B-Tech CSE AI

Course-19AIE104
Introduction to Electrical Engineering

Experiments using ADALM 1000

November-2019

By

C.K.Vinodh, Lab Technician

CEN
(Centre for Computational Engineering and Networking)

Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham

Ettimadai,Coimbatore,India

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 Table of contents
S.No Experiments & Overview Page. No
1 Adalm 1000 Overview 3
2 Adalm Alice software Install Instructions 27
Basics of electrical and electronics
1 OHM’S Law 29
2 Resistors in series and parallel 37
Experiments
1 Voltage and current division 50
2 Proportionality and superposition 57
3 Thevenin Equivalent Circuit & Maximum Power 64
Transfer
4 Transient response of RC circuit 72
5 Transient response of RL circuit 82
6 OP-AMP Voltage Follower 91
7 OP-AMP Voltage Comparator 97
8 Low-Pass Filter 104
9 High-Pass Filter 111
10 Parallel LC resonance 117
11 Resonance in RLC circuit 131
12 OP-AMP Inverting and Non-Inverting Amplifier 142
13 What is phase and why do we care 154
14 Power and Power Factor in AC Circuits 171

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The ADALM1000-Overview

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Adalm 1000 offers two high-precision analog channels, each capable of generating or
measuring analog signals at up to 100 kilo samples per second (kSPS). It is
entirely USB powered. With support for OS X™, Windows™, and Linux™ 1)
Continuous streaming of voltage and current measurements into a simple GUI allow for
a variety of impedance, time, and frequency domain explorations to be carried out with
ease.

The channels can be connected to any of the three as shown in above figure
1. High impedance 1M ohm
2. Voltage source (Vs)
3. Current source (Is)
This can be done by changing the mode in Alice AWS control window

Term
Term window used to connect out pin (channel) to be open or either connected to
ground or 2.5 through 50 ohm internal resistor. Normally we would leave it open.

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SWITCHING BETWEEN THREE SOURCE PINS - MODE

5
SPLIT I/O

The Split I/O option separates the generator output signal from the voltage
measurement input. In the Rev D version of ALM1000 hardware only the source current
function operates when the output and input are on separate pins so the Split I/O option
automatically puts the hardware into the source current configuration.

The AWG WINDOW can be opened by clicking open AWG Control button in main
window as shown above. By default AWG window is always open and can be kept
minimized. Entire functions of the two channels are controlled through AWG window.

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Wave form can be selected from the shape button. We have two identical controls for
channel A and channel B.

Check the AWG sync check box so that changes made is applied to board immediately.

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About channels and fixed power supplies.

Adalm 1000 has

Two fixed power supplies

1. 5.0 V
2. 2.5 V

Two independent channels

Each channel can

1. Measure voltage

2. Measure current

3. generate wave form and measure and current.

Both channels measure voltage and current while generating waveforms.

Each channels can either

1. Source voltage and measure current. In this mode voltage is kept constant
current is measured.(SVMI)
2. Source current while measuring voltage, current kept constant SIMV)
3. High impedance mode to measure voltage(HI-Z)

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 MAIN WINDOW CONTROLS

This is the main desktop window and serves as the Oscilloscope Tool Window as
well as controls for opening the other display windows and certain common control
functions.

TIME AXIS CONTROLS

These controls horizontal time division and position. Horizontal time division can be
changed by right clicking the mouse at top right corner and rotating the wheel. This
is very important so that

you can view correct wave form in the screen before measuring.

CURVES DROP DOWN MENU

This menu used to select which wave forms are to be shown in graphical display and
also the values displayed at the bottom.

Trigger

The Trigger button is a drop down menu listing which signal to trigger on, CA-V, CA-I,
CB-V, CB-I or none. The use of Triggering to display a stable trace is generally only

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necessary when viewing externally generated signals. When viewings internally
generated signals from one or the other of the AWG channels a stable trace happens
automatically in that the beginning of the AWG output waveform is restarted at the same
point at the start of each time sweep.
The Auto Level option automatically sets the trigger level to the selected waveform
midpoint on each sweep. The trigger point will thus track any changes in the input
waveform. The Single shot option allows a single sweep to be captured each time the
Run button is clicked.
The Edge button is a drop down menu listing either the rising or falling edge for
triggering. The Trigger Level entry window contains the trigger level in volts for CA-
V and CB-V or mA for CA-I and CB-I. The 50% button sets the trigger level to the
midpoint (50% point) of the selected trigger waveform. i.e. to the (maximum +
minimum)/2.

The Bottom Menu Section

The menu section along the bottom contains the range ( V/Div, mA/Div ) and
position controls for the Channel A and B voltage and current waveform displays. The
entry labels are color coded to match the waveform trace colors. The V/Div
and mA/Div’s pin boxes set the corresponding vertical ranges in the standard 1, 2, 5
step increments. Other values maybe entered manually. The position entry windows
determine the vertical position of their scales with respect to the blue center line on the
grid. That is to say the value entered corresponds to the number displayed next to the
blue center line.

The Graphics Display Area

The graphics display area, show in figure 5, is where the various signal waveforms are
plotted on either a black or white background depending on which is selected under the
Options drop down. It consists of a main 10 by 10 grid with the center vertical and
horizontal grid lines drawn in dark blue. Each major grid is sub divided into 5 sub grids
by the short tick marks along the blue center lines. The horizontal grid lines are labeled
with color coded text to match the corresponding waveform trace with the voltage scales
on the left and current scales on the right.
The red triangle, drawn on the left side in the example shown because the trigger input
is set to CA-V indicates the trigger level.
Above the main grid area is a line of text showing the device ID and Sample rate and if
the acquisition loop is running or stopped. Below the main grid are three lines of text
which display various information about the displayed plots. The first line shows the
current time per division setting and the horizontal position of the left most grid line with
respect to 0 time i.e. the trigger point.

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The second and third lines of text are for displaying information related to Channel A
and Channel B respectively. The selected V/Div is displayed along with any of the
vertical measurements selected for that voltage channel. If a current waveform is being
displayed the selected mA/Div is displayed along with any of the vertical measurements
selected for that current channel.

Figure 5 Graphics display area

Grid Markers and Cursors
While stopped (red Stop button clicked) if you left click anywhere within the display grid
a numbered marker ―x‖ point will appear at that position. In the upper left corner of the
display grid the maker number along with the vertical ( voltage or current ) and
horizontal ( time ) values will also appear. For marker points > 1 the vertical and
horizontal delta to the previous point will also be displayed. Clicking the red Stop button
again will clear the markers. Clicking on the green CA-V/Div, cyan CA mA/Div, orange
CB-V/Div or yellow CB mA/Div buttons along the bottom of the main Time display
window will select which vertical range / position axis will be used and the marker will be
drawn in that color.
Under the Curves Drop down menu there are selectors for displaying the T cursor (time)
and V cursor ( voltage ). When selected if you right click anywhere within the display
grid either a vertical or horizontal cursor line, or both, will be drawn at that location. The
vertical, horizontal, or both values for that point will be displayed. Scrolling with the
mouse wheel will move the vertical line left–right when only the T cursor is selected and
the horizontal line up-down when only the V cursor is selected. When both are selected

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the mouse wheel moves the vertical line left–right. With the Shift key pressed the mouse
wheel will move the horizontal line up-down.
Advanced Math Traces
In addition to the pre-programed Math traces, ALICE Desktop provides a method of
plotting user defined equations or formulas using the voltage and current waveform
buffers for channels A and B. The formulas are written in conventional Python syntax
which is basically the same as you would expect to write any math expression. Any of
the Python math ( andnumpy ) module functions can bemused such as math.sqrt() or
math.sin() etc. Any of the ALICE global variables can be used but below is a list of the
most useful available variables and constants:
Waveform Buffers:
V Buff A is the Channel A voltage sample array ( in volts )
V Buff B is the Channel B voltage sample array ( in volts )
I Buff A is the Channel A current sample array ( in amps, multiply by 1000 for mA )
I Buff B is the Channel B current sample array ( in amps, multiply by 1000 for mA )
V memory A is the Channel A voltage memory array used for Trace Averaging
V memory B is the Channel B voltage memory array used for Trace Averaging
I memory A is the Channel A current memory array used for Trace Averaging
I memory B is the Channel B current memory array used for Trace Averaging
AWG A waveform is the Channel A AWG waveform memory array (used for non-built in
waveforms)
AWG B waveform is the Channel B AWG waveform memory array (used for non-built in
waveforms)
t is the time index ( 10 uSec per point )
SAMPLE rate is the sampling rate, 100000 samples per Sec, or 10 micro Sec per
sample

Vertical Position variables:

CHA Offset is the value in the channel A voltage position entry window
CHB Offset is the value in the channel B voltage position entry window
CHAI Offset is the value in the channel A current position entry window
CHBI Offset is the value in the channel B current position entry window
As a simple example, to plot the difference between the channel A and B voltage
waveforms the following formula would be used:
(VBuffA[t] - VBuffB[t] - CHAOffset)
As the program iterates over the time index t, the channel B voltage value is subtracted
from the channel A voltage value and then offset on the screen by the channel A
position variable. This replicates the built-in math trace CA-V – CB-V.
A more advanced example calculates the time derivative of the channel B voltage
waveform, or slew rate, and scales it to V/mSec:

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(VBuffB[t] - VBuffB[t-1] ) * 100
Again as the program iterates over the time index t, the channel B voltage value at t-1 is
subtracted from the channel B voltage value at t and then multiplied by 100. The 100
scales the time from the 10 uSec per time sample to 1 mSec. The screen shot in figure
6, shows the result for a 4 V p-p triangle wave at 1 KHz. Since we are not displaying the
channel B current we can use its settings as the vertical axis for the math trace by
setting the Math Axis to I-B. The orange triangle wave changes 4 V in 500 uS for a slew
rate of + and – 8 V/mSec shown with the magenta Math trace.

Figure 6, Calculating the slew rate

A few words of caution, care must be taken when writing the formula to not cause a
Python syntax error or other math exception such as divide by zero. If you make a
mistake ALICE will stop and put up the math formula entry window so you can find
and correct your mistake.

The Right Side Menu Section

The Green Conn button in the top row indicates that a ALM1000 board is connected
and ready to go. If the button is red and says Recon then a ALM1000 board was not
found. Connect board and click on the button to connect to board.

