proposition that can be true or false (depending upon the truth values of its
components) is called a contingency I.e contingency is a compound proposition which is
neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE

• Two propositions ‘u’ and ‘v’ are said to be logically equivalent whenever u and v
have the same truth value, or equivalently .

• Then we write u�v. Here the symbol �stands for “logically equivalent to”.

• When the propositions u and v are not logically equivalent we write u�v.

L A W S O F L O G I C:

To denote a tautology and To denotes a contradiction.

• Law of Double negation: For any proposition p,(~~p)�p

• Idempotent laws: For any propositions p, 1) (p�p) �p 2) (p�p) �p

• Identity laws: For any proposition p, 1)(p�Fo) �p 2)(p�To) �p

• Inverse laws: For any proposition p, 1) (p ��p) �To 2)(p�~p)�Fo

• Commutative Laws: For any proposition p and q, 1)(p�q)�(q�p) 2)(p�q)�(q�p)

• Domination Laws: For any proposition p, 1) (p�To) �To 2) (p�Fo) �Fo

• Absorption Laws: For any proposition p and q,1) [p� (p�q)] �p 2)[p� (p�q)] �p

• De-Morgan Laws: For any proposition p and q, 1)~ (p�q)��p��q 2)

�(p�q)��p ��q

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• Associative Laws : For any proposition p ,q and r, 1) p � (q � r) �(p �q) �r 2)

p�(q�r)�(p�q) �r

• Distributive Laws: For any proposition p ,q and r, 1) p � (q � r) � (p �q) � (p �r )

2) p�(q�r)� (p�q) � (p�r)

• Law for the negation of a conditional : Given a conditional p→q, its negation is
obtained by using the following law: �(p→q)�[p�(�q)]

NOTE:

• ~ (p�q)≡ �p��q

• �(p�q) ≡ �p ��q

• �(p→q) ≡ [p�(�q)]

• (p→q) ≡ � � (p→q) ≡ �[p�(�q)] ≡�p �q

TRANSITIVE AND SUBSTITUTION RULES If u,v,w are propositions such that u�v
and v �w, then u �w. (this is transitive rule)

• Suppose that a compound proposition u is a tautology and p is a component of u,

we replace each occurrence of p in u by a proposition q, then the resulting compound
proposition v is also a tautology(This is called a substitution rule).

• Suppose that u is a compound proposition which contains a proposition p. Let q be

a proposition such that q �p , suppose we replace one or more occurrences of p by q and
obtain a compound proposition v. Then u �v (This is also substitution rule)

APPLICATION TO SWITCHING NETWORKS

• If a switch p is open, we assign the symbol o to it and if p is closed we assign the

symbol 1 to it.

• Ex: current flows from the terminal A to the terminal B if the switch is closed i.e if
p is assigned the symbol 1. This network is represented by the symbol p

A P B

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• Ex: parallel network consists of 2 switches p and q in which the current flows from
the terminal A to the terminal B , if p or q or both are closed i.e if p or q (or both) are
assigned the symbol 1. This network is represent by p�q

Ex: Series network consists of 2 switches p and q in which the current flows from
the terminal A to the terminal B if both of p and q are closed; that is if both p and q are
assigned the symbol 1. This network is represented by p�q

DUALITY:

Suppose u is a compound proposition that contains the connectives � and �. Suppose we

replace each occurrence of � and � in u by � and � respectively.

Also if u contains To and Fo as components, suppose we replace each occurrence of To

and Fo by Fo and To respectively, then the resulting compound proposition is called the
dual of u and is denoted by ud.

Ex: u: p �(q � �r) � (s � To) ud: p � (q �� r) � (s � Fo)

NOTE:

• (ud)d �u. The dual of the dual of u is logically equivalent to u.

• For any two propositions u and v if u �v, then ud �vd . This is known as the
principle of duality.

The connectives NAND and NOR

(p ↑q)= �(p � q) � � p � � q

(p ↓q)= �(p � q) � � p � � q

CONVERSE,INVERSE AND CONTRAPOSITIVE

Consider a conditional (p→q) , Then :

1) q→p is called the converse of p→q

2) �p→�q is called the inverse of p→q

3) �q→�p is called the contrapositive of p→q

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RULES OF INFERENCE:

There exist rules of logic which can be employed for establishing the validity of arguments
. These rules are called the Rules of Inference.

1) Rule of conjunctive simplification: This rule states that for any two propositions p
and q if p�q is true, then p is true i.e (p�q )�p.

2) Rule of Disjunctive amplification: This rule states that for any two proposition p
and q if p is true then p�q is true i.e p�(p �q)

3) 3) Rule of Syllogism: This rule states that for any three propositions p,q r if p→q is
true and q→r is true then p→r is true. i.e {(p→q)�(q→)} �(p →r) In tabular form:
p→q q→r � (p →r)

4) 4) Modus pones(Rule of Detachment): This rule states that if p is true and p→q
is true, then q is true, ie {p �(p→q )} �q. Tabular form
p p→q �q

5) Modus Tollens: This rule states that if p→q is true and q is false, then p is false.
{(p→q)��q}�q Tabular form: p→q
�q ��p

6) Rule of Disjunctive Syllogism: This rule states that if p�q is true and p is false,
then q is true i.e. {(p�q)��p}�q Tabular Form p�q
�p �q

QUANTIFIERS:

1. The words “ALL”,”EVERY”,”SOME”,”THERE EXISTS” are called quantifiers in

the proposition

2. The symbol � is used to denote the phrases “FOR ALL”,”FOR EVERY”,”FOR

EACH” and “FOR ANY”.this is called as universal quantifier.

3. � is used to denote the phrases “FOR SOME”and “THERE EXISTS”and “FOR

ATLEAST ONE”.this symbol is called existential quantifier.

A proposition involving the universal or the existential quantifier is called a quantified

statement

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE:
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1. � x,[p(x)�q(x)]�(�x p(x))�(�x,q(x))

2. � x, [p(x)�q(x)]�(�x p(x)) �(�x,q(x))

3. � x, [p(x)→q(x)] ��x ,[�p(x)�q(x)]

RULE FOR NEGATION OF A QUANTIFIED STATEMENT:

�{�x,p(x)}≡�x{�p(x)} �{�x,p(x)}≡�x{�p(x)}

RULES OF INTERFERENCE:

1. RULE OF UNIVERSAL SPECIFICATION

2. RULE OF UNIVERSAL GENERALIZATION

If an open statement p(x) is proved to be true for any (arbitrary)x chosen from a set S,
then the quantified statement �x€S, p(x) is true.

METHODS OF PROOF AND DISPROOF:

1.DIRECT PROOF:

The direct method of proving a conditional p→q has the following lines of argument:

a) hypothesis : First assume that p is true

b) Analysis: starting with the hypothesis and employing the rules /laws of
logic and other known facts , infer that q is true

c) Conclusion:p→q is true.

2. INDIRECT PROOF:

Condition p→q and its contrapositive �q→�p are logically equivalent. On basis of this
proof, we infer that the conditional p→q is true. This method of proving a conditional is
called an indirect method of proof.

3.PROOF BY CONTRADICTION

The indirect method of proof is equivalent to what is known as the proof by contradiction.
The lines of argument in this method of proof of the statement p→q are as follows:
1) Hypothesis: Assume that p→q is false i.e assume that p is true and q is
false.
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2)Analysis: starting with the hypothesis that q is false and employing the rules of
logic and other known facts , infer that p is false. This contradicts the assumption that p is
true

3)Conculsion: because of the contradiction arrived in the analysis , we infer that

p→q is true

4.PROOF BY EXHAUSTION:

“�x €S,p(x)” is true if p(x)is true for every (each) x in S.If S consists of only a limited
number of elements , we can prove that the statement “�x €S,p(x)” is true by considering
p(a) for each a in S and verifying that p(a) is true .such a method of prove is called method
of exhaustion.

5.PROOF OF EXISTENCE:

“�x €S,p(x)” is true if any one element a € S such that p(a) is true is exhibited. Hence , the
best way of proving a proposition of the form “�x €S,p(x)” is to exhibit the existence of
one a€S such that p(a) is true. This method of proof is called proof of existence.

6.DISPROOF BY CONTRADICTION :

Suppose we wish to disprove a conditional p→q. for this propose we start with the
hypothesis that p is true and q is true, and end up with a contradiction. In view of the
contradiction , we conclude that the conditional p→q is false.this method of disproving
p→q is called DISPROOF BY CONTRADICTION

7.DISPROOF BY COUNTER EXAMPLE:

“�x €S,p(x)” is false if any one element a€S such that p(a) is false is exhibited hence the
best way of disproving a proposition involving the universal quantifiers is to exhibit just
one case where the proposition is false. This method of disproof is called DISPROOF BY
COUNTER EXAMPLE

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UNIT – III Fundamentals of Logic contd.: 6 H o ur s

 The Use of Quantifiers

 Quantifiers
 Definitions and
 Proofs of Theorems

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Unit III 6 H ours

Fundamentals of Logic contd.:

Predicates, Quantifiers

Predicates:
A predicate or propositional function is a state- ment containing variables. For instance
“x + 2 = 7”, “X is American”, “x < y”, “p is a prime numb er” are predicates. The
truth value of the predicate dep ends on the value assigned to its variables. For instance
if we replace x with 1 in the predicate “x + 2 = 7” we obtain “1 + 2 = 7”, which is false,
but if we replace it with 5 we get “5 + 2 = 7”, which is true. We represent a
predicate by a letter followed by the variables enclosed b etween parenthesis: P (x),
Q(x, y), etc. An example for P (x) is a value of x for which P (x) is true. A
counterexample is a value of x for which P (x) is false. So, 5 is an example for “x + 2
= 7”, while 1 is a counterexample.

Each variable in a predicate is assumed to b elong to a universe (or domain) of

discourse, for instance in the predicate “n is an o dd integer”
’n’ represents an integer, so the universe of discourse of n is the set of all integers. In
“X is American” we may assume that X is a human b eing, so in this case the
universe of discourse is the set of all human beings.1

Quantifiers:
Given a predicate P (x), the statement “for some x, P (x)” (or “there is some x
such that p(x)”), represented “∃x P (x)”, has a definite truth value, so it is a
prop osition in the usual sense. For instance if P (x) is “x + 2 = 7” with the integers
as
universe of discourse, then ∃x P (x) is true, since there is indeed an integer, namely
5, such that P (5) is a true statement. However, if
Q(x) is “2x = 7” and the universe of discourse is still the integers, then ∃x Q(x) is
false. On the other hand, ∃x Q(x) would be true if we extend the universe of
discourse to the rational numb ers. The symbol
∃ is called the existential quantifier.

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Analogously, the sentence “for all x, P (x)”—also “for any x, P (x)”, “for every x, P (x)”,
“for each x, P (x)”—, represented “∀x P (x)”, has a definite truth value. For instance,
if P (x) is “x + 2 = 7” and the
universe of discourse is the integers, then ∀x P (x) is false. However if Q(x) represents

“(x + 1)2 = x2 + 2x + 1” then ∀x Q(x) is true. The symb ol ∀ is called the universal
quantifier.

In predicates with more than one variable it is p ossible to use several quantifiers at the
same time, for instance ∀x∀y∃z P (x, y , z ), meaning “for all x and all y there is some z
such that P (x, y, z)”.

Note that in general the existential and universal quantifiers cannot be swapp ed, i.e.,
in general ∀x∃y P (x, y) means something different from ∃y∀x P (x, y). For instance if
x and y represent human b eings and P (x, y) represents “x is a friend of y”, then ∀x∃y
P (x, y) means that everyb o dy is a friend of someone, but ∃y∀x P (x, y) means that
there is someone such that everybo dy is his or her friend.

A predicate can be partially quantified, e.g. ∀x∃y P (x, y, z, t). The variables quantified
(x and y in the example) are called bound variables, and the rest (z and t in the
example) are called free variables. A
partially quantified predicate is still a predicate, but dep ending on
fe w e r v a ri ab l es .

Generalized De Morgan Laws for Logic:

If ∃x P (x) is false then there is no value of x for which P (x) is true, or in other
words, P (x) is always false. Hence

¬∃x P (x) ≡ ∀x ¬P (x) .

On the other hand, if ∀x P (x) is false then it is not true that for every x, P (x) holds,
hence for some x, P (x) must be false. Thus:

¬∀x P (x) ≡ ∃x ¬P (x) .

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This two rules can be applied in successive steps to find the negation of a more complex
quantified statement, for instance:

¬∃x∀y p(x, y) ≡ ∀x¬∀y P (x, y) ≡ ∀x∃y ¬P (x, y) .

Exercise : Write formally the statement “for every real number there is a greater real
number”. Write the negation of that statement.

Answer : The statement is: ∀x ∃y (x < y) (the universe of discourse is the real
numbers). Its negation is: ∃x ∀y ¬(x < y), i.e., �x �y (x < y). (Note that among real
numb ers x < y is equivalent to x ≥ y, but formally they are different predicates.)

Proofs

Mathematical Systems, Proofs:

A Mathematical Sys- tem consists of:
1. Axioms : propositions that are assumed true.
2. Definitions : used to create new concepts from old ones.
3. Undefined terms : corresp onding to the primitive concepts of the s ystem (for instance
in set theory the term “set” is undefined).

A theorem is a proposition that can be proved to be true. An

argument that establishes the truth of a proposition is called a proof.

Example : Prove that if x > 2 and y > 3 then x + y > 5.

Answer : Assuming x > 2 and y > 3 and adding the inequalities term by term we
get: x + y > 2 + 3 = 5.

That is an example of direct proof. In a direct pro of we assume the hyp othesis together
with axioms and other theorems previously proved and we derive the conclusion from
them.

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An indirect proof or proof by contrapositive consists of proving the contrapositive of

the desired implication, i.e., instead of proving p → q we prove ¬q → ¬p.

Example : Prove that if x + y > 5 then x > 2 or y > 3.

Answer : We must prove that x + y > 5 → (x > 2) � (y > 3). An indirect proof
consists of proving ¬((x > 2) � (y > 3)) → ¬(x + y > 5). In fact: ¬((x > 2) � (y > 3))
is the same as (x ≤ 2) �(y ≤ 3), so adding b oth inequalities we get x + y ≤ 5, which is the
same as ¬(x + y > 5).

Proof by Contradiction. In a proof by contradiction or (Reductio ad Absurdum ) we

assume the hyp otheses and the negation of the conclu- sion, and try to derive a
contradiction, i.e., a prop osition of the form r � ¬r.