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The File drop down menu lists commands for saving and loading configuration settings
(.cfg file). Save config does not save waveform data. Only the values of the various
controls and settings etc. Which windows are open and where they are placed on the
computer screen is also saved. When you Exit ALICE the program saves the
configuration in a file named ―alice-last-config.cfg‖. When ALICE is restarted this
configuration is reloaded so the program will be set up as it was when last exited.
ALICE also has a feature to read an init file that can set the sizes of the graphics display
areas and the trace colors etc upon start-up ( see the section at the end of this
document on configuring ALICE for more details ).
On most operating systems there is a way to capture a bit map graphic of any of the
display windows at any time. Some are built in or done through a support program or
application. In Windows:
Press the <alt> and <printscreen> keys to capture the currently selected window in the
copy buffer (clip-board). Then start a program such as Word or Paint (any similar
program). Use Paste to place the screen shot into your document or drawing etc. Then
save that file to disk.
It is possible to save the graphics display area to an encapsulated postscript file (.eps).
This is used to save a graphics file to be included in another program like a word
processor to write a Lab report. It is also possible to save the captured channel A and B
voltage and current signal data to a coma separated values file (.csv). For most
Time/Div settings the number of sample points is 2 screen widths with a minimum of
2,000 samples and a maximum of 90,000. This saved table of raw sample values can
then be loaded into other programs for analysis such as a spreadsheet program or
numerical processing program like MATLAB, or Octave. Similarly, it is possible to load
in trace data into the channel A and B voltage and current signal data buffers from a
saved csv file. This only works when stopped. If the green Run button is pressed new
data is captured over writing the data that was loaded from the file.
The Options drop down menu
Figure 2, lists a command for enabling smoothing where spline curves are used to
connect the input sample points rather than the default straight lines. A second option
for connecting the sample points is to use a zero order hold function where a horizontal
line and a vertical line are used. This looks like a stair step waveform much like the
output of the Digital-to-Analog converters used to generate the AWG output signals
actually produce.

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Figure 2, Options Drop Down Menu
The Trace Avg button turns on trace averaging. The number of sweeps to average can
be set with the NumAvg button. The width of the traces in pixels can be set with the
Trace Width button.
The currently displayed traces will be saved via the Snap-Shot option as reference
traces. They can be added to the graphics plot area by selecting the desired trace from
the Curves drop down menu for time plots. They will be drawn in a darker color
corresponding to the matching live waveform trace.
The Graphics display area can be drawn with either a Black (default) or White
background. Use these two buttons to select which is used. The last option button starts
the self calibration procedure. See later section for more details.

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The CA and CB measure drop down menus
Figure 3, list which vertical measurements for the Channel A and B voltage and current
signals are to be displayed along the bottom of the graphics display area.

Figure 3, Measurements Drop Down Menu ( CA )

The displayed vertical measurements can be the following:

 Average, which is the sample by sample sum of the data record divided by
the number of samples. For most Time/Div settings the number of samples is
2 screen widths.
 Minimum, which is the minimum value within the data record.

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  Maximum, which is the maximum value within the data record.
 Base, used mainly for square waves it is the voltage level of the lower flat
portion of the wave which may be different from the Min value due to
undershoot.
 Top, used mainly for square waves it is the voltage level of the upper flat
portion of the wave which may be different from the Max value due to
overshoot.
 Midpoint, which is the maximum value plus the minimum value divided by
two.
 Peak-to-Peak, which is the maximum value minus the minimum value.
 RMS, or True RMS which is the square root of the sum of the sample by
sample data record squared divided by the number of samples.
 CA-CB and CB-CA differences of the Average ( DC ) voltage values of the
channels.
 The true RMS value of the sample by sample difference of the A and B
channel voltages (A-B RMS)
 Display User defined measurement.

The displayed horizontal measurements for the voltage traces can be the following:

 High pulse width ( time waveform is above the mid-value )

 Low pulse width ( time waveform is below the mid-value )
 Duty Cycle ( percent of time waveform is High )
 Period ( time between 2 rising edges where waveform crosses mid-value )
 Frequency ( 1 / period )

Figure 3g shows examples of many of the possible waveform measurements. Six of the
vertical measurements are derived directly from the waveform data array. These are
Avg, Min, Max, Top, Base and RMS. The rest are calculated from these six. P-P is
obviously Max – Min. Mid is (Max + Min / 2). CA-CB is CA Avg – CB Avg.

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Figure 3g, Measurement examples
The User measurement option allows the user to calculate any other measurements
based off these constants. When clicked on the user is prompted for a label to be used
while displaying the value and a formula for calculating the value. Clicking on Cancel for
either the label or formula turns off the display of the User measurement.
For example the overshoot can be calculated by the formula:
(MaxV1 –VATop) / (VATop-VABase)
A second example would be the gain of a circuit where channel A is considered the
input and channel B is the output. The gain would be the ratio of the two P-P values:
(MaxV2-MinV2)/(MaxV1-MinV1)
A third example is to calculate the rms value of just the AC portion of a signal. The
ALM1000 inputs only accept positive voltages thus all ―AC‖ signals must have some DC
offset. The built-in True RMS calculation includes this DC component. To remove the
DC portion and just display the rms value of the AC portion of Channel A you can use
the following formula:
math.sqrt(SV1**2 - DCV1**2)

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The Crest factor can be calculated which is the ratio of peak-to-RMS values. The crest
factor for single frequency sine waves is 1.414 (1/0.707), but can be as high as five or
more for random noise. The crest factor for the channel A waveform would be the ratio
of the Max and RMS values:
MaxV1/SV1
Another common waveform calculation is the peak-to-average ratio or PAR.
MaxV1/DCV1
Two more examples are to calculate the Peak positive and negative slew rates. The
Numpy ediff1d function takes the differences between consecutive elements of an
array. We can use this to calculate the dv/dt or the time rate of change between
samples. Each sample is 10 uSec apart so we get V/10uS or we can divide by 10
for V/uS or multiply by 100 for V/mS. We can then use the Numpy max or min function
to find the positive ( maximum ) slew rate or the negative ( minimum ) Slew Rate using
the following formulas:
numpy.max(numpy.ediff1d(VBuffA))*100 or
numpy.min(numpy.ediff1d(VBuffA))*100
We can extend this calculation to estimate the rise and fall times for square wave
signals assuming a more or less constant ( peak ) slew rate between the 10% to 90%
levels. If we divide 0.8 ( 80% ) times the peak-to-peak value of the waveform by the
peak slew rate we get the rise or fall times.
(MaxV1-MinV1)*0.8/(numpy.max(numpy.ediff1d(VBuffA))*100) or
(MaxV1-MinV1)*0.8 / (numpy.min(numpy.ediff1d(VBuffA))*100)
If the waveform has significant overshoot or undershoot you could alternatively use the
VA Top and VA Base values rather than the Max and Min values.
Waveform calculated Vertical measurement scalars:
DCV1 is the channel A Average voltage
MinV1 is the channel A Minimum voltage
MaxV1 is the channel A Maximum voltage
VA Top is the channel A Top voltage
VA Base is the channel A Base voltage
SV1 is the channel A RMS voltage
DCV2 is the channel B Average voltage
MinV2 is the channel B Minimum voltage
MaxV2 is the channel B Maximum voltage
VB Top is the channel B Top voltage
VB Base is the channel B Base voltage
SV2 is the channel B RMS voltage
DCI1is the channel A Average current in mA
MinI1 is the channel A Minimum current in mA
MaxI1 is the channel A Maximum current in mA
SI1 is the channel A RMS current in mA

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DCI2 is the channel B Average current in mA
MinI2 is the channel B Minimum current in mA
MaxI2 is the channel B Maximum current in mA
SI2 is the channel A RMS current in mA
Waveform calculated Horizontal measurement constants:
CHAHW is the channel A High Pulse Width
CHALW is the channel A Low Pulse Width
CHAD Cy is the channel A Duty Cycle
CHA period is the channel A Period
CHA freq is the channel A Frequency
CHA B phase is the channel A to channel B relative phase angle
CHBHW is the channel B High Pulse Width
CHBLW is the channel B Low Pulse Width
CHB DCy is the channel B Duty Cycle
CHB period is the channel B Period
CHB freq is the channel B Frequency
The Math menu button, figure 4, opens a control screen that lists which sample point by
sample point calculated waveform combining the Channel A and B voltage and current
signals is to be displayed vs time.

Figure 4, Math traces control screen

One of the following built-in calculated waveforms can be displayed at a time:

 CA-V + CB-V, the sum of the channel A and B voltage waveforms

 CA-V – CB-V, the difference of the channel A and B voltage waveforms

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  CB-V – CA-V, the difference of the channel B and A voltage waveforms
 CA-I – CB-I, the difference of the channel A and B current waveforms
 CB-I – CA-I, the difference of the channel B and A voltage waveforms
 CA-V * CA-I, the product of the channel A voltage and current waveforms
which is instantaneous power
 CB-V * CB-I, the product of the channel B voltage and current waveforms
which is instantaneous power
 CA-V / CA-I, the ratio of the channel A voltage and current waveforms which
is instantaneous resistance
 CB-V / CB-I, the ratio of the channel B voltage and current waveforms which
is instantaneous resistance
 CB-V / CA-V, the ratio of the channel B voltage and channels A voltage
waveforms which is instantaneous voltage gain assuming CA-Vis input and
CB-V is output
 CB-I / CA-I, the ratio of the channel B current and channel A current
waveforms which is instantaneous current gain assuming CA-I is input and
CB-I is output

The first three calculations result in voltages and share the corresponding left side
voltage scale on the display grid. The two current differences result in a current and
share the corresponding right side current scale on the display grid. The two product
waveform calculations result in mW and share the corresponding right side scale on the
display grid. The two voltage over current waveform calculations result in Ohms and
share the corresponding right side scale on the display grid. These calculated
waveforms can produce strange looking results for periodic waveforms driving non-
resistive loads such as capacitors or inductors. The final two ratio calculations can be
used to calculate voltage gain and current gain respectively and are dimensionless.
If Formula is selected then the mathematical formula entered in the top formula, will be
plotted vs time. This allows greater flexibility in waveform plotting at the expense of
typing in the function to be plotted. See section on Advanced Math Traces below on
how to enter formulas. Any one of the four channel vertical axis controls can be chosen
for the Formula axis using the Math Axis entry. Generally when plotting using Formula,
one or the other of the four channels are not being displayed and its axis controls will be
available to be used. Two more math formulas, X Math Trace and Y Math Trace can
also be entered/edited through these controls.
The AWG control Window is opened by default when the program is started. Since all of
the displays use the AWGs in some fashion, it is important that this window be available
to all. If you dismiss ( minimize to the tool bar ) the AWG control window, clicking on the
AWG Window button will bring back the window.

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The X-Y Plots Window button opens the X vs Y display window.
The Spectrum Window button opens the Spectrum Analyzer display window.
The Bode Plot Window button opens the Bode Plot display window.
The Impedance Window button opens the Impedance Analyzer display window.
To update the display window for a particular tool ( when running ) the matching Time
Plot, X-Y Plot, Freq Plot, Bode Plot and/or Impedance Plot enable check boxes must be
selected. More than one display can be selected at a time but some combinations such
as X-Y and Spectrum or X-Y and Impedance would not make much sense while Time
and X-Y or Time and Spectrum might.
Analog Inputs
To keep production costs of the board low, certain trade offs were made. One was to
forego programmable input gain ranges that use resistor dividers and perhaps
adjustable frequency compensation capacitors. This limited the usable input voltage
range to 0 to +5V.
At the bottom of this section, just above the ADI logo, are entry windows which allow
input gain and offset adjustments or corrections for any external resistor divider
attenuator networks that might be added to the channel A and B inputs ( possibly used
when in the high impedance or Split I/O modes ). Save and Load Adj buttons can be
found under the File drop down menu.
The input capacitance, CINT, of the analog inputs in the high Z mode is approximately
390 pF (for the rev D design and slightly higher for the rev F design). This relatively
large capacitance along with relatively high resistance dividers can significantly lower
the frequency response. In figure In1 we again revisit the input structure of the M1k and
connecting an external resistive voltage divider R1 and R2,3<sub>. The contents of the blue box
represent the input of the M1k in Hi-Z mode. To introduce an optional DC offset for measuring negative voltages resistor
R<sub>2is included and could be connected to either the fixed 2.5V or 5V supplies on the
M1k. The CINT and effective resistance of the divider network form a low pass pole in the
frequency response. To give you a rough idea let's use 400 pF for CINT and 1 MΩ for the
resistor divider. That would result in a low pass response with a 3 dB roll-off starting at
around 400 Hz.
A capacitor would generally be needed across the input resistor R 1 to frequency
compensate the divider. Such a hardware solution generally requires the capacitor (or
alternatively the divider resistors) to be adjustable.

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Figure In1, External voltage divider options
It would be nice to not have to use a compensation capacitor, adjustable or otherwise. A
digital (software) frequency compensation feature has been implemented in the ALICE
1.2 Desktop software package.
The software frequency compensation for each channel consists of a cascade of two
adjustable first order high pass filters. The time constant and the gain of each stage can
be adjusted. Normal first order high pass filters do not pass DC so a DC gain of 1 path
is added to the overall second order high pass software compensation filter. This
structure is often called a shelving filter because of the shape of its frequency response.
In figure In2 we show the new controls for the input compensation. To turn on and off
the compensation for Channels A and B check boxes are added under the Curves drop
down menu. Turning on compensation applies to both the Scope and Spectrum tools
(time and frequency measurements). The filter time constant and gain settings can be
set using new entry slots in the Settings Controls screen. The DC gain and offset adjust
controls are unchanged.

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Figure In2, Software frequency compensation controls
The following examples use resistor values from the ADAPL2000 Analog Parts Kit and
the intention is to keep the input resistance equal to at least 1 MΩ. No external
compensation capacitor was used. A 500 Hz square wave from the Channel A AWG
output is used to observe the step response of the example resistor dividers and adjust
the compensation filter settings.
As a simple first example we can just use the 1 MΩ R1 resistor and not include the other
resistors from figure In1. This gives us a total input resistance of 2 MΩ.

Figure In3, Settings for just 1.0 MΩ R1

As we can see the DC gain setting is slightly more than 2 which is to be expected based
on the internal 1 MΩ resistor and external 1 MΩ R1resistor forming a 2:1 voltage divider.
There is a small DC offset due to the leakage current from the ESD protection diodes on
the M1k inputs and the parallel combination of RINT and R1.
The input gain factor of 2 (2.17 to be exact) increases the allowable measurement
range from 0 to +5 V to about 0 to +10 V. Enough to work with circuits powered from a
9 V battery.
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The stage 1 filter Time Constant is adjusted to correct for the majority of the AC roll-off
and the stage 2 filter Time Constant and Gain are tweaked to take out the remaining
higher frequency (2nd order) roll off. A number of TC and Gain combinations are
potentially possible and there may be more than one ―right answer‖.
A factor of 2X might not be enough of an increase in the maximum voltage to be
measured. We might also like to measure negative voltages. For a second example we
use two 470 KΩ resistors for R2 and R3 along with the 1 MΩ R1. R2 is connected to the
fixed +5V supply to introduce some positive offset.

Figure In4, Settings for R1 = 1.0 MΩ, R2,3 = 470KΩ

As we can see the DC gain setting is slightly more than 6 based on the internal 1 MΩ
resistor in parallel with the equivalent parallel combination of the two 470 KΩ
R2,3 resistors (235 KΩ) and the external 1 MΩ R1 resistor forming a voltage divider of
about 6:1. The input range is now slightly more than 30 V p-p.
For more on the use of input attenuators please refer to the following two documents:
M1K Analog Inputs
M1K Breadboard Adapters

For more details see detailed overview or visit page

https://wiki.analog.com/university/tools/m1k/alice/desk-top-users-guide

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INSTALL INSTRUCTIONS
WINDOWS 10
64 BIT

26
Adalm 1000 alice install instruction
(Install in same order as below)

1.Download and install anaconda python 2.7 version

from the link

https://www.anaconda.com/distribution

2. Install libsmu driver from here (.exe)

https://github.com/analogdevicesinc/libsmu/releases/l
atest
The drivers can be installed by installing the Libsmu library and clicking on the install WinUSB driver
box when prompted. If you encounter any issues, the Visual Studio 2015 runtime library may need to
be installed which can be downloaded from this Microsoft web page.

3. Install alice Version 1.1 software from here

https://github.com/analogdevicesinc/alice/releases/do
wnload/1.1.0/alice-desktop-1.1-setup.exe

27
 ADALM 2000 INSTALL INSTRUCTION
1. Install alice software from here

https://github.com/analogdevicesinc/alice/releases/
download/2.0.0/alice-desktop-2.0-setup.exe

2. Install libiio from here

https://ci.appveyor.com/api/projects/analogdevicesi
nc/libiio/artifacts/libiio-setup.exe?branch=master

3. Usb drivers from here

https://github.com/analogdevicesinc/plutosdr-m2k-drivers-win/releases/tag/v0.7

4. Visual studio from Microsoft Website

https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/download/details.aspx?id=48145

5. Guidance for M1K and M2K (Install instructions

and over view)
https://wiki.analog.com/university/tools/m2k/alice/users-guide-m2k

https://wiki.analog.com/university/tools/m1k/alice/desk-top-users-guide

28
 OHM’S LAW
Exp.no1

Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the voltage across the two points, and inversely proportional to the
resistance of the conductor. Introducing the constant of proportionality, the resistance,
one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes this relationship. The law
was named after the German physicist Georg Ohm

I=V/R
V = I *R

V=VOLTAGE in volts (V)

I = CURRENT in ampere (I)

R=RESISTANCE in ohms

Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes V is the voltage
measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the
conductor in units of ohms.

Materials:

ADALM1000 hardware module, Jumper Wires and breadboard

1 LED,

The longer of the two leads is the anode (+) and the shorter lead is the cathode (-)

1 Resistor

29
NOTE: LEDs are known as ―non-ohmic‖ devices. This means that the equation for the
current flowing through the LED itself is not the simple linear relationship V=IR. The
LED is a special kind of diode. All diodes have something called an internal ―voltage
drop‖. However, in this experiment we are simply trying to protect the LED from
conducting too much current, so we can neglect the non-ohmic current characteristics of
the LED for the moment and choose the resistor value using just Ohm's Law in order
insure that the current through the LED will be safely less than 20mA.

For this example, we have the +5 volt output of the ADALM1000 and a (red) LED with a
current rating of 20 milliamps, or 0.020 amps. To be safe, we would rather not drive the
LED at its maximum current but rather its suggested current, which is listed on its
datasheet as 18mA, or 0.018 amps. If we simply connect the LED directly to the battery,
the values for Ohm's law look like this:

Rearranging for I:

With just wire and no resistor yet:

Dividing by zero results in infinite current! Not actually infinite in practice, but as much
current as the +5 volt supply of the ADALM1000 can deliver. We certainly do not want
that much current flowing through the LED. We are going to need to include a resistor.

30
31
32
INSTRUCTIONS

• Connect as in bread board diagram

• Set channel A Voltage to 5V

• Measure channel B Voltage

• Note down channel A-B Voltage (Voltage across the resistor (V1)

• Measure channel A Current(I) – since circuit is in series this gives current

through resistor

• Veryfy Ohms laws V1 = I*R

33
34
The ADALM1000 can also function as an Ohmmeter. To measure a resistor simply
connects it between CH A and CH B as shown here.

Breadboard, measuring resistance. Ohm Meter screen

Close the Meter-Source tool and start the ALICE M1K Ohm Meter tool. The screen is
shown here. The software uses a known resistor to test the unknown resistor against.
The ADALM1000 has a built in 50 Ohm resistor that can be used for this. Be sure that
the Int option is selected. The voltage level that is used to measure the resistor can be
set. Testing at the maximum 5.0V gives the best results for most resistor values. Click
on Run and you should see something like this with the 470 Ohm resistor.

35
YOUR PART

36
 RESISTORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
Exp.No 2

Series Circuits Defined

When resistors are connected in series (as shown in figure 2), the terminal of one
resistor is connected directly to the terminal of the next resistor, with no other possible
paths such that all the current in one resistor has to flow into the next and so on.
When resistors are in series, they can be combined or lumped together as an equivalent
single resistor with a resistance equal to the sum of the series resistances, i.e.,

Figure 2: Series resistors, RSERIES = R1 + R2 + R3 +…

Why is this true? Ohm's Law tells us that the voltage across a resistor is equal to the
current through the resistor times the resistance. So for the above series circuit:

We know that all the resistors have the same current IS.

Similarly for the other three resistors so:

Or factoring out IS:

So the total equivalent resistance is simply the sum of their values.

37
Parallel Circuits Defined
When resistors are in parallel (as shown in figure 3), all of their first terminals are
connected together, and all of their second terminals are connected together.
When resistors are in parallel, they can be combined or lumped together as an
equivalent single resistor whose value is given by the following equation:

For two resistors in parallel this simplifies to:

Figure 3: Parallel resistors

Why is this true? Ohm's Law tells us that the voltage across a resistor is equal to the
current through the resistor times the resistance. So for the above Parallel circuit:
We know that all the resistors have the same voltage VS.

The current supplied by voltage source VS is the sum of the currents in the resistors.

Substituting for the four resistors we get:

38
Or factoring out VS:

Rearranging for resistance we get the total equivalent resistance:

Experiments
Materials:
ADALM1000 hardware module
Solder less breadboard and jumper wires
3 – 100 Ω resistors
3 – 470 Ω resistors
Resistors in Series:
Place three 100Ω resistors in series on your solder less bread board as shown in figure
4. Connect using jumper wires connect the CH A input to the left side of the first resistor
and the CH B input to the right side of the same resistor.

39
Figure 4, series connected resistors
Start the ALICE M1K Ohm Meter tool. The screen is shown here. The software uses a
known resistor to test the unknown resistor against. The ADALM1000 has a built in 50
Ohm resistor that can be used for this. Be sure that the Int option is selected. The
voltage level that is used to measure the resistor can be set. Testing at the maximum
5.0V gives the best results for most resistor values. Click on Run and you should see
something like this with the single 100 Ω resistor.