Example : Prove by contradiction that if x + y > 5 then either x > 2 or y > 3.

Answer : We assume the hypothesis x + y > 5. From here we must conclude that x >
2 or y > 3. Assume to the contrary that “x > 2 or y > 3” is false, so x ≤ 2 and y ≤
3. Adding those inequalities we get
x ≤ 2 + 3 = 5, which contradicts the hypothesis x + y > 5. From here we conclude that
the assumption “x ≤ 2 and y ≤ 3” cannot be right, so “x > 2 or y > 3” must be true.

Remark : Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between an indirect pro of and a proof

by contradiction. In an indirect pro of we prove an implication of the form p → q
by proving the contrap ositive ¬q →¬p. In an proof by contradiction we prove an
statement s (which may or may not be an implication) by assuming ¬s and
deriving a contradiction. In fact pro ofs by contradiction are more general than
indirect proofs.

√
Exercise : Prove by contradiction that 2 is not a rational numb er, i.e., there are no
√
integers a, b such that 2 = a/b.
√ √
Answer : Assume that 2 is rational, i.e., 2 = a/b, where a and b are integers and the
fraction is written in least terms. Squaring both sides we have 2 = a2 /b2 , hence 2 b2
= a2. Since the left hand side is even, then a2 is even, but this implies that a itself is

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even, so a = 2 a!. Hence: 2 b2 = 4 a!2 , and simplifying: b2 = 2 a!2. This implies that
b2 is even, so b is even: b = 2b!. Consequently a/b = 2a! /2b! = a! /b! , contradicting
the hyp othesis that a/b was in least terms.

Arguments, Rules of Inference:

An argument is a se- quence of prop ositions p1 , p2 , . . . , pn called hypotheses (or
premises ) followed by a prop osition q called conclusion. An argument is usuall y
written:
p1
p2
.
pn
�q
or
p 1 , p 2 , . . . , pn / � q

The argument is called valid if q is true whenever p1 , p2 , . . . , pn are true; otherwise it

is called invalid.
Rules of inference are certain simple arguments known to be valid and used to make
a pro of step by step. For instance the following argument is called modus ponens or
rule of detachment :

p→qp
� q

In order to check whether it is valid we must examine the following truth table:

p q p →p q
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T F F
If we look now at the rows in which both p → q and p are true (just the first row) we

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see that also q is true, so the argument is valid.

Other rules of inference are the following:

Arguments are usually written using three columns. Each row con- tains a lab el, a
statement and the reason that justifies the introduction of that statement in the
argument. That justification can be one of the following:

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1. The statement is a premise.

2. The statement can be derived from statements o ccurring earlier in the argument by
using a rule of inference.

Example : Consider the following statements: “I take the bus or I walk. If I walk I
get tired. I do not get tired. Therefore I take the bus.” We can formalize this by
calling B = “I take the bus”, W = “I walk” and T = “I get tired”. The premises are B
� W , W → T a nd
¬T , and the conclusion is B. The argument can be described in the
fo l l o w i n g s t e p s :
step statement reason
W→T
1))
2 ¬T P
P remiise
3) ¬W 1,2, Modus Tollens
4) B �W Premise
5) �B 4,3, Disjunctive Syllogism

Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements:

We state the rules for predicates with one variable, but they can be gener- alized to
predicates with two or more variables.
1. Universal Instantiation. If �x p(x) is true, then p(a) is true for each sp ecific element
a in the universe of discourse; i.e.:
�x p(x)
� p(a)
For instance, from �x (x + 1 = 1 + x) we can derive 7 + 1 = 1 + 7.

2. Existential Instantiation. If �x p(x) is true, then p(a) is true for some sp ecific
element a in the universe of discourse; i.e.:
�x p(x)
� p(a)
The difference resp ect to the previous rule is the restriction in the meaning of a,
which now represents some (not any) element of the universe of discourse. So, for
instance, from �x (x2 = 2) (the universe of discourse is the real numb ers) we derive
√ √
the existence of some element, which we may represent ± 2, such that (± 2)2 = 2.

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3. Universal Generalization. If p(x) is proved to be true for a generic

element in the universe of discourse, then �x p(x) is true; i.e.:
p(x)
� �x p(x)
By “generic” we mean an element for which we do not make any assum ption other than
its belonging to the universe of discourse. So, for instance, we can prove �x [(x + 1)2 =
2
x + 2x + 1] (say, for real numb ers) by assuming that x is a generic real number and
using algebra to prove (x + 1)2 = x2 + 2x + 1.

4. Existential Generalization. If p(a) is true for some sp ecific ele- ment a in the
universe of discourse, then �x p(x) is true; i.e.:
p(a)
� �x p(x)
For instance: from 7 + 1 = 8 we can derive �x (x + 1 = 8).

Example : Show that a counterexample can be used to disprove a universal statement,

i.e., if a is an element in the universe of discourse,
then from ¬p(a) we can derive ¬�x p(x). Answer : The argument is as follows:

step statement reason

1) ¬p(a) Premise
2) �x ¬p(x) Existential Generalization
3) ¬�x p(x) Negation of Universal Statement

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UNIT – IV Properties of the Integers: 7 Hours

 Mathematical Induction
 The Well Ordering Principle
 Mathematical Induction
 Recursive Definitions

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES 10CS34

UNIT IV 6 H ours

Properties of the Integers

MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION:

The method of mathematical induction is based on a principle called the induction

principle .

INDUCTION PRINCIPLE:

The induction principle states as follows : let S(n) denote an open statement that involves a
positive integer n .suppose that the following conditions hold ;

1. S(1) is true

2. If whenever S(k) is true for some particular , but arbitrarily chosen k €Z+ , then
S(k+1) is true. Then S(n) is true for all n € Z+ . Z+ denotes the set of all positive
integers .

METHOD OFMATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

Suppose we wish to prove that a certain statement S(n) is true for all integers n ≥1 , the
method of proving such a statement on the basis of the induction principle is calledd the
method of mathematical induction. This method consist of the following two steps,
respectively called the basis step and the induction step

1) Basis step: verify that the statement S(1) is true ; i.e. verify that S(n) is true for n=1.

2) Induction step: assuming that S(k) is true , where k is an integer≥1, show that
S(k+1) is true.

Many prop erties of p ositive integers can be proved by mathematical

induction.
Principle of Mathematical Induction:
Let P b e a prop- erty of p ositive integers such that:

1. Basis Step: P (1) is true, and

2. Inductive Step: if P (n) is true, then P (n + 1) is true.

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Then P (n) is true for all p ositive integers.

Remark : The premise P (n) in the inductive step is called Induction

Hypothesis.

The validity of the Principle of Mathematical Induction is obvious. The basis step
states that P (1) is true. Then the inductive step implies that P (2) is also true. By
the inductive step again we see that P (3) is true, and so on. Consequently the
prop erty is true for all p ositive integers.

Remark : In the basis step we may replace 1 with some other integer m. Then the
conclusion is that the prop erty is true for every integer n greater than or equal to m.

Example : Prove that the sum of the n first odd p ositive integers is
n 2, i . e . , 1 + 3 + 5 + • • • + (2 n — 1 ) ‘ n 2 .

Answer : Let S (n) ‘ 1 + 3 + 5 + • • • + (2n — 1). We want to prove by induction that

for every p ositive integer n, S (n) ‘ n2 .

1. Basis Step: If n ‘ 1 we have S (1) ‘ 1 ‘ 12 , so the prop erty is true for 1.

2. Inductive Step: Assume (Induction Hypothesis ) that the prop- erty is true for some
p ositive integer n, i.e.: S (n) ‘ n2 . We must prove that it is also true for n + 1, i.e., S (n
+ 1) ‘ (n + 1)2 . In fact:

S ( n + 1 ) ‘ 1 + 3 + 5 + • • • + (2 n + 1 ) ‘ S (n ) + 2 n + 1 .

But by induction hypothesis, S (n) ‘ n2 , hence:

S (n + 1) ‘ n2 + 2n + 1 ‘ (n + 1)2 .

This completes the induction, and shows that the property is true for all
positive integers.
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Example : Prove that 2n + 1 ≤ 2m for n ≥ 3.

Answer : This is an example in which the prop erty is not true for all
p ositive integers but only for integers greater than or equal to 3.

1. Basis Step: If n ‘ 3 we have 2n + 1 ‘ 2 • 3 + 1 ‘ 7 and

2m ‘ 23 ‘ 8, so the prop erty is true in this case.

2. Inductive Step : Assume (Induction Hypothesis ) that the prop- erty is

true for some p ositive integer n, i.e.: 2n + 1 ≤ 2m . We must prove that
it is also true for n + 1, i.e., 2(n + 1) + 1 ≤ 2m+1 . By the induction
hypothesis we know that 2n ≤ 2m , and we also have that 3 ≤ 2m if n ≥
3, hence

2(n + 1) + 1 ‘ 2n + 3 ≤ 2m + 2m ‘ 2m+1 .

This completes the induction, and shows that the prop erty is true for all n ≥
3.

Exercise : Prove the following identities by induction:

n (n + 1)
• 1 + 2 + 3 + ••• + n ‘ .
2

n ( n + 1) ( 2n + 1)
• 12 + 22 + 32 + • • • + n2 ‘ 6 .

• 13 + 23 + 33 + • • • + n3 ‘ (1 + 2 + 3 + •• • + n)2.

Strong Form of Mathematical Induction:

Let P be a prop erty of p ositive integers such that:

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1. Basis Step: P (1) is true, and

2. Inductive Step: if P (k) is true for all 1 ≤ k ≤ n then P (n + 1)

is true.

Then P (n) is true for all p ositive integers.

Example : Prove that every integer n ≥ 2 is prime or a pro duct of primes. Answer
:

1. Basis Step: 2 is a prime numb er, so the prop erty holds for
n ‘ 2.

2. Inductive Step: Assume that if 2 ≤ k ≤ n, then k is a prime numb er or a pro duct of

primes. Now, either n + 1 is a prime number or it is not. If it is a prime number
then it verifies the property. If it is not a prime numb er, then it can be written as the
pro duct of two p ositive integers, n + 1 ‘ k1 k2 , such that 1 < k1, k2 < n + 1. By
induction hyp othesis each of k1 and k2 must be a prime or a product of primes,
hence n + 1 is a pro duct of primes.

This completes the proof.

The Well-Ordering Principle

Every nonempty set of p ositive integers has a smallest element.
√ √
Example : Prove that 2 is irrational (i.e., 2 cannot be written as a quotient of two
positive integers) using the well-ordering principle.
√ √
Answer : Assume that 2 is rational, i.e., 2 ‘ a/b, where a and b are integers.
√ 2 2 2
Note that since 2 > 1 then a > b. Now we have 2 ‘ a /b , hence 2 b ‘ a2 .
2
Since the left hand side is even, then a is even, but this implies that a itself is
even, so a ‘ 2 a!. Hence: 2 b2 ‘ 4 a!2 , and simplifying: b2 ‘ 2 a!2 . From here we see
√
that 2 ‘ b/a! .
√
Hence starting with a fractional representation of 2 ‘ a/b we end up with another

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES 10CS34

√
fractional representation 2 ‘ b/a! with a smaller numerator b < a. Repeating the
same argument with the fraction b/a! we get another fraction with an even smaller
√
numerator, and so on. So the set of p ossible numerators of a fraction representing 2
cannot have a smallest element, contradicting the well-ordering principle.
√
Consequently, our assumption that 2 is rational has to be false.
Reccurence relations

Here we look at recursive definitions under a different p oint of view. Rather than
definitions they will be considered as equations that we must solve. The point is
that a recursive definition is actually a def- inition when there is one and only one
ob ject satisfying it, i.e., when the equations involved in that definition have a
unique solution. Also, the solution to those equations may provide a closed-form
(explicit) formula for the ob ject defined.

The recursive step in a recursive definition is also called a recurrence relation. We

will focus on kth-order linear recurrence relations, which are of the form

C0 xm + C1 xm-1 + C2 xm-2 + • • • + Ck xm-k ‘ bm ,

where C0 ‘ O. If bm ‘ O the recurrence relation is called homogeneous. Otherwise it

i s c a l l e d n o n -h o m o g e n e o u s .

The basis of the recursive definition is also called initial conditions of the
recurrence. So, for instance, in the recursive definition of the Fib onacci sequence,
the recurrence is

Fm ‘ Fm-1 + Fm-2

or
Fm — Fm-1 — Fm-2 ‘ O ,
and the initial conditions are

F0 ‘ O, F1 ‘ 1 .

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One way to solve some recurrence relations is by iteration, i.e., by using the
recurrence rep eatedly until obtaining a explicit close-form formula. For instance
consider the following recurrence relation:

xm ‘ r xm-1 ( n > O) ; x0 ‘ A .

By using the recurrence rep eatedly we get:

2 3
xm ‘ r xm-1 ‘r xm-2 xm-3 ‘ ••• ‘ r m x0 ‘ A rm ,
‘r

hence the solution is xm ‘ A rm .

In the following we assume that the coefficients C0 , C1, . . . , Ck are constant.

First Order Recurrence Relations. The homogeneous case can be written

in the following way:

xn ‘ r xn—1 (n > O) ; x0 ‘ A .
Its general solution is
xn ‘ A rn ,
which is a geometric sequence with ratio r.

The non-homogeneous case can be written in the following way:

xn ‘ r xn—1 + cn (n > O) ; x0 ‘ A .
Using the summation notation, its solution can be expressed like this:
n
X
xn ‘ A rn + ck rn—k .
k =1

We examine two particular cases. The first one is

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xn ‘ r xn—1 + c (n > O ); x0 ‘ A .
where c is a constant. The solution is
n rn
X if r ‘ 1 ,
xn ‘ A r n + c rn—k ‘ A rn —1
r—
+c
1
k =1
and

xn ‘ A + c n if r ‘ 1 .

Example : Assume that a country with currently 1OO million people has a
p opulation growth rate (birth rate minus death rate) of 1% p er year, and it also
receives 1OO thousand immigrants per year (which are quickly assimilated and
reproduce at the same rate as the native population). Find its population in 1O
years from now. (Assume that all the immigrants arrive in a single batch at the
end of the year.)

Answer : If we call xn ‘ population in year n from now, we have:

xn ‘ 1.O1 xn—1 + 1OO, OOO (n > O ); x0 ‘ 1OO, OOO, OOO .