40
Move the CH B jumper wire to the right end of the second resistor as shown next.

Figure 5, two resistors in series

The ohm meter should now read the value for the two resistors in series or about 200 Ω.
Now move the CH B jumper wire to the right end of the third resistor as shown next.

41
Figure 6, three resistors in series
The ohm meter should now read the value for the three resistors in series or about 300
Ω.
Resistors in Parallel:
Now replace the 100 Ω resistors with 470 Ω resistors as shown in figure 7.

42
Measuring a single 470 Ω resistor
The ohm meter should now read the value for the single resistor or about 470 Ω. Move
the middle 470 Ω resistor so it is in parallel with the resistor on the right as shown next.

43
Measuring two 470 Ω resistors in parallel
The ohm meter should now read the value for the two 470 Ω resistors in parallel. Does
the measured value agree with the formula for resistors in parallel?
Move the third 470 Ω resistor so it is in parallel with the other two resistors on the right
as shown next.

44
Measuring three 470 Ω resistors in parallel
The ohm meter should now read the value for the three 470 Ω resistors in parallel. Does
the measured value agree with the formula for resistors in parallel?
Experiment with other combinations of resistors and values to check that the formulas
hold for any value resistor.

Combination Circuits
More complex connections of resistors are generally just combinations of series and
parallel connections. This is commonly encountered, especially when wire resistances
is considered. In that case, wire resistance is in series with other resistances that are in
parallel.
A combination circuit can be broken up into similar parts that are either series or
parallel, as shown in figure 7. In the figure, the total resistance can be calculated by
relating the three resistors to each other as in series or in parallel.

45
Combined Series and parallel resistors
R2 and R3 are connected in parallel in relation to each other, so we know that for those
two resistors the equivalent resistance will be:

The combined resistance of R2 and R3 are in series with R1 so the total equivalent
resistance will be:

For more complicated combination circuits, various parts can be identified as series or
parallel, reduced to their equivalents, and then further reduced until a single resistance
remains.

46
 YOUR PART

+5V
GROUND

Make connections as in the figure above

Measure voltage across each resistor using voltmeter tool

(CH A – CH B Voltage)

Calculate current through each resistor by the formula

I = V/R

Check, in series circuit, current is same through all the resistors.

47
Calibration

48
Measure a resistance (470 ohm) using ohm meter tool.

Measure the same resistor using a Voltmeter in lab.

Calibrate your internal resistance value (50.8) to get correct resistance value.

Percentage error.

Calculate the difference in value measured to value you got and calculate percentage
error

given value – actual value

Percentage error = actual value
∗ 100
Check whether it matches with the error code shown in your resistor.

Example.

Value given = 1 kilo ohm

Actual value = 990 ohm

1000 –990
Percentage error = 990
∗ 100=0.01%

49
 Voltage and Current Division
Exp.No 1

Objective

The objective of this lab activity is to verify the voltage and current division properties of
resistor networks.

Background

Voltage and current division allow us to simplify the task of analyzing a circuit. Voltage
division allows us to calculate what fraction of the total voltage across a series string of
resistors is dropped across any one resistor. For the circuit of Figure 2, the voltage
division formulas are:

50
Figure 2. Voltage division.

Current division allows us to calculate what fraction of the total current into a parallel
string of resistors flows through any one of the resistors.

Figure 3. Current division.

For the circuit of Figure 3, the current division formulas are:

Materials

 ADALM1000 hardware module with installed ALICE software (see the Notes
section at the end of this article).
 Various resistors: 470 Ω, 1 kΩ, 4.7 k Ω, and 1.5 k Ω

51
Procedure

1. Verify the voltage division:

a. Construct the circuit as shown in Figure 2. Set R1 = 4.7 kΩ, R2 = 1.5 kΩ, and use
the fixed power supply 5 V as voltage source VS.
b. Use the ALICE desktop tool to measure voltages V1 and V2 with AWG Channels
A and B in high-Z mode. The rest of the settings do not matter at this point.
Under the Curves drop-down menu select CA- V, CB-V, CA-I, and CB-I traces
for display. Or just click on All to select all four traces.

Figure 4. ALICE drop-down menus.

Under the CA and CB Meas drop-down menus, select Avg under the -CA-V- and
-CB-V- sections to display the average voltages on each channel. Click on the
green Run button to start taking measurements. The values will be displayed
below the main grid.

52
 Figure 5. Main grid.

Repeat this step for R1 = R2 = 4.7 kΩ and write down the measurements.

c. Calculate voltages V1 and V2 by using Equation 1 and Equation 2 in each case.

d. Compare the results from Steps 1a and 1b.

2. Verifying the current division:

a. Construct the circuit as shown in Figure 3. Set R1 = 470 Ω, R2 = 1 kΩ, and RS =

470 Ω.
b. Use the ALICE desktop tool to measure the currents I S, I1, and I2. Connect the
Channel A generator output as voltage source VS. Set CHA to source a dc
voltage of 5 V. Use Channel B as an ammeter to alternately measure I 1 and I2 by
connecting the lower end of R1 and R2 to Channel B with Channel B set to 0 V.

53
 Figure 6. Measuring I1 and I2.

To display the average current in each channel, select Avg in the -CA- Iand -CB-
I- sections of the Meas drop-down menus.

Figure 7. Meas drop-down menu.

Repeat this step by using R1 = R2 = 470 Ω and write down the measurements.

c. Calculate the currents I1 and I2 by using Equation 3 and Equation 4.

d. Compare the results from steps 2b and 2c.

54
 YOUR PART

VOLTAGE DIVISION

CH A CH B

5V

Make connections as in above.

Open Alice desktop. Set CH A & CH B in Hi – Z mode.

Measure CH B & CH A Voltages for different source Voltages and check with your
formula.

Vs Voltage CH B Voltage V2 =

V2 Vs * R2 / (R 1 + R2)
5V
3 .3V
2.5 V

55
CURRENT DIVISION

Replace R 1 by preset (variable resistor)

Measure I 2 from second circuit.

Change R 1 and note the vales for CH A current & CH B current

R1 CH A current CH B current Is = I1 + I 2
(Is)
I1 I2
R1 value 1
R1 value 2
R1 value 3
R1 value 4
R1 value 5

See that Is = I1 + I 2

56
 Proportionality and Superposition

Exp.No 2

Objective
The objective of this lab activity is to verify the proportionality and superposition
theorems.

Background
In this activity, the proportionality and superposition theorems are examined by applying
them to the circuits shown in the following figures.

1. The proportionality theorem states that the response of a circuit is proportional to the
source acting on the circuit. This is also known as linearity. The proportionality constant
A relates the input voltage to the output voltage as:

VOUT = A × Vϵ

The proportionality constant A is sometimes referred to as the gain of a circuit. For the
circuit of Figure 2, the source voltage is Vin. The response Vout is across the 4.7 kΩ
resistor. The most important result of linearity is superposition.

Figure 2. Source acting on circuit.

Connect channel A to Vout + channel B to Vout –

57
Superposition theorem
2. The superposition theorem states that the response of a linear circuit with multiple
independent sources, such as in Figure 3, can be obtained by adding the individual
responses caused by the individual sources acting alone.
For an independent source acting alone, all other independent voltage sources in the
circuit are replaced by short circuits and all other independent current sources are
replaced by open circuits, as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 3. Circuit with two voltage sources.

Connect channel A to Vout + channel B to Vout -

58
Figure 4. Circuit for response of just one source.

Connect channel A to Vout + channel B to Vout -

Materials

ADALM1000 hardware module.

Various resistors: 1 kΩ, 2.2 kΩ, and 4.7 kΩ.

Procedure

1. Verify the voltage division:

a) Construct the circuit of Figure 2. Using the Voltmeter tool, accurately measure Vout
for the three input voltages using the ALM1000 fixed power supply voltages) as shown
in Table 1. You should measure and record the actual fixed power supply voltages as
well.

b) Calculate the value of A in each case using Equation 1.

59
Table: 1

V in (volts ,unit V ) V out (volts , unit V) A (Gain , no units)

2.5 V 0.73 V 0.292
3.3 V
5.0 V

c) Plot a graph with Vin on the x-axis and Vout on the y-axis.

2. Verifying the superposition theorem:

a) Construct the circuit of Figure 3. Measure and record the voltage across the 4.7 kΩ
resistor.

b) Construct the circuit of Figure 4. Measure and record the voltage across the 4.7 kΩ
resistor.

c) Calculate the total response Vout for the circuit of Figure 3 by adding the responses
from Step 1a and Step 2b. Compare your calculated result to what you measured in
Step 2a. Explain any differences

(1) V out with 5 V + 2.5 V = 2.89

(2) V out with 5 V = 1.45
(3) V out with 2.5 V = 1.45

(2)+(3) = 1.45+1.45 = 2.9

(1)= (2) + (3) verifies superposition theorem

60
Response with 5 V & 2.5 V

Response with 5 V only

61
Response with 2.5 V only

62
 Your part

Verify superposition theorem for different set of resistors and voltage source

3.3 V 5.0 V

Connect channel A to Vout + channel B to Vout -

63
 Thévenin Equivalent Circuit and Maximum Power Transfer
EXP.No 3

Objective

The objective of this lab activity is to verify Thévenin’s theorem by obtaining the
Thévenin equivalent voltage (VTH) and Thévenin equivalent resistance (RTH) for the
given circuit, and then to verify the maximum power transfer theorem.

Background

Thévenin’s theorem is a process by which a complex circuit is reduced to an equivalent

circuit consisting of a single voltage source (VTH) in series with a single resistance (RTH)
and a load resistance (RL). After creating the Thévenin equivalent circuit, the load
voltage VL or the load current IL may be easily determined.

One of the principal uses of Thévenin’s theorem is to replace a large portion of a circuit,
often a more complicated and uninteresting part, with a simple equivalent. The new
simpler circuit enables rapid calculations of the voltage, current, and power than the
more complicated original circuit is able to deliver to a load. The theorem also helps to
choose the optimal value of the load (resistance) for maximum power transfer.

Figure 1.Circuit for Thévenin Equivalent Circuit

64
Figure 4. Measuring the Thévenin voltage. VTH

CH A CH B

Figure 5. Measuring the Thévenin resistance, RTH.

65
Figure 6. Thévenin equivalent circuit construction.

66
Constructing various resistance values

67
Procedure

1. Verifying Thévenin’s theorem:

a. Construct the circuit of Figure 2 using the following component values:
 R1 = 330 Ω
 R2 = 470 Ω
 R3 = 470 Ω
 R4 = 330 Ω
 R5 = 1 kΩ
 RL = 1.5 kΩ
 Vs= 5 V

b. Accurately measure the voltage VL across the load resistance using the
ALM1000 voltmeter tool. Use the voltmeter tool by connecting channel CA
to the positive node of VL and connect channel CB to the negative node.
VL will be the difference between CA volts and CB volts. This value will
later be compared to the one you will find using the Thévenin equivalent.
(VL = 2.13 V)

c. Find VTH: Remove the load resistance, RL, and measure the open circuit
voltage, VOC, across the terminals. Use the voltmeter tool by connecting
channel CA to the positive node of VOC and connect channel CB to the
negative node. VOC will be the difference between CA volts and CB volts.
This is equal to VTH. See Figure 4.(VTH = 3.00V)

d. Find RTH: Remove the source voltage VS and construct the circuit as
shown in Figure 5. Use the ALM1000 ohmmeter tool to measure the
resistance looking into the opening where RL was. This gives R TH. Make
sure there is no power applied to the circuit before measuring with the
ohmmeter and that the ground connection has been moved as shown.
(RTH = 576 ohms)

e. Obtaining VTH and RTH, construct the circuit of Figure 6. Create the value
of RTH using a series and or parallel combination of resistors from your
parts kit. Using the meter-source tool, connect channel CA for the VTH
source and set the value to what you measured for VTH in Step c.

68
 f. With RL set to the 1.5 kΩ used in Step b, measure the VL for the
equivalent circuit and compare it to the VL obtained in Step b. This verifies
the Thévenin theorem(voltage across RL = 2.11)

Verifying the maximum power transfer theorem:

a. Use circuit as figure 7

Figure 7. Circuit for maximum power theorem.

VS = 5 V, R1 = R2 = 470 Ω , R3 = 1 kΩ

b. Use the voltmeter tool by connecting channel CA to the positive node of V L and
connect channel CB to the negative node across RL. VL will be the difference
between CA volts and CB volts.

c. To find the value of RL for which maximum power is transferred, vary the load
resistances by constructing series/parallel combinations of 1 kΩ and 100 Ω for R L

69
 between 500 Ω to 1400 Ω in 100 Ω steps, as shown in Figure 8. For each value
of RL, write down VL.

d. Calculate the power for each load resistor value using PL = VL2/RL. Then,
interpolate between your measurements to calculate the load resistor value
corresponding to the maximum power (PL-max). This value should be equal to
RTH of circuit in Figure 1 with respect to load terminals.

Verification

RTH = 1.25 Kilo ohm

VTH = 2.43 V

When RL = 770 ohm

VL = 2.105 -1.179= 0.936

P = V* V / R = 0.00113 (P = V * I, I = V /R)

Similarly

WHEN

RL = 1.2 Kilo ohms

P = 0.00118

RL = 1.5 kilo ohm >> P = 0.00119

RL = 1.8 kilo ohm >> P = 0.00113

Maximum power transfer at 1.5 kilo ohm & hence Thevinens theorem of maximum
power transfer is verified

70
 YOUR PART
Verify Thevinens theorem for different set of resistors

71
 Transient response of a series RC circuit
Exp.No 4

Objective:

The objective of this lab activity is to study the transient response of a series RC circuit
and understand the time constant concept using pulse waveforms.

Background:

In this lab activity, you will apply a pulse waveform to the RC circuit to analyze the
transient response of the circuit. The pulse width relative to a circuit’s time constant
determines how it is affected by an RC circuit.

Time Constant (τ): A measure of time required for certain changes in voltages and
currents in RC and RL circuits. Generally, after four time constants (4 τ), the capacitor in
the RC circuit is virtually fully charged and the voltage across the capacitor is now
approximatively at 98% of its maximum value. This interval is considered to be the
transient response of the circuit. When the elapsed time exceeds five time constants (5
τ) after switching has occurred, the currents and voltages have reached their final value,
which is also called steady-state response.

Table 1 shows the voltage and current percentage values for the capacitor in the RC
charging circuit at a given time constant while charging.

72
Table 1. Voltage and Current Percentage Values for Given Time Constant

Percentage of Maximum
Time Constant (τ)
Voltage Current

0.5 τ 39.3% 60.7%

0.7 τ 50.3% 49.7%

τ 63.2% 36.8%

2τ 86.5% 13.5%

3τ 95.0% 5.0%

4τ 98.2% 1.8%

5τ 99.3% 0.7%

Note that the capacitor will never become 100% charged in reality. Therefore, five time
constants are used to consider a capacitor fully charged for all practical purposes.

The time constant of an RC circuit is the product of equivalent capacitance and the
Thévenin resistance as viewed from the terminals of the equivalent capacitor.

A pulse is a voltage or current that changes from one level to another and back again. If
a waveform’s high time equals its low time it is called a square wave. The length of each
cycle of a pulse is its period (T).

The pulse width (tp) of an ideal square wave is equal to half the time period.

The relation between pulse width and frequency is then given by,

73
Figure 2. Series RC circuit.

From Kirchhoff’s laws, it can be shown that the charging voltage V C (t) across the
capacitor is given by:

where V is the applied source voltage to the circuit for τ = 0, and RC = τ is the time
constant.

The response curve increases and is shown in Figure 3.

74
Figure 3. Capacitor charging for series RC circuit to a step input with time axis
normalized by τ.

The discharge voltage for the capacitor is given by:

Where Vo is the initial voltage stored in capacitor at t = 0, and RC = τ is time constant.

The response curve is a decaying exponential as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Capacitor discharging for series RC circuit.

75
Materials:

 ADALM1000 hardware module

 Resistors (2.2 kΩ, 10 kΩ)
 Capacitors (1 μF, 0.01 μF)

Procedure:

1. Set up the circuit shown in Figure 5 on your solderless breadboard with the
component values R1 = 2.2 kΩ and C1 = 1 μF. Open the ALICE Oscilloscope
software.
2. Set the Channel A arbitrary waveform generator (AWG) Min value to 0.5 V and
the Max value to 4.5 V to apply a 4 V p-p square wave centered on 2.5 V as the
input voltage to the circuit. From the AWG A Mode drop down menu, select the
SVMI mode. From the AWG A Shape drop down menus select Square. From
the AWG B Mode drop down menu, select the Hi-Z mode.

Figure 5. Breadboard diagram of an RC circuit.

76
 Figure 6. Breadboard connections for RC circuit R1 = 2.2 kΩ and C1 = 1 μF.

3. From the ALICE Curves drop down menu, select CA-V and CB-V for display.
From the Trigger drop down menu, select CA-V and Auto Level. Adjust the time
base until you have at approximately two cycles of the square wave on the
display grid.

77
 Figure 7. Oscilloscope configuration. This configuration uses the oscilloscope to
look at the input of the circuit on Channel A and the output of the circuit on
Channel B. Make sure you have checked the Sync AWG selector.

4. Observe the response of the circuit for the following three cases and record the
results.

a. Pulse width » 5 τ: Set the frequency of AWG A output such that the
capacitor has enough time to fully charge and discharge during each cycle
of the square wave. Let the pulse width be 15 τ and set the frequency
according to Equation 2. The value you have found should be
approximately 15 Hz. Determine the time constant from the waveforms
obtained on the screen if you can. If you cannot obtain the time constant
easily, explain possible reasons.

b. Pulse width = 5 τ: Set the frequency such that the pulse width = 5 τ (this
should be approximately 45 Hz). Since the pulse width is 5 τ, the capacitor
should just be able to fully charge and discharge during each pulse cycle
(see Figure 3 and Figure 4).

Figure 8.Measuring the time constant t approximately by counting the

number of squares.

78
 c. Pulse width « 5 τ: In this case the capacitor does not have time to charge
significantly before it is switched to discharge, and vice versa. Let the
pulse width be only 1.0 τ in this case and set the frequency accordingly.

5. Repeat the procedure using R1 = 10 kΩ and C1 = 0.01 μF and record the

measurements.

Observations

R= 2000 ohms

C = 1 microfarad

T (Time constant) = R*C = 2* 1000*1* 1/1000000 = 0.002

Pulsewidth = 5T

5 T = 5*.002 = 0.001

f = 1/(2*0.01) = 50 HZ

T = 25-5 = 20 ms (20/1000 = 0.02)

Pulsewidth = 15T

15 T = 15* 0.002=0.03

f = 1/(2*0.03) =16.66hz

Pulsewidth = 1 T

Pulse width = 1 T = 1* 0.002 =0.002

f = 1/ (0.002) = 250 HZ

79
 YOUR PART

Repeat this experiment with different values of resistor and capacitor.

At least two combinations of resistor and capacitor values.

Calculate time constant when pulse width = 5T from scope and compare with
your value calculated.

(Time from initial to 0.63 voltage level using makers)

V delta = 2.14 millisecond = 0.002 second

Select channel A current also. You will see a screen like above.

80
Do the same for when

Pulse width = 15 T

Pulse width = 1 T

Explain what do understand from the channel A current and channel B voltages in each
case.

You know

T = RC

Calculating T (Time constant) from the oscilloscope and with the formula calculate the
value of an unknown capacitor with known resistor.

81
 Transient Response of RL Circuit
Exp.No 5

Objective:
The objective of this lab activity is to study the transient response of a series RL circuit
and understand the time constant concept using pulse waveforms.

Background:
This lab activity is similar to another of our lab activities, Transient Response of an RC
Circuit, except that the capacitor is replaced by an inductor. In this experiment, you will
apply a square waveform to the RL circuit to analyze the transient response of the
circuit. The pulse width relative to the circuit’s time constant determines how it is
affected by the RL circuit.
Time Constant (τ): A measure of time required for certain changes in voltages and
currents in RC and RL circuits. Generally, when the elapsed time exceeds five time
constants (5τ) after switching has occurred, the currents and voltages have reached
their final value, which is also called the steady-state response.
The time constant of an RL circuit is the equivalent inductance divided by the Thévenin
resistance as viewed from the terminals of the equivalent inductor.

A pulse is a voltage or current that changes from one level to another and back again. If
a waveform’s high time equals its low time, it is called a square wave. The length of
each cycle of a pulse train is its period (T). The pulse width (tp) of an ideal square wave
is equal to half the time period.
The relation between pulse width and frequency for the square wave is given by:

82
Figure 2. Series RL circuit.
In an RL circuit, voltage across the inductor decreases with time, while in the RC circuit,
the voltage across the capacitor increased with time. Thus, current in an RL circuit has
the same form as voltage in an RC circuit: they both rise to their final value
exponentially according to 1 – e–(t × R/L).
The expression for the current in the inductor is given by:

where V is the applied source voltage to the circuit for t = 0. The response curve
increases and is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. The current in an inductor increasing in a series RL circuit.

(Time axis normalized by τ)

83
The expression for the current decay across the inductor is given by:

where:
I0 is the initial current stored in the inductor at t = 0
L/R = τ is the time constant.
The response curve is a decaying exponential and is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. The current decay through the inductor for a series RL circuit.
Since it is possible to directly measure the current through the inductor (current supplied
by driving source) with the ALM1000, we will measure and compare both the current
and the output voltage across the resistor. The resistor waveform should be similar to
the inductor current as VR = I × LR. From the waveforms on the scope, we should be
able to measure the time constant τ, which should be equal to τ = L/R TOTAL.
Here, RTOTAL is the total resistance and can be calculated from RTOTAL = R inductance +
R.
R inductance is the measured value of inductor resistance and can be measured by
connecting inductance to an ohmmeter prior to running the experiment.