This is the equation above with r ‘ 1.O1, c ‘ 1OO, OOO and A ‘
1OO, OOO, OO, hence:
1.O1n — 1
xn ‘ 1OO, OOO, OOO • 1.O1n + 1OO, OOO 1.O1 — 1
‘ 1 O O, + 1OOO (1.O1n — 1) .
O O O, So:
OOO • 462, 317 .
1.O1n

The second particular case is for r ‘ 1 and cm ‘ c + d n, where c

and d are constant (so cm is an arithmetic sequence):

xm ‘ xm—1 + c + d n (n > O) ; x0 ‘ A .

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The solution is now

m
X d n ( n + 1)
xm ‘A+ (c + d k) ‘ A + c n + .
k =1 2

Second Order Recurrence Relations. Now we lo ok at the recurrence

relation

C0 xm + C1 xm—1 + C2 xm—2 ‘ O .

First we will lo ok for solutions of the form xm ‘ c rm . By plugging in the

eq u a t i o n w e g e t :

C0 c rm + C1 c rm—1 + C2 c rm—2 ‘ O ,

hence r must be a solution of the following equation, called the char-

acteristic equation of the recurrence:

C0 r 2 + C1 r + C2 ‘ O .

Let r1 , r2 be the two (in general complex) ro ots of the ab ove equation. They
are called characteristic roots. We distinguish three cases:

1. Distinct Real Roots. In this case the general solution of the

recurrence relation is

x m ‘ c1 r m + c2 r m ,
1 2

where c1 , c2 are arbitrary constants.

2. Double Real Root. If r1 ‘ r2 ‘ r, the general solution of the

recurrence relation is

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES 10CS34

xm ‘ c 1 rm + c 2 n r m ,

where c1 , c2 are arbitrary constants.

3. Complex Roots. In this case the solution could be expressed in the

same way as in the case of distinct real ro ots, but in
order to avoid the use of complex numbers we write ri — r eαi ,

r2 — r e—αi , ki — ci + c2, k2 — (ci — c2) i, which yields:i

xm — ki r m cos nα + k2 r m sin nα .

Example : Find a closed-form formula for the Fib onacci sequence defined
by:
Fm+i — Fm + Fm—i ( n > 0) ; F0 — 0, Fi — 1 .
Answer : The recurrence relation can be written
Fm — Fm—i — Fm—2 — 0 .
The characteristic equation is

r2 — r — 1 — 0 .
Its ro ots are:2
√ √
1+ 5 1 — 5
ri — φ — .
2 ; r2 — —φ—i
2
—
They are distinct real ro ots, so the general solution for the recurrence is:
Fm — ci φm + c2 (—φ—i )m .
Using the initial conditions we get the value of the constants:
( √
(n — 0) ci + c2 — 0 ci — 1/ 5
√

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES 10CS34

RECURSIVE DEFINITIONS:
RECURRENCE RELATIONS:- The important methods to express the
recurrance formula in explict form are
1) BACKTRACKING METHOD
2) CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION METHOD

BACKTRACKING METHOD:
This is suitable method for linear non-homogenous recurrence relation of the type
xn= r x n-1 +s
The general method to find explicit formula
xn = r n-1 x1 + s(r n-1-1)/ (r-1) where r≠1 is the general explicit

CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION METHOD:

This is suitable method to find an explicit formula for a linear homogenous
r e c u r r a n c e r e l at i o n

LINEAR HOMOGENOUS RELATION :

A recurrence relation of the type a n = r1 a n-1 +r2 a n-2+…….+ r k a n-k where r i
‘s’ are constants is a linear homogenous recurrence relation (LHRR) of degree k
1) A relation cn = -2 c n-1 is a LHRR of degree 1 .
2) A relation xn = 4 x n-1 + 5 is a linear non HRR because 2nd term in RHS is a
constant . It doesn’t contain x n-2 factor .
3) A relation xn = xn-1 +2x n-2 is a LHRR of degree 2
4) A relation x n = x2 n-1 + x n-2 is a non linear , non HRR because the 1st term in RHS
is a second degree term.

CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION:
a n = r1 a n-1 + r 2 a n-2+…..+ r k a n-k..(1) is a LHRR of degree K .
x k = r1 x k-1 + r2 x k-2+….+r k is called characteristic equation.
• Let a n = r1 a n-1 + r2 a n-2 be LHRR of degree 2. its characteristic equation is x2 =
r1 x + r2 or x 2 –r1 x- r2=0. if the characteristic equation has 2 distinct roots e1 , e2
then the explicit formula of the recurrence relation in a n= u e n 1 + v e n 2 where u
and v depends on the initial values.
• Let an = r1 a n-1 + r2 an-2 be a LHRR of degree 2 . Its characteristic equation is x 2
–r1 x – r2 =0 if the characteristic equation has repeated roots e, then the explicit
formula is an =u e n + v n e n where u and v depends on the initial values.

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES 10CS34

PART – B

UNIT – V Relations and Functions: 7 Hours

 Cartesian Products and Relations

 Functions
 Plain and One-to-One
 Onto Functions
 Stirling Numbers of the Second Kind
 Special Functions
 The Pigeon-hole Principle
 Function Composition and
 Inverse Functions

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES 10CS34

UNIT V 7 Hours

Relations

Introduction

Product set: If A and B are any 2 non-empty sets then the product set of A and B are the
Cartesian product or product of A and B.

A X B = {(a, b) / (a ЄA, b Є B)}

AXB≠BXA

Example: (a) Let, A = {1, 2, 3} B = { a, b }

Then, A X B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)}

B X A = { (a , 1 ), ( a , 2 ), (a , 3 ), (b , 1 ), (b , 2 ), (b , 3 )}

AXB≠BxA

(b) Let, A = {1, 2} B = {a, b} C={x, y}

B X C = {(a, x), (a, y), (b, x), (b, y)}

A X (B X C) = {(1, (a, x)), (1, (a, y)), (1, (b, x)), (1, (b, y)),

(2, (a, x)) (2, (a, y)), (2, (b, x)), (2, (b, y))}

A X B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b)}

(A X B ) X C = { ((1 , a ), x ), ((1 , a ), y ), ((1 , b ), x ), (( 1 , b ), y ),

((2 , a ), x ), ((2 , a ), y ), ((2 , b ), x ), ((2 , b ), y ), }

* R e m a rk s :

a. A X (B X C) = (A X B) X C

b. A X A = A2

c. If R is the set of all real numbers then R x R = R2, set of all points in plane.

d. (a, b) = (c, d) if a = c and b = d

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Partition set: Let 'A' be a non-empty set. A partition of 'A' or quotient set of 'A' is a
collection P of subsets of

'A' such that.

(a) Every element of A belongs to some set in P

(b) If A1 and A2 are any two distinct members of P, then A1 n A2 = ф.

(c) The members of P are called 'blocks' or 'cells'.

Example:

Let,

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} then,

P1 = {{1, 2, 3}, {4}, {5}}

P2 = {{1, 5}, {4, 3}, {2}}

P3 = {{1}, {2}, {3}, {4}, {5}}

Relations: Let A and B be any two non-empty sets. A relation R from a set A to the set B
is a subset of A x B.

If (a, b) Є R then we write a R b, otherwise we write a R b (ie. a not related to b).

Example:

Let,

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, Let R be a relation on A defined as a R b if a<b. R = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1,
4 ), (1 , 5 ) (2 , 3 ), (2 , 4 ), (2 , 5 ), (3 , 4 ), (3 , 5 ), (4 , 5 )}

=> R � A X A.

Domain of R: Dom (R) = {1, 2, 3, 4} � A

Range of R: Ran (R) = {2, 3, 4, 5} � B

Dom (R) = {x ЄA / x R y for some x Є A}

Ran (R) = {y Є B / x R y for some y Є B}

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES 10CS34

R - Relative set: If R is a relation from A to B and if x ЄA then the R relative set of x is

d e fi n e d a s

R(x) = {y ЄB/ x R y}

If A1 � A then the R relative set of A1 is defined as,

R (A1) = {y Є B/x R y for some x Є A1}

= U R(x) for x Є A1

Example:

Let,

A = {a, b, c, d}

R = { (a, a ), (a , b ), (b , c ), (c , a ) (c , b ) (d , a )}

R (a ) = { a, b }

R (b) = {c}

R (c ) = { a, b }

R (d) = {a}

Let,

A1 = {a, c} be a subset of A,

Then, R (A1) = R (a) U R (c)

= {a, b} U {a, b}

= {a, b}

Matrix of a relation / Relation Matrix: Let A = {a1, a2, a3………. am} and B = {b1, b2,
b3...bn} be any two finite sets.

Let R be relation from A to B then the matrix of the relation R is defined as the m x n
matrix,

MR= [Mij]

Where Mij = 1, if (ai, bj) Є R

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES 10CS34

= 0, if (ai, bj) � R

Example:

(a)Let,

A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {x, 4}

R = { (1 , x ) (1 , 4 ), (2 , 4 ) ( 3 , x )}

�10�
Thus,
� �
Mr = �01�
��10��

�1001 �
� �
(b) Given MR = �0110 � . Find Relation R.
��1010 ��

Define set,

A = {a1, a2, a3} and

B = {b1, b2, b3, b4}

R = {(a1, b2) (a1, b4) (a2, b2) (a2, b3) (a3, b1) (a3, b3)}

Digraph of a relation: Let A be a finite set and R be a relation on A. Then R can be

represented pictorially as follows,

(a)Draw a small circle for each element of A and label the circles with the corresponding
element of A. These circles are called "Vertices".

(b)Draw an arrow from ai to aj if ai R aj. These arrows are called "edges".

(c)The resulting picture representing the relation R is called the "directed graph of R" or
"digraph of R".

Example:

(a )L et , A b e eq u al t o t h e s et

A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES 10CS34

R = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2), (4, 3)}

Diagram:
4
1

3
2
The "indegree" of a ЄA is the number of elements b Є A such that b R a.

The "outdegree" of a Є A is the number of elements b Є A such that a R b

Elements In d eg ree Outdegree

1 2 2

2 1 2

3 3 1

4 0 1

(b) If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {1, 4, 6, 8, 9} and R: A → B defined by

a R b if b = a2.Find the domain, Range, and MR

A = {1, 2, 3, 4} B = {1, 4, 6, 8, 9}

R = {(x, y)/x A, y B and y = X2}

R = { (1 , 1 ), (2 , 4 ), (3 , 9 )}

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Domain: Dom (R) = {1, 2, 3}

Range: Ran (R) = {1, 4, 9}

�10000 �
� 01000�
Mr = � �
�00001�
� 00000 �
� �

Properties of a relation:

1. Reflexive: Let R be a relation on a set A.

The "R is reflexive" if (a, a) Є R V a ЄA or a R a, V a Є A.

Example: A = {I, 2, 3}

R = {(1, 1), (2, 2) (1, 2), (3, 2) (3, 3)}

Therefore, R is reflexive.

A relation R on a set A is "non-reflexive" if ‘a’ is not relation to ‘a’ for some a ЄA or (a,
a ) �R f o r s o m e a Є A

A = {1, 2, 3}

R = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)} => (2, 2) �R

Therefore, R is not-reflexive.

2. Irreflexive: A relation R on a set A is irreflexive if a R a, V a Є A.

Example: R = {(1, 2) (2, 1) (3, 2) (3, 1)}

(1, 1), (2, 2) (3, 3) �R hence R is irreflexive.

A relation R on a set A is “not irreflexive” if ‘a’ is not Relation to ‘a’ for some a Є A.

Example: R= {(1, 1) (1, 2) (2, 1) (3, 2) (3, 1)}

(1, 1) Є R hence R is “not irreflexive”.

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3. Symmetric Relation: Let R be a relation on a set A, then R is “symmetric” if

whenever a R b, then b R a; V a Є A, b Є A.

Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and R = {(1, 1) (1, 2) (2, 1) (3, 2) (2, 3)}

Therefore, R is symmetric.

A relation R on a set A is said to be "not symmetric" if a R b and b R a for some a, b Є A.

Example: A = {1, 2, 3} and R = {(1, 2) (3, 2) (1, 3) (2, 1) (2, 3)}

Therefore, R is not symmetric.

4. Asymmetric: Let R be a relation on a set A then R is “Asymmetric”, if whenever a R

b then b R a, V a, b Є A.

R = { (1 , 2 ), (1 , 3 ) (3 , 2 )}

Therefore, R is asymmetric.

A relation R on a set A is said to be "not Asymmetric" if a R b and b R a for some a, b

ЄA R = {(1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (3, 2)}

R is not symmetric.

5. Anti – symmetric: Let R be a relation on a set A, then R is anti symmetric if whenever

a R b and b R a then a = b (for some a, b Є A)

Example: Let, A = {1, 2, 3} and R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (3, 2)}

R is anti-symmetric Є 1R1 and 1 = 1.

Example: R = { (1 , 2 ) (2 , 1 )}

1R2, 2R1 but 2 = 1 hence R is not anti symmetric.

6. Transitive Property: Let R be a relation on a set A, then R is transitive if whenever a

R b and b R c, then a R c V a, b, c Є ¸ A.

Example: Let, A = {1, 2, 3} and R = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 1) (2, 1), (3, 3)} (all should
satisfy)

Equivalence relation: A Relation R is said to be an equivalence relation if it is,

(a) Reflexive

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(b) Symmetric and

(c) Transitive.

Therefore, R is an equivalence Relation.

Symmetric: Let a R b

=> Є 1R2

2 is not Related to 1 and also b is not Related to a

Hence, R is not symmetric

Transitive: Let a R b and b R c

=> 1 R 2 and 2 R 3 but, 1 is not Related to 3 and

also a is not Related to c

Hence, R is not transitive.

Therefore, R is not an equivalence Relation.

b. R = {(1, 2), (2, 1) (1, 3) (3, 1) (2, 3) (3, 2)}

Reflexive: a R a V a Є A

= > 1 R1 , 2 R 2 , 3 R 3 not true,

Hence, R is not reflexive

Symmetric: Let a R b

=> 1 R 3

=> 3 R 1

=> b R a

Hence, R is symmetric.

Transitive: Let a R b and b R c

= > 1 R 2 an d 2 R 3

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=> 1 R 3

=> a R c

Hence, R is transitive

Therefore, R is not an equivalence Relation.

c. A = {1, 2, 3}

R = A x A = {(1, 1)(1, 2)(1, 3)(2, 1)(2, 2)(2, 3)(3, 1)(3, 2)(3, 3)}

It is reflexive, symmetric and transitive and hence R is an equivalence

Relation.