84
Materials:

 ADALM1000 hardware module

 One resistor (220 Ω)
 One inductor (20 mH (two 10 mH in series))

Procedure:

1. Measure the combined inductor and resistor resistance RTOTAL by using an

ohmmeter. You can use the ALM1000 ohmmeter tool to do this. Remember that
the ohmmeter tool measures resistance with respect to ground when you
connect the series connected L1 and R1.
2. Set up the circuit shown in Figure 5 on your solderless breadboard with the
component values R1 = 220 Ω and L1 = 20 mH. Open the ALICE oscilloscope
software.

Figure 5. Experiment setup.

85
 Figure 6. Breadboard connections.

3. Set the Channel A AWG minimum value to 0.5 V and the maximum value to 4.5
V to apply a 4 V p-p square wave centered on 2.5 V as the input voltage to the
circuit. From the AWG A mode drop-down menu, select the SVMI mode. From
the AWG A shape drop-down menu, select Square. From the AWG B mode
drop-down menu, select Hi-Z mode. Calculate the applied frequency using
Equation 2 for tp = 5τ
4. From the ALICE curves drop-down menu, select CA-V, CA-I, and CB-V for
display. From the Trigger drop-down menu, select CA-V and Auto Level. Adjust
the time base until you have at approximately two cycles of the square wave on
the display grid.

86
 Figure 7. Oscilloscope configuration.

This configuration allows the oscilloscope to look at the input voltage of the circuit
and the current through the inductor on Channel A and the output voltage of the
circuit on Channel B. Make sure you have checked the Sync AWG selector.

5. The VR waveform has the same shape as the IL(t) waveform. From the VR
waveform, measure time constant t and compare that with the one that you
calculated from L/RTOTAL (hint: find the time that corresponds to the 0.63 VR
value). See the Background section for details.

CALCULATIONS

VR Method

Time constant T = L / Rtotal

Rtotal = 1000

T = L / Rtotal = 20 / (1000 * 1000 ) =0.02 /1000

Pulse width = 5 T

5T = 0.1 / 1000

tp = 5T

1∗1000
f= = 5000 Hz
2∗0.1

87
Peak to peak voltage = 4.0 V

0.63* 4.0 V = 2.52V

@ From 0.5 to 3.02 V >> T = 0.021 / 1000 ( Same as calculated)

Delta = 0.021

Same as calculated

88
From inductor current

CH A maximum current = 7.8 mA

7.8*0.63 = 5.00 mA

From 0.5 to 5.5 mA >> T = 0.019

Delta = 0.019

Delta = 0.019

Is approximately = 0.02

89
 YOUR PART
1. Observe the response of the circuit and record the results again for tp = 25τ and
tp = 0.5τ.Explain what do you understand from CH A current (inductor current)
and CH B voltage (voltage across resistor).

2. Calculate and explain how you can calculate an unknown inductance with a
known resistance value.(find T from oscilloscope and calculate L from the
formula

T = L / Rtotal)

90
 Voltage Follower
Exp.No 6

Objective:

In this lab, we will introduce the operational amplifier (op amp), an active circuit that is
designed with certain characteristics (high input resistance, low output resistance, and a
large differential gain) that make it a nearly ideal amplifier and useful building-block in
many circuit applications. In this lab, you will learn about Voltage Follower

Materials:

 ADALM1000 hardware module

 Solder-less breadboard and jumper wire kit
 One AD8542 devices (CMOS rail-to-rail amplifier)
 Two 0.1 μΩ capacitors (radial lead)

1.1 Op Amp Basics

First Step: Connecting DC Power

Op amps must always be supplied with dc power; therefore it is best to configure these
connections before adding any other circuit components. Figure 1 shows one possible
power arrangement on your solder-less breadboard. We use two of the long rails for the
positive supply voltage and ground, and one for 2.5 V mid-supply connections that may
be required. Included are the so-called supply decoupling capacitors connected
between the power supply and ground (GND) rails. It is too early to discuss in detail the
purpose of these capacitors, but they are used to reduce noise on the supply lines and
avoid parasitic oscillations. It is considered good practice in analog circuit design to
always include small bypass capacitors close to the supply pins of each op amp in your
circuit.

Figure 1. Power connections.

Insert the op amp into your breadboard and add the wires and supply capacitors as
shown in Figure 1. To avoid problems later, you may want to attach a small label to the
breadboard to indicate which rails correspond to 5 V, 2.5 V, and ground. Color code
your wires: red for 5 V, black for 2.5 V, and green for GND. This can help to keep the
connections organized.

Next, attach the 5 V supply and GND connections from the ADALM1000 board to the
terminals on your breadboard. Use jumper wires to power the rails. Remember, the
power supply GND terminal will be our circuit ground reference. Once you have your

91
supply connections you may want to use a DMM to probe the IC pins directly to ensure
that pin 8 is at 5 V and pin 4 is at 0 V (ground).

92
 3 8 2.5V
1

Parameter Rating of AD 8542

Supply Voltage (VS) 6 V

Input Voltage GND to VS

Differential Input Voltage1 ±6 V

Storage Temperature Range −65°C to +150°C

Operating Temperature Range −40°C to +125°C

Junction Temperature Range −65°C to +150°C

Lead Temperature (Soldering, 60 sec) 300°C

Remember that you must have the ADALM1000 plugged into the USB port before
measuring the voltages with the volt meter.

93
Unity-Gain Amplifier (Voltage Follower):

Our first op amp circuit is a simple one (shown in Figure 2). This is called a unity-gain
buffer, or sometimes just a voltage follower, and it is defined by the transfer function
VOUT = VIN. At first glance it may seem like a useless device but, as we will show later, it
finds use because of its high input resistance and low output resistance.

Figure 2. Unity-gain follower.

Using your breadboard and the ADALM1000 power supplies, construct the circuit
shown in Figure 2. Note that the power connections have not been explicitly shown
here; it is assumed that those connections must be made in any real circuit (as you did
in the previous step), so it is unnecessary to show them in the schematic from this point
on. Use jumper wires to connect input and output to the waveform generator output,
CA-V, and oscilloscope input, CB-H.

Use the Channel A voltage generator set to a 1.0 V min value and a 4.0 V max value (3
V p-p centered on 2.5 V), with a 500 Hz sine wave. Configure the scope so that the
input signal trace is displayed as CA-V and the output signal trace is displayed as CB-V.
Export a plot of the two resulting waveforms and include it your lab report, noting the
parameters of the waveforms (peak values and the fundamental time period or
frequency). Your waveforms should confirm the description of this as a unity-gain or
voltage follower circuit

94
Here we see the output waveform and input waveform are same. Also we observe the
P-P of both CH A & CH B are the same. Now we can say that output simply follows
input.

95
 YOUR PART

Select CH A SVMI to DC in wave form and take values as shown in table

CH A Voltage CH B Voltage
2.0 V
2.5 V
3.0 V
4.5 V
5.0 V

1. Explain what you understand from the readings

2. Explain what you understand when you selected sine wave or triangular wave.

3. Explain any one application of voltage follower which uses high input impedance of
op-amp.

96
 Voltage comparator
Exp.No 7

Objective:

In this lab, we will introduce the operational amplifier (op amp), an active circuit that is
designed with certain characteristics (high input resistance, low output resistance, and a
large differential gain) that make it a nearly ideal amplifier and useful building-block in
many circuit applications. In this lab, you will learn about Voltage comparator

Materials:

 ADALM1000 hardware module

 Solder-less breadboard and jumper wire kit
 AD8542 devices (CMOS rail-to-rail amplifier)
 Two 0.1 μΩ capacitors (radial lead)

1.1 Op Amp Basics – AD 8542

Single-supply operation: 2.7 V to 5.5 V

Low supply current: 45 μA/amplifier

Wide bandwidth: 1 MHz

No phase reversal

Low input currents: 4 pA

Unity gain stable

Rail-to-rail input and output

97
OP AMP – PIN CONFIGRATION

First Step: Connecting DC Power

Op amps must always be supplied with dc power, therefore it is best to configure these
connections before adding any other circuit components. Figure 1 shows one possible
power arrangement on your solder-less breadboard. We use two of the long rails for the
positive supply voltage and ground, and one for 2.5 V mid-supply connections that may
be required. Included are the so-called supply decoupling capacitors connected
between the power supply and ground (GND) rails. It is too early to discuss in detail the
purpose of these capacitors, but they are used to reduce noise on the supply lines and
avoid parasitic oscillations. It is considered good practice in analog circuit design to
always include small bypass capacitors close to the supply pins of each op amp in your
circuit.

98
 3 8 2.5V
1

2 4

Figure 1. Power connections.

Insert the op amp into your breadboard and add the wires and supply capacitors as
shown in Figure 1. To avoid problems later, you may want to attach a small label to the
breadboard to indicate which rails correspond to 5 V, 2.5 V, and ground. Color code
your wires: red for 5 V, black for 2.5 V, and green for GND. This can help to keep the
connections organized.

Next, attach the 5 V supply and GND connections from the ADALM1000 board to the
terminals on your breadboard. Use jumper wires to power the rails. Remember, the
power supply GND terminal will be our circuit ground reference. Once you have your
supply connections you may want to use a DMM to probe the IC pins directly to ensure
that pin 8 is at 5 V and pin 4 is at 0 V (ground).

Remember that you must have the ADALM1000 plugged into the USB port before
measuring the voltages with the volt meter.

Using an Op Amp as a Comparators

The high intrinsic gain of the op amp and the output saturation effects can be exploited
by configuring the op amp as a comparator, as shown in Figure 10. This is essentially a
binary state, decision-making circuit: If the voltage at the ―+‖ terminal is greater than the
voltage at the ―–‖ terminal, VIN > VREF, the output goes high (saturates at its maximum
value). Conversely, if VIN < VREF, the output goes low. The circuit compares the voltages
at the two inputs and generates an output based on the relative values.There is no
feedback between the input and output; when this happens, we say that the circuit is
operating open-loop.

99
 1

Figure 10. Op amp as comparator.

Comparators are used in different ways and in future sections we will see them in
action. Here we will use the comparator in a common configuration that generates a
square wave with a variable pulse width.

Start by disconnecting the power supplies and assemble the circuit. Use the fixed 2.5 V
output for the dc source on the inverting input, VREF.

Again, configure the waveform generator CA-V on the non inverting input, for a 2 V min
value and 3 V max value triangle wave (centered on 2.5 V) at 500 Hz. With the power
supply reconnected, export the input and output waveforms.

A plot example is presented in Figure 11.

100
 Figure 11. Op amp comparator plot.

Now slowly shift the center of the triangle wave by increasing (positive shift) or
decreasing (negative shift) the minimum and maximum values and observe what
happens at the output. Can you explain this?