Theorem: "Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A, and P be the collection of all

distinct R - relative set of A. Then P is a partition of A, and R is the equivalence relation
determined by P"

OR

"Show that an equivalence relation R in a set S which is non-empty, determine a partition

of S"

Proof: Given, P = {R (a) / V a Є A}

We know that V a Є A, we have, a R a

=> (a, a) Є R

=> a Є R (a)

Therefore, for every element of A belongs to one of the sets of P.

If R (a) and R (b) are 2 distinct relative sets R(a) n R(b) = Ф

If possible, let x Є R (a) n R (b)

= > x Є R (a ) an d x Є R (b )

=>a R x and b R x

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=>a R x and x R b (since R is symmetric)

=>a R b (since R is transitive)

=>R (a) = R (b) (b y t h eo re m )

Therefore, If R (a) = R (b), then R (a) n R (b) = Ф.

Therefore, from the above, P is a partition of the set A.

This partition determines the relation R in the sense that a R b if a and b belong to the
same block of the partition.

Hence proved…..

*NOTE: The partition of a set A determined by an equivalence relation R is called the

partition induced by R and is denoted by A/R.

Manipulation of relations:

1. Complement: Let R be a relation from A to B. The complement of R is a relation

defined as a R b if a R~ b, where R~ is the complement of R.

=> (a, b) R~ if (a, b) R~

2. Union: Let R and S be 2 relations from A to B. The union R U S is a relation from A

to B defined as,

a (R U S) b if either a R b or a S b

That is (a, b) Є R U S if either (a, b) Є R or (a, b) Є S.

3. Intersection: Let Rand S be relations from A to B. The intersection R n S is a relation

f r o m A t o B d e fi n e d a s ,

a (R n S) b if a R b and a S b

That is (a, b) Є R n S if (a, b) Є R and (a, b) Є S.

4. Inverse: Let R be a relation from A to B. The inverse R-1 is a relation from B to A

d e fi n e d a s , a R b if b R-1 a

i.e., (a, b) Є R if (b, a) Є R-l

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Composition of relations: Let Rand S be relations from A to Band B to C respectively.

The composition of Rand S is the

relation S o R from A to C defined as,

a(S o R) c if there-exist b E B/a R b and b S c.

R2 =R o R = {(a, a), (a, c) (a, b) (b, a) (b, c) (b, b) (c, a) (c, b) (c, c)}

S2 = S o S = {(a, a) (b, b) (b, c) (b, a) (c, a) (c, c)}

Reflexive closure: Let R be a relation on a set' A'. Suppose R lacks a particular property,
the smallest relation that contain R and which, processes the desired property is called the
closure of R with respective a property in question.

Given a relation R on a set' A' the relation R1 = (A U R) is the "reflexive closure of R”.

Example:

A = {1, 2, 3}

R = {(1, 1)(1,2)(2, 1)(1,3)(3, 2)} find the reflexive closure of R.

Solution: We know that, R is not reflexive because (2, 2) Є Rand (3, 3) Є R.

Now, A= {(1, 1) (2, 2) (3, 3)}

Therefore, R1 = R U A= {(1, 1) (1, 2) (2, 1) (2, 2) (1, 3) (3, 2) (3, 3)}

R1 is the reflexive closure of R.

Symmetric closure : If R is not symmetric then there exists (x, y) A such that (x, y) Є R,
but (y, x) Є R. To make R symmetric we need to add the ordered pairs of R-1.

R1 = R U R-1 is the "symmetric closure of R".

A = {1, 2, 3}

R = {(1, 1) (1, 2) (2, 1) (1, 3) (3, 2)} find the symmetric closure of R.

Solution: We know that, R is not symmetric because (1, 3) Є R but (3, 1) Є R and (3, 2)
Є R but (2, 3) Є R.

E xa m p l e: R-1 = {(1, 1) (2, 1) (1, 2) (3, 1) (2, 3)}

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Therefore, R1 = R U R-l = {(1, 1) (1, 2) (2, 1) (1, 3) (3, 1) (3, 2) (2, 3)}

R1 is called the symmetric closure of R.

Transitive closure: Let R be a relation on a set A the smallest transition relation

containing R is called the "Transitive closure of R".

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UNIT – VI Relations contd.: 7 H o ur s

 Properties of Relations
 Computer Recognition
 Zero-One Matrices
 Directed Graphs
 Partial Orders
 Hasse Diagrams
 Equivalence Relations and
 Partitions

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DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES 10CS34

UNIT VI 7 Hours

Functions

Introduction

A person counting students present in a class assigns a number to each student under
consideration. In this case a correspondence between two sets is established: between
students understand whole numbers. Such correspondence is called functions. Functions
are central to the study of physics and enumeration, but they occur in many other
situations as well. For instance, the correspondence between the data stored in computer
memory and the standard symbols a, b, c... z, 0, 1,...9,? ,!, +... into strings of O's and I's
for digital processing and the subsequent decoding of the strings obtained: these are
functions. Thus, to understand the general use of functions, we must study their
properties in the general terms of set theory, which is will be we do in this chapter.

Definition: Let A and B be two sets. A function f from A to B is a rule that assigned to
each element x in A exactly one element y in B. It is denoted by

f: A → B

Note:

1. The set A is called domain of f.

2. The set B is called domain of f.

Value of f: If x is an element of A and y is an element of B assigned to x, written y =

f(x) and call function value of f at x. The element y is called the image of x under f.

Example: A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B= {a, b, c, d}

R = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c), {4, d)}

S = { (I, b ), ( I, d ), (2 , d )}

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Therefore, R is a function and S is not a function. Since the element 1has two images
band d, S is not a function.

Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} determine whether or not the following relations on A are

functions.

1. f= {(2, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (312), (4, 4)}

(Si n c e el e m en t 2 h as 2 i m ag es 3 an d 1 , f i s n o t a fu n ct i o n . )

2. g={(3,1),(4,2),(1,1)}

g is a function

3. h={(2,1),(3,4),(1,4),(2,1),(4,4)}

h is a function

4. Let A= {0, ±1, ±2, 3}. Consider the function F: A→ R, where R is the set of all real
numbers, defined by f(x) =x3 -2x2 +3x+1 for x�A. Find the range of f.

f (0) =1

f (1 ) = 1 -2 + 3 + 1 = 3

f (-1) =-1-2-3+1=-5

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f (2) =8-8-6+1=7

f (-2) =-8-8-6+1= -21

f (3) =27-18+9+1=19

� Range = {1, 3,-5, 7,-21, 19}

5. If A= {0, ±1, ±2} and f: A→ R is defined by f(x) =x2-x+1, x�A find the range.

f (0) =1

f (1 ) = 1 -1 + 1 = 1

f (-1) =1+1+1=3

f (2 ) = 4 -2 + 1 = 3

f (-2) =4+2+1=7

� R an g e = { 1 , 3 , 7 }

Types of functions:

1. Everywhere defined -2
A function f: A ~ B is everywhere defined if domain of f equal to A (dom f
= A)

Example: Y =f(x) =x+1

Here, dom f=A

2. Onto or surjection function

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A function f: A → B is onto or surjection if Range of f = B. In other words, a function f is

surjection or onto if for any value l in B, there is at least one element x in A for which
f(x) = y.

3. Many to one function

A function F is said to be a many-to-one function if a :f= b, f(a) = f(b), where (a, b) E A.

Example:

Here, 1: f=2 but f (1) = f (2), where 1,2 E A

4. One-to-one function or injection

A function f: A → B is one-to-one or injection if (a) =f (b) then a = b, where a, b E A.

In other words if a: f=b then f (a): f= f (b).

5. Bijection function
A function f: A → B is Bijection if it is both onto and one-to-one.

6. Invertible function

A function f: A ---+ B is said to be an invertible function if its inverse relation, f-I is a

function from B → A.

If f: A → B is Bijection, then [-I: B ---+A exists, f is said to be invertible.

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E xa m p l e: f f-1

A f(aB
) B A
a
f(b)
b f--1(f(a)) a
f(c)
c f--1(f(b)) b

Here f: A  B f -1 B  A

A = {a1, a2, a3} B = {b1, b2, b3} C = { c1, c2} D = {d1, d2, d3, d4}

Let f1: A  B, f2: A  D, f3: B  C, f4: D  B be functions defined as follows,

1. f1 = {(a1, b2) (a2, b3) (a3 ,b1)}

2. f2 = {(a1, d2) (a2, d1) (a3 , d4)}

3. f3 = {(b1, c2 )(b2, c2 ) (b3, c1)}

4. f4 = { (d1, b1 ) (d2, b2 ) (d3,b1)}

Identity function

A function f: A~ A such that f (a) = a, 'if a Є A is called the identity function or identit y
mapping on A. Dom (t) = Ran (t) = A

Constant function

A function f: A  B such that f (a) =c, �a� dom (f) where c is a fixed element of B, is
called a constant function.

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Into function

A function f: A  B is said to be an into function if there exist some b in B which is not

the image of any a in A under f.

3 is not the image of any element.

One-to-one correspondence

If f: A  B is ever ywhere defined and is Bijective, then corresponding to every a�A

there is an unique b�B such that b=f(a) and corresponding to every b�B there is an
unique a�A such that f(a)=b. for this reason a everywhere defined bijection function
from A  B is called as one-one correspondence from A  B

Composition of function

Let f: A (B and g: B (C is any 2 functions, and then the composition of f and g is a

function g o f: A (C defined as, g of (a) =g [f (a)] (C, (a (dom f).

Inverse function
Consider a function f: A (B. Then f is a relation from A to B with Dom (f) (A and Ran (f)
(B. Its inverse, f -1, is a relation from B to A which is such that if whenever (a, b) (f then
(b, a) (f -1)

Also, Dom (f -1) = Ran (f)

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Ran (f -1) =Dom (f) and

(f -1) -1 = f

Definition

A function f: A (B is invertible if it is inverse relation f -1 is a function from B to A.

Then, f -1 is called the inverse function of f.

Ex: let A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {e, f, g, h} and f: A (B be a function defined by

f (a) = =e, f (b) = e, f (c) = h, f (d) = g

Then, as a relation from A to B, f reads

f = {(a, e), (b, e), (c, h), (d, g)}

And f -1 is a relation from B to A, given by

f -1 = {(e, a), (e, b), (h, c), (g, d)}

Now, Dom (f -1) = [e, h, g} = Ran(f) and

Ran (f -1) = {a, b, c, d} = A = Dom (f)

Also, (f -1) -1 = f

Although f -1 is a relation from B to A, it is not function from B to A, because e is related

to two elements ‘a’ and ‘b’ under f -1.

Let A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {5,6,7,8} and the function f: A ( B defined by

f (1 ) = 6 , f(2 ) = = 8 , f(3 ) = 5 , f(4 ) = 7

Then, f = {(1, 6), (2, 8), (3, 5), (4, 7)}

� f -1 = {(6 , 1), (8 , 2), (3 , 5), (7 , 4)}

In this case, f -1 is not only a relation from B to A but a function as well.

Characteristic function

Introduction

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Characteristic function is a special type of function. It is very useful in the field of

computer science. Through this function one can tell whether an element present in the
set or not. If the function has the value 1 then the particular element belongs to the set
and if it has value 0 then the element is not present in the set.

Definition

Associated with the subset a of � we can define a characteristic function of A over � as

f: �→{0, 1} where

fA (x) = 1 if x� A

0 if x� A

Properties of the characteristics function

1. fA n B(x) = f A (x). f B(x)

Proof:

i. if x � AnB then x � A and x � B

� f A (x) = 1 and f B (x) =1

� f AnB (x) = 1 = f A (x). f B (x)

ii. if x� AnB then f AnB (x) = 0. but if x� AnB then x� A and x� B

� f A (x) = 0 and f B (x) =0

� f AnB (x) = 0 = f A (x). f B (x)

� From case 1 and 2

f AnB (x) = f A (x). f B (x)

2. f AUB(x) = f A (x) + f B (x) - f A(x). f B(x)

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Proof:

i. Let x� AUB then f AUB (x) = 1. But if x � AUB then there are three cases
case1: let x � A but not in B then fA (x) = 1 and fB (x)=0 � f AUB (x) = 1 = f A (x)
+ f A (x) - f A (x) . f B (x)

[B e c au s e 1 + 0 + 0 ]

case2: let x � B but not in A

Then fB (x) = 1 and fA (x) = 0

� f AUB (x) = 1 = f A (x) + f B (x) - f A (x) . f B (x)

[B e c au s e 0 + 1 -0 ]

case3: let x � A and x � B

Then fA (x) = 1 and fB (x) = 1

� f AUB (x) = 1 = f A (x) + f B (x) - f A (x) . f B (x)

[B e c au s e 1 + 1 -1 ]

� f AUB (x) = f A (x) + f B (x) - f A (x) . f B (x)

ii. Let x � A U B then fAUB (x) =0

If x � A U B then x � A and x � B then

� fA (x) = 0 and fB (x) = 0

� f AUB (x) = 0 = fA (x) + fB (x) - fA (x) . fB (x)

[b e c au s e 0 + 0 -1 ]

� From case i and ii.

� f AUB (x) = fA (x) + fB (x) - fA (x) . fB (x)

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A symmetric difference is associative on sets

To prove (A � B) � C = A � (B � C) we have to prove

f (A � B) � C (x) = f A � (B � C) (x) �x

LHS = f (A � B) � C

= f (D � C) where D = A � B

= f D+ f c–2 f Df c

= f c + f D (1-2 f c )

= f D + f A � B (1-2 f c)

= f c + (f A + f B - 2 f A f B) (1 – 2 f c)

= f c+ f A+ f B- 2 f A f B- 2 f A f C- 2 f B f C+ 4 f A f B f C

= f A + (f B + f c – 2 f B f C) – 2 f A (f B + f C – 2 f B f C)

= f A + f B + f C - 2 f B f C (1- 2 f A)

= f A + f B�C (1 - 2 f A)

= f A + f B�C - 2 f A f B�C

=fA �(B�C)

= RHS

(A � B) � C = A � (B � C)

Permutation function

A permutation on ‘A’ is a bijection of ‘A’ onto itself. Let ‘A’ = {a1, a2, a3, -----------
an}.Where A is a finite set, if P is a permutation on A then P can be represented as ,

P= a1 a2 a3 ------ -----an

P(a1 ) P(a2 ) P(a3)-------P(an)

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This is called as two line notation of a permutation of A.

NOTE: (a) if |A| =n, then there n! Permutation on A

(b) The composition of two permutations is again a permutation called Product of

permutation.
Cycle

Consider a permutation P of a set A = {a1, a2, a3, --------an}

In this permutation suppose r elements of A say {b1, b2, b3, -------- br} are such that P
(b1) =b2, P (b2) =b3, .....P(br-1 ) =br , P(br ) =b1 , and the remaining elements of A are
images of themselves, Then P is called a cycle of length ‘r’ , and is denoted by (b1, b2,
b3 ……. br).

Example 1:

A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and P(A) = 1 2 3 4

3 2 4 1

P(1 ) = 3 ; P(3 ) = 4 ; P(4 ) = 1

� (1, 3, 4) forms a cycle of length 3.

� In P the elements (1, 3, 4) forms a cycle and ‘2’ remains unchanged.

� P is a cycle of length 3.

Example 2:

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and P = 1 2 3 4 5 6

3 2 4 6 5 1

P(1) = 3; P(3) = 4; P(4) = 6; P(6) = 1

� (1, 3, 4, 6) forms a cycle (2 and 5 remain unchanged)

� P is a cycle of length 4.

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Transposition

A cycle of length 2 is called a “transposition” if A = {a1, a2, a3, ---- an} then P = (ai, aj),
i ≠ j is a transposition of A.

Example:

A = { 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 } co m p u t e

1. (4, 1, 3, 5) o (5, 6, 3) and

2. (5, 6, 3) o (4, 1, 3, 5)

P1 = 1 2 3 4 5 6

3 2 5 1 4 6

P2 = (5, 6, 3) = 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 2 5 4 6 3

P10P2 =

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

3 2 5 1 4 6 1 2 5 4 6 3

2. P2 0 P1 = (5, 6, 3) o (4, 1, 3, 5) = 1 2 3 4 5 6

5 2 6 1 4 3

Even and odd permutations

Example:

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} find whether the following permutation are even or odd

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
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1. P =

P = (1, 3) o (1, 8) o (1, 6) o (1, 4)

� P is an even permutation.

a. P = (4, 8) o (3, 5, 2, 1) o (2, 4, 7, 1)

P = (4, 8) o (3, 1) o (3, 5) o (2, 1) o (2, 7) o (2, 4)

� P is an odd permutation because gn per is expressed as a composition of odd number

of transportation.

Note: Product of even-even permutation is even

Product of even-odd permutation is odd

Product of odd-odd permutation is odd

Even permutation cannot be expressed in terms of odd

Odd permutation cannot be expressed in terms of even.

Hashing function
Introduction

Suppose we want to store the mail address of all voters of a large city in n number of
files, numbered from 0 to n-1 , in such a way that the file containing the address any
chosen voter can be located almost instantly. The following is one way of doing this task
First, to each voter let us assign a unique positive integer as an identification number.
Next, to each identification number, let us assign a unique positive integer called a key.
The keys can be such that two identification numbers can have the same key but two
different keys are not assigned to the same identification number.

Therefore the number of identification number will be equal to the number of voters , but
the number, of keys can be less than the no. of identification number.

Definition

Let A denote the set of all keys and B = {0, 1, 2, ------- (n-1)} , the set of all files.

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Consider an ever ywhere defined function ‘ hn ; hn : A → B specified by hn (a) = r, where

r is the remainder, r= a/n and a � A . This function determines a unique r. for any
specified a � A , this r will be one and only one of the numbers from 0 to n-1 , (both
inclusive).

The function hn is called hashing function. For this function a set of all keys is domain.

NOTE: The key need not be different from the identification number. If the keys are
identical with the identification number, then the domain of the hashing function is the
set of all identification number.

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UNIT – VII Groups: 6 H o ur s

 Definitions,
 Examples,
 Elementary Properties,
 Homomorphisms,
 Isomorphisms, and
 Cyclic Groups,
 Cosets, and
 Lagrange’s Theorem.

Coding Theory and Rings:

 Elements of Coding Theory,

 The Hamming Metric,
 The Parity Check, and
 Generator Matrices

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UNIT VII 6 hrs

GROUPS

Introduction:

Definitions, Examples, and Elementary Properties:

In mathematics, a discrete group is a group G equipped with the discrete topology. With
this topology G becomes a topological group. A discrete subgroup of a topological
group G is a subgroup H whose relative topology is the discrete one. For example, the
integers, Z, form a discrete subgroup of the reals, R, but the rational numbers, Q, do not.

Any group can be given the discrete topology. Since every map from a discrete space is
continuous, the topological homomorphisms between discrete groups are exactly the
group homomorphisms between the underlying groups. Hence, there is an isomorphism
between the category of groups and the category of discrete groups. Discrete groups can
therefore be identified with their underlying (non-topological) groups. With this in mind,
the term discrete group theory is used to refer to the study of groups without topological
structure, in contradistinction to topological or Lie group theory. It is divided, logicall y
but also technically, into finite group theory, and infinite group theory.

There are some occasions when a topological group or Lie group is usefully endowed
with the discrete topology, 'against nature'. This happens for example in the theory of the
Bohr compactification, and in group cohomology theory of Lie groups.

Properties:

Since topological groups are homogeneous, one need only look at a single point to
determine if the group is discrete. In particular, a topological group is discrete if and only
if the singleton containing the identity is an open set.

A discrete group is the same thing as a zero-dimensional Lie group (uncountable discrete
groups are not second-countable so authors who require Lie groups to satisfy this axiom
do not regard these groups as Lie groups). The identity component of a discrete group is
just the trivial subgroup while the group of components is isomorphic to the group itself.

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Since the only Hausdorff topology on a finite set is the discrete one, a finite Hausdorff
topological group must necessarily be discrete. It follows that every finite subgroup of a
Hausdorff group is discrete.

A discrete subgroup H of G is co compact if there is a compact subset K of G such that

HK = G.

Discrete normal subgroups play an important role in the theory of covering groups and
locally isomorphic groups. A discrete normal subgroup of a connected group G
necessarily lies in the center of G and is therefore abelian.

Other properties:

• every discrete group is totally disconnected

• every subgroup of a discrete group is discrete.
• every quotient of a discrete group is discrete.
• the product of a finite number of discrete groups is discrete.
• a discrete group is compact if and only if it is finite.
• every discrete group is locally compact.
• every discrete subgroup of a Hausdorff group is closed.
• every discrete subgroup of a compact Hausdorff group is finite.

Examples:

• Frieze groups and wallpaper groups are discrete subgroups of the isometry group
of the Euclidean plane. Wallpaper groups are cocompact, but Frieze groups are
not.
• A space group is a discrete subgroup of the isometry group of Euclidean space of
some dimension.
• A cr ystallographic group usually means a cocompact, discrete subgroup of the
isometries of some Euclidean space. Sometimes, however, a crystallographic
group can be a cocompact discrete subgroup of a nilpotent or solvable Lie group.
• Every triangle group T is a discrete subgroup of the isometry group of the sphere
(when T is finite), the Euclidean plane (when T has a Z + Z subgroup of finite
index), or the hyperbolic plane.
• Fuchsian groups are, by definition, discrete subgroups of the isometry group of
the hyperbolic plane.
o A Fuchsian group that preserves orientation and acts on the upper half-
plane model of the hyperbolic plane is a discrete subgroup of the Lie
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group PSL(2,R), the group of orientation preserving isometries of the

upper half-plane model of the hyperbolic plane.
o A Fuchsian group is sometimes considered as a special case of a Kleinian
group, by embedding the hyperbolic plane isometrically into three
dimensional hyperbolic space and extending the group action on the plane
to the whole space.
o The modular group is PSL(2,Z), thought of as a discrete subgroup of
PSL(2,R). The modular group is a lattice in PSL(2,R), but it is not
cocompact.
• Kleinian groups are, by definition, discrete subgroups of the isometry group of
hyperbolic 3-space. These include quasi-Fuchsian groups.
o A Kleinian group that preserves orientation and acts on the upper half
space model of hyperbolic 3-space is a discrete subgroup of the Lie group
PSL(2,C), the group of orientation preserving isometries of the upper half-
space model of hyperbolic 3-space.
• A lattice in a Lie group is a discrete subgroup such that the Haar measure of the
quotient space is finite.

Group homomorphism:

Image of a Group homomorphism(h) from G(left) to H(right). The smaller oval inside H
is the image of h. N is the kernel of h and aN is a coset of h.

In mathematics, given two groups (G, *) and (H, ·), a group homomorphism from (G, *)
to (H, ·) is a function h : G → H such that for all u and v in G it holds that

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where the group operation on the left hand side of the equation is that of G and on the
right hand side that of H.

From this propert y, one can deduce that h maps the identity element eG of G to the
identity element eH of H, and it also maps inverses to inverses in the sense that

h(u - 1) = h(u) - 1.

Hence one can say that h "is compatible with the group structure".

Older notations for the homomorphism h(x) may be xh, though this may be confused as an
index or a general subscript. A more recent trend is to write group homomorphisms on
the right of their arguments, omitting brackets, so that h(x) becomes simply x h. This
approach is especially prevalent in areas of group theory where automata play a role,
since it accords better with the convention that automata read words from left to right.

In areas of mathematics where one considers groups endowed with additional structure, a
homomorphism sometimes means a map which respects not only the group structure (as
above) but also the extra structure. For example, a homomorphism of topological groups
is often required to be continuous.

The category of groups

If h : G → H and k : H → K are group homomorphisms, then so is k o h : G → K. This

shows that the class of all groups, together with group homomorphisms as morphisms,
forms a category.

Types of homomorphic maps

If the homomorphism h is a bijection, then one can show that its inverse is also a group
homomorphism, and h is called a group isomorphism; in this case, the groups G and H
are called isomorphic: they differ only in the notation of their elements and are identical
for all practical purposes.

If h: G → G is a group homomorphism, we call it an endomorphism of G. If furthermore

it is bijective and hence an isomorphism, it is called an automorphism. The set of all
automorphisms of a group G, with functional composition as operation, forms itself a
group, the automorphism group of G. It is denoted by Aut(G). As an example, the

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automorphism group of (Z, +) contains only two elements, the identity transformation
and multiplication with -1; it is isomorphic to Z/2Z.

An epimorphism is a surjective homomorphism, that is, a homomorphism which is onto

as a function. A monomorphism is an injective homomorphism, that is, a
homomorphism which is one-to-one as a function.

Homomorphisms of abelian groups

If G and H are abelian (i.e. commutative) groups, then the set Hom(G, H) of all group
homomorphisms from G to H is itself an abelian group: the sum h + k of two
homomorphisms is defined by

(h + k)(u) = h(u) + k(u) for all u in G.

The commutativity of H is needed to prove that h + k is again a group homomorphism.

The addition of homomorphisms is compatible with the composition of homomorphisms
in the following sense: if f is in Hom(K, G), h, k are elements of Hom(G, H), and g is in
Hom(H,L), then

(h + k) o f = (h o f) + (k o f) and g o (h + k) = (g o h) + (g o k).

This shows that the set End(G) of all endomorphisms of an abelian group forms a ring,
the endomorphism ring of G. For example, the endomorphism ring of the abelian group
consisting of the direct sum of m copies of Z/nZ is isomorphic to the ring of m-by-m
matrices with entries in Z/nZ. The above compatibility also shows that the category of all
abelian groups with group homomorphisms forms a preadditive category; the existence of
direct sums and well-behaved kernels makes this category the prototypical example of an
abelian category.

Cyclic group

In group theory, a cyclic group is a group that can be generated by a single element, in
the sense that the group has an element g (called a "generator" of the group) such that,
when written multiplicatively, every element of the group is a power of g (a multiple of g
when the notation is additive).

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Definition

The six 6th complex roots of unity form a cyclic group under multiplication. z is a
primitive element, but z2 is not, because the odd powers of z are not a power of z2.

A group G is called cyclic if there exists an element g in G such that G = <g> = { gn | n is

an integer }. Since any group generated by an element in a group is a subgroup of that
group, showing that the only subgroup of a group G that contains g is G itself suffices to
show that G is cyclic.

For example, if G = { g0, g1, g2, g3, g4, g5 } is a group, then g6 = g0, and G is cyclic. In
fact, G is essentially the same as (that is, isomorphic to) the set { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } with
addition modulo 6. For example, 1 + 2 = 3 (mod 6) corresponds to g1·g2 = g3, and 2 + 5 =
1 (mod 6) corresponds to g2·g5 = g7 = g1, and so on. One can use the isomorphism φ
defined by φ(gi) = i.

For every positive integer n there is exactly one cyclic group (up to isomorphism) whose
order is n, and there is exactly one infinite cyclic group (the integers under addition).
Hence, the cyclic groups are the simplest groups and they are completely classified.

The name "cyclic" may be misleading: it is possible to generate infinitely many elements
and not form any literal cycles; that is, every gn is distinct. (It can be said that it has one
infinitely long c ycle.) A group generated in this way is called an infinite cyclic group,
and is isomorphic to the additive group of integers Z.

Furthermore, the circle group (whose elements are uncountable) is not a cyclic group—a
cyclic group always has countable elements.

Since the cyclic groups are abelian, they are often written additively and denoted Zn.
However, this notation can be problematic for number theorists because it conflicts with

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the usual notation for p-adic number rings or localization at a prime ideal. The quotient
notations Z/nZ, Z/n, and Z/(n) are standard alternatives. We adopt the first of these here
to avoid the collision of notation. See also the section Subgroups and notation below.

One may write the group multiplicatively, and denote it by Cn, where n is the order
(which can be ∞). For example, g3g4 = g2 in C5, whereas 3 + 4 = 2 in Z/5Z.

Properties

The fundamental theorem of cyclic groups states that if G is a cyclic group of order n
then every subgroup of G is cyclic. Moreover, the order of any subgroup of G is a divisor
of n and for each positive divisor k of n the group G has exactly one subgroup of order k.
This property characterizes finite cyclic groups: a group of order n is cyclic if and only if
for every divisor d of n the group has at most one subgroup of order d. Sometimes the
equivalent statement is used: a group of order n is cyclic if and only if for every divisor d
of n the group has exactly one subgroup of order d.