Repeat the above for a sine wave and saw tooth input waveforms and record your
observations for your lab report.

101
102
 YOUR PART

Select CH A SVMI to DC in wave form and take values as shown in table

CH A Voltage CH B Voltage Reference voltage

3.0V 2.5V
2.7V 2.5V
2.3 2.5V
1.0V 2.5V

1.Explain what you understand from the readings

2.Explain what you understand when you selected sine wave or triangular wave.

103
 Low-pass RC filter
Exp.no 8

Objective:

The objective of this lab activity is to study the characteristics of passive filters by
obtaining the frequency response of a low-pass RC filter.

Background:

Passive filters consist of passive components, such as resistors, capacitors, and

inductors, that have no amplifying elements, such as op amps, transistors, etc. The
output level of the passive filters is always less than the input since they have no signal
gain.

The impedance of capacitors and inductors are frequency dependent. The impedance
of an inductor is proportional to frequency and the impedance of a capacitor is inversely
proportional to frequency. These characteristics can be used to select or reject certain
frequencies of an input signal. This selection and rejection of frequencies is called
filtering, and a circuit that does this is called a filter.

If a filter passes high frequencies and rejects low frequencies, then it is a high-pass
filter. Conversely, if it passes low frequencies and rejects high ones, it is a low-pass
filter. Filters, like most things, aren’t perfect. They don’t absolutely pass some
frequencies and absolutely reject others. A frequency is considered passed if its
magnitude (voltage amplitude) is within 70% or 1/√2 of the maximum amplitude passed
and rejected otherwise. The 70% frequency is called cut-off frequency, roll-off
frequency, or half-power frequency.

104
Figure 2. Low-pass RC filter.

At low frequencies, the impedance of the capacitor will be very large compared to the
resistive value of the resistor, R. This means that the voltage potential, V o, across the
capacitor will be much larger than the voltage drop across the resistor. Therefore, at
high frequencies the reverse is true, with Vo being small and VR1 being large due to the
change in the capacitor impedance value.

The cut-off frequencies for an RC filter:

Figure 3. High-pass RL filter.

At low frequencies, the impedance of the inductor will be very small compared to the
resistive value of the resistor, R. This means that the voltage potential, V o, across the
inductor will be much smaller than the voltage drop across the resistor. Therefore, at
high frequencies the reverse is true, with Vo being large and VR1 being small due to the
change in the inductor impedance value.

The cut-off frequencies for an RL filter:

105
Frequency response: A graph of the magnitude of the output voltage of the filter as a
function of the frequency. It is generally used to characterize the range of frequencies
that the filter is designed to operate within.

Figure 4. Frequency response of a typical low-pass filter with a cutoff frequency fc.

Materials:

ADALM1000 hardware module

Resistors (1 kΩ)

Capacitor (1 μF)

106
Procedure:

A. Low-pass RC filter:

Figure 5. RC circuit breadboard connections.

1. Set up the RC circuit as shown in Figure 2 on your solderless breadboard,

with the component values R1 = 1 kΩ, C1 = 1 μF.

2. Set the Channel A AWG min value to 0.5 V and max value to 4.5 V to
apply a 4 V p-p sine wave centered on 2.5 V as the input voltage to the
circuit. From the AWG A Mode drop-down menu, select SVMI mode.
From the AWG A Shape drop-down menu, select Sine. From the AWG B
Mode drop-down menu, select the Hi-Z mode.

3. From the ALICE Curves drop-down menu, select CA-V and CB-V for
display. From the Trigger drop-down menu, select CA-V and Auto Level.
Set the Hold Off to 2 (ms). Adjust the time base until you have
approximately two cycles of the sine wave on the display grid. From the

107
 Meas CA drop-down menu, select P-P under CA-V and do the same for
CB. Also, from the Meas CA menu, select A-B Phase.

4. Start with a low frequency, 50 Hz, and measure output voltage CB-V peak
to peak from the scope screen. It should be the same as the channel A
output. Increase the frequency of Channel A in small increments until the
peak-to-peak voltage of Channel B is roughly 0.7 times the peak-to-peak
voltage for Channel A. Compute 70% of V p-p and obtain the frequency at
which this happens on the oscilloscope. This gives the cut-off (roll-off)
frequency for the constructed low-pass RC filter.

Calculations

P-P Voltage of sine wave = 4.0 V

4 * 0.7 = 2.8 V (P-P)

Find out the frequency where the P-P of CH B drops to 2.8V

We will find it out at 160 Hz. If we increase the frequency further the P-P of CH B will
further decrese. You will find sharp decline in voltage after 230 Hz

From formula

fc = 1/ (2*3.14*R*C) = 1000000/(2*3.14*990*1) =

1000000/(2*3.14*1000*1) = 160 Hz

108
109
 YOUR PART

Plot a graph with the frequency in X –axis and Voltage in Y-axis

CH A Voltage(P-P) CHA frequency CH B (P-P) Cut of frequency=

fc=
Voltage
1/(2*3.14*R*C)
Hz Voltage
Hz
4.0 V 120 159.2 Hz
4.0 V 130 159.2 Hz
4.0 V 140 159.2 Hz
4.0 V 150 159.2 Hz
4.0 V 160 159.2 Hz
4.0 V 170 159.2 Hz
4.0 V 180 159.2 Hz
4.0 V 200 159.2 Hz
4.0 V 210 159.2 Hz
4.0 V 220 159.2 Hz
4.0 V 230 159.2 Hz
4.0 V 240 159.2 Hz
4.0 V 250 159.2 Hz
4.0 V 260 159.2 Hz
4.0 V 270 159.2 Hz

Explain the graph around cut of frequency.

110
 High-pass RL filter
Exp.No 9

Objective:

The objective of this lab activity is to study the characteristics of passive filters by
obtaining the frequency response of a High-pass RL filter.

Background:

Passive filters consist of passive components, such as resistors, capacitors, and

inductors, that have no amplifying elements, such as op amps, transistors, etc. The
output level of the passive filters is always less than the input since they have no signal
gain.

The impedance of capacitors and inductors are frequency dependent. The impedance
of an inductor is proportional to frequency and the impedance of a capacitor is inversely
proportional to frequency. These characteristics can be used to select or reject certain
frequencies of an input signal. This selection and rejection of frequencies is called
filtering, and a circuit that does this is called a filter.

If a filter passes high frequencies and rejects low frequencies, then it is a high-pass
filter. Conversely, if it passes low frequencies and rejects high ones, it is a low-pass
filter. Filters, like most things, aren’t perfect. They don’t absolutely pass some
frequencies and absolutely reject others. A frequency is considered passed if its
magnitude (voltage amplitude) is within 70% or 1/√2 of the maximum amplitude passed
and rejected otherwise. The 70% frequency is called cut-off frequency, roll-off
frequency, or half-power frequency.

111
Figure 2. Low-pass RC filter.

At low frequencies, the impedance of the capacitor will be very large compared to the
resistive value of the resistor, R. This means that the voltage potential, V o, across the
capacitor will be much larger than the voltage drop across the resistor. Therefore, at
high frequencies the reverse is true, with Vo being small and VR1 being large due to the
change in the capacitor impedance value.

The cut-off frequencies for an RC filter:

Figure 3. High-pass RL filter.

At low frequencies, the impedance of the inductor will be very small compared to the
resistive value of the resistor, R. This means that the voltage potential, V o, across the
inductor will be much smaller than the voltage drop across the resistor. Therefore, at
high frequencies the reverse is true, with Vo being large and VR1 being small due to the
change in the inductor impedance value.

The cut-off frequencies for an RL filter:

112
Frequency response: A graph of the magnitude of the output voltage of the filter as a
function of the frequency. It is generally used to characterize the range of frequencies
that the filter is designed to operate within.

Materials:

 ADALM1000 hardware module

 Resistors (1 kΩ)
 Inductor (20 mH)

High-pass RL filter:

Figure 6. RL circuit breadboard connections.

1. Set up the RL circuit as shown in Figure 3 on your solderless breadboard, with

the component values R1 = 1 kΩ, L = 20 mH.

2. Set the Channel A AWG min value to 0.5 V and max value to 4.5 V to apply a 4
V p-p sine wave centered on 2.5 V as the input voltage to the circuit. From the
AWG A Mode drop-down menu, select SVMI mode. From the AWG A Shape
drop-down menu, select Sine. From the AWG B Mode drop-down menu, select
the Hi-Z mode.
113
 3. From the ALICE Curves drop-down menu, select CA-V and CB-V for display.
From the Trigger drop-down menu, select CA-V and Auto Level. Set the Hold
Off to 2 (ms). Adjust the time base until you have approximately two cycles of the
sine wave on the display grid. From the Meas CA drop-down menu, select P-P
under CA-V and do the same for CB. Also, from the Meas CA menu, select A-B
Phase.

4. Start with a high frequency, 20 kHz, and measure output voltage CB-V peak to
peak from the scope screen. It should be the same as the Channel A output.
Lower the frequency of Channel A in small increments until the peak-to-peak
voltage of Channel B is roughly 0.7 times the peak-to-peak voltage for Channel
A. Compute 70% of V p-p and obtain the frequency at which this happens on the
oscilloscope. This gives the cut-off (roll-off) frequency for the constructed high-
pass RL filter.

Calculations

R = 1000 ohms

L = 20 * 1/1000 H

Fc = 1000/(2*3.14*20)*1000 = 0.00796*1000000 = 7960 Hz

P-P voltage = 3.7 V

0.7*Vs = 3.7 * 0.7 = 2.5 V

CH B P-P 2.5 V @ 8470 Hz

114
CH B P-P 2.5 V @ 8470 Hz

We observe a small difference of 510 Hz between calculated value and real value. This
could be due to the tolerance in inductor and resistance values.

115
 YOUR PART

Plot a graph with the frequency in X –axis and Voltage in Y-axis..

CH A Voltage(P-P) CHA frequency CH B (P-P) Cut of frequency=

fc=
Voltage
R/(2*3.14*L)
Hz Voltage
Hz
3.7 V 6600 7960
3.7 V 6800 7960
3.7 V 7000 7960
3.7 V 7200 7960
3.7 V 7400 7960
3.7 V 7600 7960
3.7 V 7800 7960
3.7 V 8000 7960
3.7 V 8200 7960
3.7 V 8400 7960
3.7 V 8600 7960
3.7 V 8800 7960
3.7 V 9000 7960
3.7 V 9200 7960
3.7 V 9500 7960

Explain the graph around cut of frequency.

Construct circuit with different values of resistor and inductor and repeat the experiment.

116
 Parallel LC resonant circuit
Exp.No 10

Objective:

The objective of this activity is to examine the oscillations of a parallel LC resonant

circuit. In addition, the self-resonance of a real inductor will be examined.

Background:

A resonant circuit, also called a tuned circuit, consists of an inductor and a capacitor
together with a voltage or current source. It is one of the most important circuits used in
electronics. For example, a resonant circuit, in one of many forms, allows us to tune into
a desired radio or television station from the vast number of signals that are around us
at any time.