Every finite cyclic group is isomorphic to the group { [0], [1], [2], ..., [n - 1] } of integers
modulo n under addition, and any infinite c yclic group is isomorphic to Z (the set of all
integers) under addition. Thus, one only needs to look at such groups to understand the
properties of cyclic groups in general. Hence, cyclic groups are one of the simplest
groups to study and a number of nice properties are known.

Given a cyclic group G of order n (n may be infinity) and for every g in G,

• G is abelian; that is, their group operation is commutative: gh = hg (for all h in G).
This is so since g + h mod n = h + g mod n.
• If n is finite, then gn = g0 is the identity element of the group, since kn mod n = 0
fo r an y i n t eg e r k .
• If n = ∞, then there are exactly two elements that generate the group on their own:
n am el y 1 an d - 1 f o r Z
• If n is finite, then there are exactly φ(n) elements that generate the group on their
own, where φ is the Euler totient function
• Every subgroup of G is cyclic. Indeed, each finite subgroup of G is a group of { 0,
1, 2, 3, ... m - 1} with addition modulo m. And each infinite subgroup of G is mZ
for some m, which is bijective to (so isomorphic to) Z.
• Gn is isomorphic to Z/nZ (factor group of Z over nZ) since Z/nZ = {0 + nZ, 1 +
nZ, 2 + nZ, 3 + nZ, 4 + nZ, ..., n - 1 + nZ} { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ..., n - 1} under
addition modulo n.
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More generall y, if d is a divisor of n, then the number of elements in Z/n which have
order d is φ(d). The order of the residue class of m is n / gcd(n,m).

If p is a prime number, then the only group (up to isomorphism) with p elements is the
cyclic group Cp or Z/pZ.

The direct product of two cyclic groups Z/nZ and Z/mZ is cyclic if and only if n and m
are coprime. Thus e.g. Z/12Z is the direct product of Z/3Z and Z/4Z, but not the direct
product of Z/6Z and Z/2Z.

The definition immediately implies that cyclic groups have very simple group
presentation C∞ = < x | > and Cn = < x | xn > for finite n.

A primary cyclic group is a group of the form Z/pk where p is a prime number. The
fundamental theorem of abelian groups states that every finitely generated abelian group
is the direct product of finitely many finite primary cyclic and infinite cyclic groups.

Z/nZ and Z are also commutative rings. If p is a prime, then Z/pZ is a finite field, also
denoted by Fp or GF(p). Every field with p elements is isomorphic to this one.

The units of the ring Z/nZ are the numbers coprime to n. They form a group under
multiplication modulo n with φ(n) elements (see above). It is written as (Z/nZ)×. For
example, when n = 6, we get (Z/nZ)× = {1,5}. When n = 8, we get (Z/nZ)× = {1,3,5,7}.

In fact, it is known that (Z/nZ)× is cyclic if and only if n is 1 or 2 or 4 or pk or 2 pk for an

odd prime number p and k ≥ 1, in which case every generator of (Z/nZ)× is called a
primitive root modulo n. Thus, (Z/nZ)× is c yclic for n = 6, but not for n = 8, where it is
instead isomorphic to the Klein four-group.

The group (Z/pZ)× is cyclic with p - 1 elements for every prime p, and is also written
(Z/pZ)* because it consists of the non-zero elements. More generally, every finite
subgroup of the multiplicative group of any field is cyclic.

Examples

In 2D and 3D the symmetry group for n-fold rotational symmetry is Cn, of abstract group
type Zn. In 3D there are also other symmetry groups which are algebraically the same, see
Symmetry groups in 3D that are cyclic as abstract group.

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Note that the group S1 of all rotations of a circle (the circle group) is not cyclic, since it is
not even countable.

The nth roots of unity form a cyclic group of order n under multiplication. e.g., 0 = z3 - 1
= (z - s0)(z - s1)(z - s2) where si = e2πi / 3 and a group of {s0,s1,s2} under multiplication is
cyclic.

The Galois group of every finite field extension of a finite field is finite and cyclic;
conversely, given a finite field F and a finite cyclic group G, there is a finite field
extension of F whose Galois group is G.

Representation

The cycle graphs of finite cyclic groups are all n-sided polygons with the elements at the
vertices. The dark vertex in the cycle graphs below stand for the identity element, and the
other vertices are the other elements of the group. A cycle consists of successive powers
of either of the elements connected to the identity element.

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8

The representation theory of the cyclic group is a critical base case for the representation
theory of more general finite groups. In the complex case, a representation of a cyclic
group decomposes into a direct sum of linear characters, making the connection between
character theory and representation theory transparent. In the positive characteristic case,
the indecomposable representations of the cyclic group form a model and inductive basis
for the representation theory of groups with cyclic Sylow subgroups and more generally
the representation theory of blocks of cyclic defect.

Subgroups and notation

All subgroups and quotient groups of cyclic groups are cyclic. Specifically, all subgroups
of Z are of the form mZ, with m an integer ≥0. All of these subgroups are different, and
apart from the trivial group (for m=0) all are isomorphic to Z. The lattice of subgroups of
Z is isomorphic to the dual of the lattice of natural numbers ordered by divisibility. All
factor groups of Z are finite, except for the trivial exception Z/{0} = Z/0Z. For every

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positive divisor d of n, the quotient group Z/nZ has precisely one subgroup of order d, the
one generated by the residue class of n/d. There are no other subgroups. The lattice of
subgroups is thus isomorphic to the set of divisors of n, ordered by divisibility. In
particular, a cyclic group is simple if and only if its order (the number of its elements) is
prime.

Using the quotient group formalism, Z/nZ is a standard notation for the additive cyclic
group with n elements. In ring terminology, the subgroup nZ is also the ideal (n), so the
quotient can also be written Z/(n) or Z/n without abuse of notation. These alternatives do
not conflict with the notation for the p-adic integers. The last form is very common in
informal calculations; it has the additional advantage that it reads the same way that the
group or ring is often described verbally, "Zee mod en".

As a practical problem, one may be given a finite subgroup C of order n, generated by an

element g, and asked to find the size m of the subgroup generated by gk for some integer
k. Here m will be the smallest integer > 0 such that mk is divisible by n. It is therefore n/m
where m = (k, n) is the greatest common divisor of k and n. Put another way, the index of
the subgroup generated by gk is m. This reasoning is known as the index calculus
algorithm, in number theory.

Endomorphisms

The endomorphism ring of the abelian group Z/nZ is isomorphic to Z/nZ itself as a ring.
Under this isomorphism, the number r corresponds to the endomorphism of Z/nZ that
maps each element to the sum of r copies of it. This is a bijection if and only if r is
coprime with n, so the automorphism group of Z/nZ is isomorphic to the unit group
(Z/nZ)× (see above).

Similarly, the endomorphism ring of the additive group Z is isomorphic to the ring Z. Its
automorphism group is isomorphic to the group of units of the ring Z, i.e. to {-1, +1}
C2.

Virtually cyclic groups

A group is called virtually cyclic if it contains a cyclic subgroup of fi nite index (the
number of cosets that the subgroup has). In other words, any element in a virtually cyclic
group can be arrived at by appl ying a member of the c yclic subgroup to a member in a
certain finite set. Every cyclic group is virtually cyclic, as is every finite group. It is
known that a finitely generated discrete group with exactly two ends is virtually c yclic
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(for instance the product of Z/n and Z). Every abelian subgroup of a Gromov hyperbolic
group is virtually cyclic.

Group isomorphism

In abstract algebra, a group isomorphism is a function between two groups that sets up a
one-to-one correspondence between the elements of the groups in a way that respects the
given group operations. If there exists an isomorphism between two groups, then the
groups are called isomorphic. From the standpoint of group theory, isomorphic groups
have the same properties and need not be distinguished.

Definition and notation

Given two groups (G, *) and (H, ), a group isomorphism from (G, *) to (H, ) is a
bijective group homomorphism from G to H. Spelled out, this means that a group
isomorphism is a bijective function such that for all u and v in G it holds
that

The two groups (G, *) and (H, ) are isomorphic if an isomorphism exists. This is
written:

Often shorter and more simple notations can be used. Often there is no ambiguity about
the group operation, and it can be omitted:

Sometimes one can even simply write G = H. Whether such a notation is possible without
confusion or ambiguity depends on context. For example, the equals sign is not ver y
suitable when the groups are both subgroups of the same group. See also the examples.

Conversely, given a group (G, *), a set H, and a bijection , w e c an m ak e H

a group (H, ) by defining

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If H = G and = * then the bijection is an automorphism (q.v.)

Intuitively, group theorists view two isomorphic groups as follows: For every element g
of a group G, there exists an element h of H such that h 'behaves in the same way' as g
(operates with other elements of the group in the same way as g). For instance, if g
generates G, then so does h. This implies in particular that G and H are in bijective
correspondence. So the definition of an isomorphism is quite natural.

An isomorphism of groups may equivalently be defined as an invertible morphism in the

category of groups.

Examples

• The group of all real numbers with addition, ( ,+), is isomorphic to the group of
+
all positive real numbers with multiplication ( ,×):

via the isomorphism

f(x) = ex

(see exponential function).

• The group of integers (with addition) is a subgroup of , and the factor group
/ is isomorphic to the group S1 of complex numbers of absolute value 1 (with
multiplication):

An isomorphism is given by

for every x in .

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• The Klein four-group is isomorphic to the direct product of two copies of

(see modular arithmetic), and can therefore be written .
Another notation is Dih2, because it is a dihedral group.

• Generalizing this, for all odd n, Dih2n is isomorphic with the direct product of
Dihn and Z2.

• If (G, *) is an infinite cyclic group, then (G, *) is isomorphic to the integers (with
the addition operation). From an algebraic point of view, this means that the set of
all integers (with the addition operation) is the 'only' infinite cyclic group.

Some groups can be proven to be isomorphic, relying on the axiom of choice, while it is
even theoretically impossible to construct concrete isomorphisms. Examples:

• The group ( , +) is isomorphic to the group ( , +) of all complex numbers with

addition.
• The group ( *, ·) of non-zero complex numbers with multiplication as operation
is isomorphic to the group S1 mentioned above.

Properties

• The kernel of an isomorphism from (G, *) to (H, ), is always {eG} where eG is

the identity of the group (G, *)

• If (G, *) is isomorphic to (H, ), and if G is abelian then so is H.

• If (G, *) is a group that is isomorphic to (H, ) [where f is the isomorphism],

then if a belongs to G and has order n, then so does f(a).

• If (G, *) is a locally finite group that is isomorphic to (H, ), then (H, ) is also
locally finite.

• The previous examples illustrate that 'group properties' are always preserved by
isomorphisms.

Cyclic groups

All cyclic groups of a given order are isomorphic to .

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Let G be a cyclic group and n be the order of G. G is then the group generated by < x > =
{e,x,...,xn - 1}. We will show that

Define

, so that . Clearly, is
bijective.

Then

which proves that

.

Consequences

From the definition, it follows that any isomorphism will map the identity
element of G to the identity element of H,

f(eG) = eH

that it will map inverses to inverses,

and more generally, nth powers to nth powers,

for all u in G, and that the inverse map is also a group isomorphism.

The relation "being isomorphic" satisfies all the axioms of an equivalence relation. If f is
an isomorphism between two groups G and H, then everything that is true about G that is
only related to the group structure can be translated via f into a true ditto statement about
H, and vice versa.

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Automorphisms

An isomorphism from a group (G,*) to itself is called an automorphism of this group.

Thus it is a bijection such that

f(u) * f(v) = f(u * v).

An automorphism always maps the identity to itself. The image under an automorphism
of a conjugacy class is always a conjugacy class (the same or another). The image of an
element has the same order as that element.

The composition of two automorphisms is again an automorphism, and with this

operation the set of all automorphisms of a group G, denoted by Aut(G), forms itself a
group, the automorphism group of G.

For all Abelian groups there is at least the automorphism that replaces the group elements
by their inverses. However, in groups where all elements are equal to their inverse this is
the trivial automorphism, e.g. in the Klein four-group. For that group all permutations of
the three non-identity elements are automorphisms, so the automorphism group is
isomorphic to S3 and Dih3.

In Zp for a prime number p, one non-identity element can be replaced by any other, with
corresponding changes in the other elements. The automorphism group is isomorphic to
Zp - 1. For example, for n = 7, multiplying all elements of Z7 by 3, modulo 7, is an
automorphism of order 6 in the automorphism group, because 36 = 1 ( modulo 7 ), while
lower powers do not give 1. Thus this automorphism generates Z6. There is one more
automorphism with this property: multiplying all elements of Z7 by 5, modulo 7.
Therefore, these two correspond to the elements 1 and 5 of Z6, in that order or
conversely.

The automorphism group of Z6 is isomorphic to Z2, because only each of the two
elements 1 and 5 generate Z6, so apart from the identity we can only interchange these.

The automorphism group of Z2 × Z2 × Z2 = Dih2 × Z2 has order 168, as can be found as

follows. All 7 non-identity elements play the same role, so we can choose which pla ys
the role of (1,0,0). Any of the remaining 6 can be chosen to play the role of (0,1,0). This
determines which corresponds to (1,1,0). For (0,0,1) we can choose from 4, which
determines the rest. Thus we have 7 × 6 × 4 = 168 automorphisms. They correspond to
those of the Fano plane, of which the 7 points correspond to the 7 non-identity elements.
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The lines connecting three points correspond to the group operation: a, b, and c on one
line means a+b=c, a+c=b, and b+c=a. See also general linear group over finite fields.

For Abelian groups all automorphisms except the trivial one are called outer
automorphisms.

Non-Abelian groups have a non-trivial inner automorphism group, and possibly also
outer automorphisms.

Coding Theory and Rings

Elements of Coding Theory

Coding theory is studied by various scientific disciplines — such as information theory,

electrical engineering, mathematics, and computer science — for the purpose of
designing efficient and reliable data transmission methods. This typically involves the
removal of redundancy and the correction (or detection) of errors in the transmitted data.
It also includes the study of the properties of codes and their fitness for a specific
application.

Thus, there are essentially two aspects to Coding theory:

1. Data compression (or, source coding)

2. Error correction (or, channel coding')

These two aspects may be studied in combination.

The first, source encoding, attempts to compress the data from a source in order to
transmit it more efficiently. This practice is found every day on the Internet where the
common "Zip" data compression is used to reduce the network load and make files
smaller. The second, channel encoding, adds extra data bits to make the transmission of

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data more robust to disturbances present on the transmission channel. The ordinary user
may not be aware of many applications using channel coding. A typical music CD uses
the Reed-Solomon code to correct for scratches and dust. In this application the
transmission channel is the CD itself. Cell phones also use coding techniques to correct
for the fading and noise of high frequency radio transmission. Data modems, telephone
transmissions, and NASA all employ channel coding techniques to get the bits through,
for example the turbo code and LDPC codes.

The hamming metric:

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3-bit binary cube for finding Two example distances: 100->011 has distance 3 (red
Hamming distance path); 010->111 has distance 2 (blue path)

4-bit binary hypercube for finding Hamming distance

Two example distances: 0100->1001 has distance 3 (red path); 0110->1110 has distance
1 (blue path)

In information theory, the Hamming distance between two strings of equal length is the
number of positions at which the corresponding symbols are different. Put another way, it

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measures the minimum number of substitutions required to change one string into the
other, or the number of errors that transformed one string into the other.

Examples

The Hamming distance between:

• "toned" and "roses" is 3.

• 1011101 and 1001001 is 2.
• 2173896 and 2233796 is 3.

Special properties

For a fixed length n, the Hamming distance is a metric on the vector space of the words
of that length, as it obviously fulfills the conditions of non-negativity, identity of
indiscernibles and s ymmetry, and it can be shown easily by complete induction that it
satisfies the triangle inequality as well. The Hamming distance between two words a and
b can also be seen as the Hamming weight of a-b for an appropriate choice of the -
o p e rat o r.

For binary strings a and b the Hamming distance is equal to the number of ones in a
XOR b. The metric space of length-n binary strings, with the Hamming distance, is
known as the Hamming cube; it is equivalent as a metric space to the set of distances
between vertices in a hypercube graph. One can also view a binary string of length n as a
vector in Rn by treating each symbol in the string as a real coordinate; with this
embedding, the strings form the vertices of an n-dimensional hypercube, and the
Hamming distance of the strings is equivalent to the Manhattan distance between the
vertices.

History and applications

The Hamming distance is named after Richard Hamming, who introduced it in his
fundamental paper on Hamming codes Error detecting and error correcting codes in
1950.[1] It is used in telecommunication to count the number of flipped bits in a fixed-
length binary word as an estimate of error, and therefore is sometimes called the signal
distance. Hamming weight analysis of bits is used in several disciplines including
information theory, coding theory, and cryptography. However, for comparing strings of
different lengths, or strings where not just substitutions but also insertions or deletions
have to be expected, a more sophisticated metric like the Levenshtein distance is more
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appropriate. For q-ary strings over an alphabet of size q ≥ 2 the Hamming distance is
applied in case of orthogonal modulation, while the Lee distance is used for phase
modulation. If q = 2 or q = 3 both distances coincide.

The Hamming distance is also used in systematics as a measure of genetic distance.

On a grid (such as a chessboard), the points at a Lee distance of 1 constitute the von
Neumann neighborhood of that point.

Algorithm example

The Python function hamming_distance() computes the Hamming distance between two
strings (or other iterable objects) of equal length, by creating a sequence of zero and one
values indicating mismatches and matches between corresponding positions in the two
inputs, and then s u mmi n g the sequence.

def hamming_distance(s1, s2):

assert len(s1) == len(s2)
return sum(ch1 != ch2 for ch1, ch2 in zip(s1, s2))

The following C function will compute the Hamming distance of two integers
(considered as binary values, that is, as sequences of bits). The running time of this
procedure is proportional to the Hamming distance rather than to the number of bits in
the inputs. It computes the bitwise exclusive or of the two inputs, and then finds the
Hamming weight of the result (the number of nonzero bits) using an algorithm of Wegner
(1960) that repeatedly finds and clears the lowest-order nonzero bit.

The Hamming metric

We've seen so far come simple examples of codes. What is needed is some notion of how
to compare codewords. Geormetrically, two codewords are ``far'' from each other if there
are ``a lot'' of coordinates where they differ. This notion is made more precide in the
following definition.

Definition 3.4.1 If , are vectors in

then we define

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to be the Hamming distance between and . The function is

called the Hamming metric. The weight of a vector (in the Hamming metric) is

Note that

(3 . 1 )

for any vectors (or, more generally, any vectors in a linear code). Using
this, it is easy to show that satisfies the properties of a metric:

• for all and if and only if .

• , for all .

• , for all .

Let and let

This is called the ball of radius about . Since is finite, this ball has only a finite
number of elements. It is not hard to count them using a little bit of basic combinitorics.
Since this count shall be needed later, we record it in the following result.

Lemma 3.4.2 If and then

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proof: Let

This is called the shell of radius about . It is consists of all vectors with exactly

coordinates different from . There are ways to choose out of coordinates.

There are ways to choose these coordinates to be different from those in .

Thus,

Example 3.4.3 If and then

is called the ISBN code. This is an -ary linear code of length . This is the same
code used in book numbering except that the number is denoted by on the inside

cover of a book. Fo r ex a m p l e , and

are code words. Their Hamming distance is .

Generator matrix

In coding theory, a generator matrix is a basis for a linear code, generating all its
possible codewords. If the matrix is G and the linear code is C,

w=cG

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where w is a unique codeword of the linear code C, c is a unique row vector, and a
bijection exists between w and c. A generator matrix for a (n, M = qk, d)q-code is of
dimension k×n. Here n is the length of a codeword, k is the number of information bits, d
is the minimum distance of the code, and q is the number of symbols in the alphabet
(thus, q = 2 indicates a binary code, etc.). Note that the number of redundant bits is
denoted r = n - k.

The systematic form for a generator matrix is

where Ik is a k×k identity matrix and P is of dimension k×r.

A generator matrix can be used to construct the parity check matrix for a code (and vice-
versa).

Equivalent Codes

Codes C1 and C2 are equivalent (denoted C1 ~ C2) if one code can be created from the
other via the following two transformations:

1. permute components, and

2. scale components.

Equivalent codes have the same distance.

The generator matrices of equivalent codes can be obtained from one another via the
following transformations:

1. permute rows
2. scale rows
3. add rows
4. p e rm u t e co l u m n s , an d
5. scale columns.

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Parity-check matrix

In coding theory, a parity-check matrix of a linear block code C is a generator matrix of

the dual code. As such, a codeword c is in C if and only if the matrix-vector product
HTc=0.

The rows of a parity check matrix are parity checks on the codewords of a code. That is,
they show how linear combinations of certain digits of each codeword equal zero. For
example, the parity check matrix

specifies that for each codeword, digits 1 and 2 should sum to zero and digits 3 and 4
should sum to zero.

Creating a parity check matrix

The parity check matrix for a given code can be derived from its generator matrix (and
vice-versa). If the generator matrix for an [n,k]-code is in standard form

then the parity check matrix is given by

because

GHT = P - P = 0.

Negation is performed in the finite field mod q. Note that if the characteristic of the
underlying field is 2 (i.e., 1 + 1 = 0 in that field), as in binary codes, then - P = P, so the
negation is unnecessary.

For example, if a binary code has the generator matrix

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The parity check matrix becomes

For any valid codeword x, Hx = 0. For any invalid codeword , the syndrome S satisfies
.

Parity check

If no error occurs during transmission, then the received codeword r is identical to the
transmitted codeword x:

The receiver multiplies H and r to obtain the syndrome vector , which indicates
whether an error has occurred, and if so, for which codeword bit. Performing this
multiplication (again, entries modulo 2):

Since the syndrome z is the null vector, the receiver can conclude that no error has
occurred. This conclusion is based on the observation that when the data vector is
multiplied by , a change of basis occurs into a vector subspace that is the kernel of .
As long as nothing happens during transmission, will remain in the kernel of and the
multiplication will yield the null vector.

Coset

In mathematics, if G is a group, H is a subgroup of G, and g is an element of G, then

gH = {gh : h an element of H�} is a left coset of H in G, and

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Hg = {hg : h an element of H�} is a right coset of H in G.

Only when H is normal will the right and left cosets of H coincide, which is one
definition of normality of a subgroup.

A coset is a left or right coset of some subgroup in G. Since Hg = g�g (�-1Hg�), the right
cosets Hg (of H�) and the left cosets g�(�g-1Hg�) (of the conjugate subgroup g-1Hg�) are the
same. Hence it is not meaningful to speak of a coset as being left or right unless one first
specifies the underlying subgroup.

For abelian groups or groups written additively, the notation used changes to g+H and
H+g respectively.

Examples

The additive cyclic group Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3} = G has a subgroup H = {0, 2} (isomorphic to

Z2). The left cosets of H in G are

0 + H = {0, 2} = H

1 + H = {1, 3}

2 + H = {2, 0} = H

3 + H = {3, 1}.

There are therefore two distinct cosets, H itself, and 1 + H = 3 + H. Note that every
element of G is either in H or in 1 + H, that is, H � (1 + H�) = G, so the distinct cosets of
H in G partition G. Since Z4 is an abelian group, the right cosets will be the same as the
left.

Another example of a coset comes from the theory of vector spaces. The elements
(vectors) of a vector space form an Abelian group under vector addition. It is not hard to
show that subspaces of a vector space are subgroups of this group. For a vector space V, a
subspace W, and a fixed vector a in V, the sets

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are called affine subspaces, and are cosets (both left and right, since the group is
Abelian). In terms of geometric vectors, these affine subspaces are all the "lines" or
"planes" parallel to the subspace, which is a line or plane going through the origin.

General properties

We have gH = H if and only if g is an element of H, since as H is a subgroup, it must be

closed and must contain the identity.

Any two left cosets of H in G are either identical or disjoint — i.e., the left cosets form a
partition of G such that every element of G belongs to one and only one left coset.[1] In
particular the identity is in precisely one coset, and that coset is H itself; this is also the
only coset that is a subgroup. We can see this clearly in the above examples.

The left cosets of H in G are the equivalence classes under the equivalence relation on G
given by x ~ y if and only if x -1y � H. Similar statements are also true for right cosets.

A coset representative is a representative in the equivalence class sense. A set of

representatives of all the cosets is called a transversal. There are other types of
equivalence relations in a group, such as conjugacy, that form different classes which do
not have the properties discussed here. Some books on very applied group theory
erroneously identify the conjugacy class as 'the' equivalence class as opposed to a
particular type of equivalence class.

Index of a subgroup

All left cosets and all right cosets have the same order (number of elements, or cardinality
in the case of an infinite H), equal to the order of H (because H is itself a coset).
Furthermore, the number of left cosets is equal to the number of right cosets and is
known as the index of H in G, written as [G : H�.] Lagrange's theorem allows us to
compute the index in the case where G and H are finite, as per the formula:

| [G : H�] · |H�|.
|G�=

This equation also holds in the case where the groups are infinite, although the meaning
may be less clear.

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Cosets and normality

If H is not normal in G, then its left cosets are different from its right cosets. That is, there
is an a in G such that no element b satisfies aH = Hb. This means that the partition of G
into the left cosets of H is a different partition than the partition of G into right cosets of
H. (It is important to note that some cosets may coincide. For example, if a is in the
center of G, then aH = Ha.)

On the other hand, the subgroup N is normal if and only if gN = Ng for all g in G. In this
case, the set of all cosets form a group called the quotient group G�/N with the operation �
defined by (aN�)�(bN�) = abN. Since every right coset is a left coset, there is no need to
differentiate "left cosets" from "right cosets".

Lagrange's theorem (group theory)

Lagrange's theorem, in the mathematics of group theory, states that for any finite group
G, the order (number of elements) of every subgroup H of G divides the order of G. The
theorem is named after Joseph Lagrange.

Proof of Lagrange's Theorem

This can be shown using the concept of left cosets of H in G. The left cosets are the
equivalence classes of a certain equivalence relation on G and therefore form a partition
of G. Specifically, x and y in G are related if and only if there exists h in H such that x =
yh. If we can show that all cosets of H have the same number of elements, then each coset
of H has precisely |H| elements. We are then done since the order of H times the number
of cosets is equal to the number of elements in G, thereby proving that the order H
divides the order of G. Now, if aH and bH are two left cosets of H, we can define a map
f : aH → bH by setting f(x) = ba-1x. This map is bijective because its inverse is given by
f -1(y) = ab-1y.

This proof also shows that the quotient of the orders |G| / |H| is equal to the index [G : H]
(the number of left cosets of H in G). If we write this statement as

|G| = [G : H] · |H|,

then, seen as a statement about cardinal numbers, it is equivalent to the Axiom of choice.

Using the theorem

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A consequence of the theorem is that the order of any element a of a finite group (i.e. the
smallest positive integer number k with ak = e, where e is the identity element of the
group) divides the order of that group, since the order of a is equal to the order of the
cyclic subgroup generated by a. If the group has n elements, it follows

an = e.

This can be used to prove Fermat's little theorem and its generalization, Euler's theorem.
These special cases were known long before the general theorem was proved.

The theorem also shows that any group of prime order is cyclic and simple.

Existence of subgroups of given order

Lagrange's theorem raises the converse question as to whether every divisor of the order
of a group is the order of some subgroup. This does not hold in general: given a finite
group G and a divisor d of |G|, there does not necessarily exist a subgroup of G with order
d. The smallest example is the alternating group G = A4 which has 12 elements but no
subgroup of order 6. A CLT group is a finite group with the property that for ever y
divisor of the order of the group, there is a subgroup of that order. It is known that a CLT
group must be solvable and that every supersolvable group is a CLT group: however
there exists solvable groups which are not CLT and CLT groups which are not
supersolvable.

There are partial converses to Lagrange's theorem. For general groups, Cauchy's theorem
guarantees the existence of an element, and hence of a cyclic subgroup, of order an y
prime dividing the group order; Sylow's theorem extends this to the existence of a
subgroup of order equal to the maximal power of any prime dividing the group order. For
solvable groups, Hall's theorems assert the existence of a subgroup of order equal to any
unitary divisor of the group order (that is, a divisor coprime to its cofactor).

History

Lagrange did not prove Lagrange's theorem in its general form. He stated, in his article
Réflexions sur la résolution algébrique des équations,[1] that if a polynomial in n
variables has its variables permuted in all n ! ways, the number of different polynomials
that are obtained is always a factor of n !. (For example if the variables x, y, and z are
permuted in all 6 possible ways in the pol ynomial x + y - z then we get a total of 3
different polynomials: x + y - z, x + z - y, and y + z - x. Note that 3 is a factor of 6.) The
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number of such polynomials is the index in the symmetric group Sn of the subgroup H of
permutations which preserve the polynomial. (For the example of x + y - z, the subgroup
H in S3 contains the identity and the transposition (xy).) So the size of H divides n !. With
the later development of abstract groups, this result of Lagrange on polynomials was
recognized to extend to the general theorem about finite groups which now bears his
name.

Lagrange did not prove his theorem; all he did, essentially, was to discuss some special
cases. The first complete proof of the theorem was provided by Abbati and published in
1803.

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UNIT – 8 Group Codes: 6 Hours

 Decoding with Coset Leaders,

 Hamming Matrices Rings and
 Modular Arithmetic
 The Ring Structure
 Definition and Examples
 Ring Properties and Substructures,
 The Integers Modulo n

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UNIT 8 7 Hours
Group codes
SYLLABUS
Group Codes: Decoding with Coset Leaders, Hamming Matrices

Rings and Modular Arithm etic: The Ring Structure – Definition and
Examples, Ring Properties and Substructures, The Integers Modulo n

In computer science, group codes are a type of code. Group codes consist of n linear
block codes which are subgroups of Gn, where G is a finite Abelian group.

A systematic group code C is a code over Gn of order defined by n - k

homomorphisms which determine the parity check bits. The remaining k bits are the
information bits themselves.

Construction

Group codes can be constructed by special generator matrices which resemble generator
matrices of linear block codes except that the elements of those matrices are
endomorphisms of the group instead of symbols from the code's alphabet. For example,
consider the generator matrix

The elements of this matrix are 2x2 matrices which are endomorphisms. In this scenario,
each codeword can be represented as where g1,...gr are the generators of
G.

Decoding with Coset leader

In the field of coding theory, a coset leader is defined as a word of minimum weight in
any particular coset - that is, a word with the lowest amount of non-zero entries.
Sometimes there are several words of equal minimum weight in a coset, and in that case,
any one of those words may be chosen to be the coset leader.

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Coset leaders are used in the construction of a standard array for a linear code, which can
then be used to decode received vectors. For a received vector y, the decoded message is
y - e, where e is the coset leader of y. Coset leaders can also be used to construct a fast
decoding strategy. For each coset leader u we calculate the syndrome uH′. When we
receive v we evaluate vH′ and find the matching syndrome. The corresponding coset
leader is the most likely error pattern and we assume that v+u was the codeword sent.

E x a mp l e

A standard array for an [n,k]-code is a qn - k by qk array where:

1. The first row lists all codewords (with the 0 codeword on the extreme left)
2. Each row is a coset with the coset leader in the first column
3. The entry in the i-th row and j-th column is the sum of the i-th coset leader and
the j-th codeword.

For example, the [n,k]-code C3 = {0, 01101, 10110, 11011} has a standard array as
follows:

0 01101 10110 11011

10000 11101 00110 01011

01000 00101 11110 10011

00100 01001 10010 11111

00010 01111 10100 11001

00001 01100 10111 11010

11000 10101 01110 00011

10001 11100 00111 01010

Note that the above is only one possibility for the standard array; had 00011 been chosen
as the first coset leader of weight two, another standard array representing the code would
have been constructed.

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Note that the first row contains the 0 vector and the codewords of C3 (0 itself being a
codeword). Also, the leftmost column contains the vectors of minimum weight
enumerating vectors of weight 1 first and then using vectors of wei ght 2. Note also that
each possible vector in the vector space appears exactly once.

Because each possible vector can appear only once in a standard array some care must be
taken during construction. A standard array can be created as follows:

1. List the codewords of C, starting with 0, as the first row

2. Choose any vector of minimum weight not already in the array. Write this as the
first entry of the next row. This vector is denoted the 'coset leader'.
3. Fill out the row by adding the coset leader to the codeword at the top of each
column. The sum of the i-th coset leader and the j-th codeword becomes the entry
in row i, column j.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until all rows/cosets are listed and each vector appears
exactly once.

Hamming matrices

Hamming codes can be computed in linear algebra terms through matrices because
Hamming codes are linear codes. For the purposes of Hamming codes, two Hamming
matrices can be defined: the code generator matrix and the parity-check matrix
:

and

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Bit position of the data and parity bits

As mentioned above, rows 1, 2, & 4 of should look familiar as they map the data bits
to their parity bits:

• p1 covers d1, d2, d4

• p2 covers d1, d3, d4
• p3 covers d2, d3, d4

The remaining rows (3, 5, 6, 7) map the data to their position in encoded form and there
is only 1 in that row so it is an identical copy. In fact, these four rows are linearly
independent and form the identity matrix (by design, not coincidence).

Also as mentioned above, the three rows of should be familiar. These rows are used to
compute the syndrome vector at the receiving end and if the syndrome vector is the null
vector (all zeros) then the received word is error-free; if non-zero then the value indicates
which bit has been flipped.

The 4 data bits — assembled as a vector — is pre-multiplied by (i.e., ) an d

taken modulo 2 to yield the encoded value that is transmitted. The original 4 data bits are
converted to 7 bits (hence the name "Hamming(7,4)") with 3 parity bits added to ensure
even parity using the above data bit coverages. The first table above shows the mapping
between each data and parity bit into its final bit position (1 through 7) but this can also
be presented in a Venn diagram. The first diagram in this article shows three circles (one
for each parity bit) and encloses data bits that each parity bit covers. The second diagram
(shown to the right) is identical but, instead, the bit positions are marked.

For the remainder of this section, the following 4 bits (shown as a column vector) will be
used as a running example:

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Rings and Modular Arithmetic

Ring theory

In mathematics, ring theory is the study of rings—algebraic structures in which addition

and multiplication are defined and have similar properties to those familiar from the
integers. Ring theory studies the structure of rings, their representations, or, in different
language, modules, special classes of rings (group rings, division rings, universal
enveloping algebras), as well as an array of properties that proved to be of interest both
within the theory itself and for its applications, such as homological properties and
polynomial identities.

Commutative rings are much better understood than noncommutative ones. Due to its
intimate connections with algebraic geometry and algebraic number theory, which
provide many natural examples of commutative rings, their theory, which is considered to
be part of commutative algebra and field theory rather than of general ring theory, is quite
different in flavour from the theory of their noncommutative counterparts. A fairly recent
trend, started in the 1980s with the development of noncommutative geometry and with
the discovery of quantum groups, attempts to turn the situation around and build the
theory of certain classes of noncommutative rings in a geometric fashion as if they were
rings of functions on (non-existent) 'noncommutative spaces'.

Elementary introduction
Definition

Formall y, a ring is an Abelian group (R, +), together with a second binary operation *
such that for all a, b and c in R,

a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c

a * (b + c) = (a * b) + (a * c)

(a + b) * c = (a * c) + (b * c)

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also, if there exists a multiplicative identity in the ring, that is, an element e such that for
all a in R,

a*e=e*a=a

then it is said to be a ring with unity. The number 1 is a common example of a unity.

The ring in which e is equal to the additive identity must have only one element. This
ring is called the trivial ring.

Rings that sit inside other rings are called subrings. Maps between rings which respect
the ring operations are called ring homomorphisms. Rings, together with ring
homomorphisms, form a category (the category of rings). Closely related is the notion of
ideals, certain subsets of rings which arise as kernels of homomorphisms and can serve to
define factor rings. Basic facts about ideals, homomorphisms and factor rings are
recorded in the isomorphism theorems and in the Chinese remainder theorem.

A ring is called commutative if its multiplication is commutative. Commutative rings

resemble familiar number systems, and various definitions for commutative rings are
designed to recover properties known from the integers. Commutative rings are also
important in algebraic geometry. In commutative ring theory, numbers are often replaced
by ideals, and the definition of prime ideal tries to capture the essence of prime numbers.
Integral domains, non-trivial commutative rings where no two non-zero elements
multiply to give zero, generalize another property of the integers and serve as the proper
realm to study divisibility. Principal ideal domains are integral domains in which ever y
ideal can be generated by a single element, another property shared by the integers.
Euclidean domains are integral domains in which the Euclidean algorithm can be carried
out. Important examples of commutative rings can be constructed as rings of polynomials
and their factor rings. Summary: Euclidean domain => principal ideal domain => unique
factorization domain => integral domain => Commutative ring.

Non-commutative rings resemble rings of matrices in many respects. Following the

model of algebraic geometry, attempts have been made recently at defining non-
commutative geometry based on non-commutative rings. Non-commutative rings and
associative algebras (rings that are also vector spaces) are often studied via their
categories of modules. A module over a ring is an Abelian group that the ring acts on as a
ring of endomorphisms, very much akin to the way fields (integral domains in which
every non-zero element is invertible) act on vector spaces. Examples of non-commutative

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rings are given by rings of square matrices or more generally by rings of endomorphisms
of Abelian groups or modules, and by monoid rings.

The congruence relation

Modular arithmetic can be handled mathematically by introducing a congruence relation

on the integers that is compatible with the operations of the ring of integers: addition,
subtraction, and multiplication. For a positive integer n, two integers a and b are said to
be congruent modulo n, written:

if their difference a - b is an integer multiple of n. The number n is called the modulus of

the congruence. An equivalent definition is that both numbers have the same remainder
when divided by n.

For example,

because 38 - 14 = 24, which is a multiple of 12. For positive n and non-negative a and b,
congruence of a and b can also be thought of as asserting that these two numbers have the
same remainder after dividing by the modulus n. So,

because both numbers, when divided by 12, have the same remainder (2). Equivalently,
the fractional parts of doing a full division of each of the numbers by 12 are the same:
0.1666... (38/12 = 3.1666..., 2/12 = 0.1666...). From the prior definition we also see that
their difference, a - b = 36, is a whole number (integer) multiple of 12 (n = 12, 36/12
= 3).

The same rule holds for negative values of a:

A remark on the notation: Because it is common to consider several congruence relations

for different moduli at the same time, the modulus is incorporated in the notation. In spite
of the ternary notation, the congruence relation for a given modulus is binary. This would
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have been clearer if the notation a ≡n b had been used, instead of the common traditional
notation.

The properties that make this relation a congruence relation (respecting addition,
subtraction, and multiplication) are the following.

If

and

then:

•
•
•

Multiplicative group of integers modulo n

In modular arithmetic the set of congruence classes relatively prime to the modulus n
form a group under multiplication called the multiplicative group of integers modulo n.
It is also called the group of primitive residue classes modulo n. In the theory of rings, a
branch of abstract algebra, it is described as the group of units of the ring of integers
modulo n. (Units refers to elements with a multiplicative inverse.)

This group is fundamental in number theory. It has found applications in cryptography,

integer factorization, and primality testing. For example, by finding the order (ie. the
size) of the group, one can determine if n is prime: n is prime if and only if the order is n
- 1.

Group axioms

It is a straightforward exercise to show that under multiplication the congruence classes

(mod n) which are relatively prime to n satisfy the axioms for an abelian group.

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Because a ≡ b (mod n) implies that gcd(a, n) = gcd(b, n), the notion of congruence
classes (mod n) which are relatively prime to n is well-defined.

Since gcd(a, n) = 1 and gcd(b, n) = 1 implies gcd(ab, n) = 1 the set of classes relativel y
prime to n is closed under multiplication.

The natural mapping from the integers to the congruence classes (mod n) that takes an
integer to its congruence class (mod n) is a ring homomorphism. This implies that the
class containing 1 is the unique multiplicative identity, and also the associative and
commutative laws.

Given a, gcd(a, n) = 1, finding x satisfying ax ≡ 1 (mod n) is the same as solving ax + ny

= 1, which can be done by Bézout's lemma.

Notation

The ring of integers (mod n) is denoted or (i.e., the ring of integers

modulo the ideal nZ = (n) consisting of the multiples of n) or by . Depending on the
author its group of units may be written
(for German Einheit = unit) or similar notations. This article uses

Struct ur e
Powers of 2

Modulo 2 there is only one relatively prime congruence class, 1, so is

trivial.

Modulo 4 there are two relatively prime congruence classes, 1 and 3, so

the cyclic group with two elements.

Modulo 8 there are four relatively prime classes, 1, 3, 5 and 7. The square of each of
these is 1, so the Klein four-group.

Modulo 16 there are eight relatively prime classes 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15.
is the 2-torsion subgroup (ie. the square of each element is 1),

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so is not cyclic. The powers of 3, {1,3,9,11} are a subgroup of order 4, as are

the powers of 5, {1,5,9,13}. Thus

The pattern shown by 8 and 16 holds[1] for higher powers 2k, k > 2:
is the 2-torsion subgroup (so is not cyclic)
and the powers of 3 are a subgroup of order 2k - 2, so

Powers of odd primes

For powers of odd primes pk the g ro u p is cyclic:[2]

General composite numbers

The Chinese remainder theorem[3] says that if then the ring

is the direct product of the rings corresponding to each of its prime power factors:

Similarly, the group of units is the direct product of the groups corresponding
to each of the prime power factors:

O rder

The order of the group is given by Euler's totient function: This

is the product of the orders of the cyclic groups in the direct product.

Exponent

The exponent is given by the Carmichael function λ(n), the least common multiple of the
orders of the cyclic groups. This means that if a and n are relatively prime,

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Generators

is cyclic if and only if This is the case precisely when n is 2,

4, a power of an odd prime, or twice a power of an odd prime. In this case a generator is
called a primitive root modulo n.

Since all the n = 1, 2, ..., 7 are cyclic, another way to state this is: If n < 8
then has a primitive root. If n ≥ 8 has a primitive root unless n is
divisible by 4 or by two distinct odd primes.

In the general case there is one generator for each cyclic direct factor.

Table

This table shows the structure and generators of for small values of n. The
generators are not unique (mod n); e.g. (mod 16) both {-1, 3} and {-1, 5} will work. The
generators are listed in the same order as the direct factors.

For example take n = 20. means that the order of is 8 (i.e. there
are 8 numbers less than 20 and coprime to it); λ(20) = 4 that the fourth power of an y
number relatively prime to 20 is ≡ 1 (mod 20); and as for the generators, 19 has order 2, 3
has order 4, and every member of is of the form 19a × 3b, where a is 0 or 1
and b is 0, 1, 2, or 3.

The powers of 19 are {±1} and the powers of 3 are {3, 9, 7, 1}. The latter and their
negatives (mod 20), {17, 11, 13, 19} are all the numbers less than 20 and prime to it. The
fact that the order of 19 is 2 and the order of 3 is 4 implies that the fourth power of every
m emb er o f is ≡ 1 (mod 20).

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