A network is in resonance when the voltage and current at the network input terminals
are in phase and the input impedance of the network is purely resistive.

Figure 2. Parallel resonance circuit.

Consider the parallel RLC circuit of Figure 2. The steady-state admittance offered by the
circuit is:

117
Resonance occurs when the voltage and current at the input terminals are in phase.
This corresponds to a purely real admittance, so that the necessary condition is given
by:

The resonant condition may be achieved by adjusting L, C, or ω. Keeping L and C

constant, the resonant frequency ωo is given by:

Or

Materials:

 ADALM1000 hardware module

 Solderless breadboard and jumper wires
 One 4.7 mH inductor (or larger)
 One 10 μF capacitor
 One 1 kΩ resistor
 One small signal diode (1N914)

Directions:

First, a quick diversion to examine using a diode as a switch.

118
Set up the circuit shown in Figure 3 on your solderless breadboard. Configure the AWG
CH-A to output a sine wave with a frequency 100 Hz and Min value of 0.5 V and a Max
value of 4.5 V (V p-p = 4 V). Set up the horizontal time scale to view two full cycles of
the sine wave on Channel A and so that the signal looks as large as possible without
going off the screen. Configure Channel B in Hi-Z Mode and connect it to where R1
connects to D1.

Figure 3. Diode test circuit.

Figure 4. Diode test circuit breadboard connections.

Hand draw the circuit diagram, carefully labeling the connections from the ALM1000 for
CH-A, 2.5 V, and CH-B, and include it in your lab report. From the Curves drop-down
menu, select the CA-V, CA-I, and CB-V traces for display. On the right-hand side of the

119
scope screen, enter 2.5 for the CA-V and CB-V offset adjustment. This is because in
this experiment we are referencing all the measurements to the 2.5 V common rail. Also
enter 0 for the CH-A and CH-B vertical position settings (along the bottom of scope
screen). The vertical scale should now be centered on 0 and go from –2.5 to +2.5.

Click Run. You will not be given this direction at every step. It is assumed that you will
know you have to start and stop the sweeps at various steps in the experiments.

Use the Math drop-down menu and add a trace that displays the difference between
CH-A and CH-B. For this experiment, make sure the vertical scales are the same for all
three signals being displayed.

Observe what happens to the sine wave as it passes through the diode and the current
being supplied by Channel A. Describe the waveforms in a sentence. Save the display
and copy and paste it into your lab report. Label the input voltage (produced by the
AWG source), the input current supplied by the source, and the output voltage (across
the resistor). Also show the magnitude of each signal at key points (do not assume that
the reader can easily figure it out from the scales on the plot).

1. Based on this observation, what is the function of a diode?

Switch the AWG A shape to square wave output and make sure the oscilloscope
shows a few cycles of the signal. Save this waveform and include it in your report.
Again, fully annotate your plot.

Reconfigure the breadboard circuit with the diode, inductor, and capacitor, as shown in
Figure 5. Mentioned earlier, connect Channel A to the diode and Channel B across the
capacitor and inductor.

120
Figure 5. LC resonator test circuit

Figure 6. LC resonator test circuit breadboard connections

2. Calculate the frequency at which the circuit should oscillate.

Now you will use the oscilloscope to measure the frequency at which the circuit actually
oscillates. When you apply the 100 Hz square wave, the LC circuit will oscillate
immediately after the falling edge of the square wave. Change the horizontal position or
hold-off time to place the oscillations at the left of the grid (so you can see as much of
the oscillation as possible).

Change your Horizontal Time/Div in order to easily observe and measure the period of
oscillation. With the sweeping stopped (red stop button), left clicking on the display grid
will add marker points to the display. The delta in voltage and time between the last two

121
markers will also be displayed. Use the delta time between adjacent peaks or valleys of
the oscillations to get the period. Save the display and include it in your report (fully
annotated).

3. From the period, determine the frequency at which the circuit oscillates.

The frequency should be approximately equal to the calculated frequency. If not, check
the component values in your circuit and calculations. Note in your report if the
frequency you measured is a little smaller or a little larger than the one given by the
formula.

Do you see why the diode was used? A diode passes current in one direction only.
During the half of the square wave above the 2.5 V rail, the diode conducts and
energizes the LC resonator. For the half of the square wave below the 2.5 V rail, the
diode does not conduct, so the LC resonator is effectively isolated from the AWG
source and is free to oscillate.

4. Does the waveform have a constant amplitude, or does it grow or decay?

Describe the waveform in words and discuss why it differs from simple theory. Look up
the specification sheet for the inductor and see if you can find the characteristic that
causes the growth or decay (here is where reading the entire write-up will help you).

Now adjust the square wave so that its Min value is 0.5 V and Max value is 3.5 V (V p-p
= 3 V).

Repeat the measurements you just made, again saving and annotating the data plots.
Explore other combinations of Min and Max values for the square wave.

5. What is different about the voltages measured? Compare to the previous plot.

Energy Storage

The voltage across the parallel capacitor/inductor should be a decaying sinusoid (also
called a damped sine wave). A realistic model of an inductor includes a series
resistance. Some of the energy in the resonator is converted to heat when current flows
through this resistance. This loss of energy results in the amplitude of the osculation
decaying over time.

In addition to the resonator voltage, we would also like to measure the capacitor and
inductor currents. First, to obtain the current in the capacitor, we can make use of the
following formula:

122
To calculate the discrete time derivative of the capacitor voltage, we can subtract two
consecutive time samples and divide by the change in time between samples. The time
between samples is simply 1/sample rate. For the ALM1000, the sample rate is 100
kSPS or 10 μsec per sample. The value of C1 is 10 μF, which just happens to cancel
when divided by the 10 μsec. The formula gives the current in amps. To plot in mA,
simply multiply by 1000. Set the Math axis to I-A and enter the following for the Math
formula:

Looking at the schematic in Figure 5, again we note that when the diode is off and the
resonator is oscillating, the only place for the current in the capacitor to go is in the
inductor. So:

From the inductor current waveform and the capacitor voltage waveform, we can
calculate the instantaneous energy in each component. Using the Math formula feature,
plot the two energy waveforms as a function of time.

The first will be the energy in the inductor. The units for inductance is joules per ampere
square. So the energy in joules is:

One half of the 4.7 mH inductor value is 0.00235 H. A 4.7 mH inductor with 40 mA
flowing through it is storing 0.00000376 joules of energy or 3.76 μJ (microjoules). A very
small number so we will scale it by 106. To plot the energy in the inductor (in
microjoules), enter the following for the Math formula:

The second will be the energy in the capacitor. The units for capacitance is coulombs
squared per joule. The number of coulombs stored on the capacitor is equal to the
capacitance times the voltage. So the energy in joules is:

123
One half of the 10 μF inductor value is 0.000005 F. A 10 μF capacitor charged to 1 V
has 0.000005 joules of energy or 5 μJ (microjoules). A very small number so we will
scale it by 106. To plot the energy in the capacitor (in microjoules), enter the following
for the Math formula:

Save and fully annotate these plots in your report.

Discuss the two energy values, how they change with time, and their relation to one
another. For example, when is the energy contained mostly or entirely in the inductor?
When is it contained mostly or entirely in the capacitor? What trends over time from
cycle to cycle do you see? Be as quantitative as you can, but mostly address the overall
picture.

The current in the inductor can be directly measured by disconnecting the inductor from
the fixed 2.5 V power rail and connecting it to the output of AWG Channel B as shown in
Figure 7. Set AWG CH-B to SVMI Mode and Shape dc with the Max value set to 2.5 V.
Select the CB-I trace from the Curves menu.

Compare the trace you get with the calculated capacitor current (and by the same
inference we just made, the inductor current). Note any differences and explain why.

How could you use this measurement technique to directly measure the current in the
capacitor?

124
Figure 7. Directly measuring the inductor current.

Figure 8. Directly measuring the inductor current breadboard connections.

Self-Resonance

All real inductors possess a built-in capacitance, called a parasitic capacitance. The
inductor acts as if it has a capacitance connected in parallel with it. This is sometimes
called the winding capacitance.

Remove the capacitor from your breadboard and measure the frequency at which the
inductor oscillates. Adjust the horizontal time scale as needed to clearly see the
oscillation. You probably want to turn on Waveform Smoothing (under the options
menu) when measuring the high frequency that the inductor self resonates at.

125
Self-Resonance Example

Figure 8 is a representative example of self-resonance waveform for a 4.7 mH inductor.

Figure 9. Self-resonance.

Calculations

L = 4.7 mH

C = 1.0 µF

f0 = 1/(2*3.14*0.6856*1.0)*100000 = 2323 KHz (calculated value)

f0 =1/0.257*2*1000= 1945 KHz(from scope)

Self-resonance (From scope)

f0 = 1/0.026*1000=38.46 KHz

126
Oscillation for 4.7 mH & 1µF

f0 =1/0.257*2*1000= 1945 KHz(from scope)

127
Self oscillation

f0 = 1/0.026*1000=38.46 KHz

128
Effect of diode

129
 YOUR PART

Repeat the same experiment for 10 mH, 20 mH.

Calculate the oscillating frequency and compare from you got on graph.

Find the self response frequency also for these inductors.

Explain why oscillation is decaying.

Explain why diode is used.

Show screen shoot for all.

130
 Resonance in RLC circuits
Exp.No 11

Objective:

The objective of this lab activity is to study the phenomenon of resonance in parallel
RLC circuits. Determine the resonant frequency and bandwidth of the given network
using the amplitude response to a sinusoidal source.

Background:

A resonant circuit, also called a tuned circuit, consists of an inductor and a capacitor
together with a voltage or current source. It is one of the most important circuits used in
electronics. For example, a resonant circuit, in one of many forms, allows us to tune into
a desired radio or television station from the vast number of signals that are around us
at any time.

A network is in resonance when the voltage and current at the network input terminals
are in phase and the input impedance of the network is purely resistive.

Figure 2. Parallel resonance circuit.

Consider the parallel RLC circuit of Figure 2. The steady-state admittance offered by the
circuit is:

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Resonance occurs when the voltage and current at the input terminals are in phase.
This corresponds to a purely real admittance, so that the necessary condition is given
by

The resonant condition may be achieved by adjusting L, C, or ω. Keeping L and C

constant, the resonant frequency ωo is given by:

Or:

Frequency response is a plot of the magnitude of the output voltage of a resonance

circuit as a function of frequency. The response of course starts at zero, reaches a
maximum value in the vicinity of the natural resonant frequency, and then drops again
to zero as ω becomes infinite. The frequency response is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Frequency response of a parallel resonant circuit.

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  The two additional frequencies ω1 and ω2 are also indicated; these are called
half-power frequencies. These frequencies locate those points on the curve at
which the voltage response is 1/√2, or 0.707 times the maximum value. They are
used to measure the bandwidth of the response curve. This is called the half-
power bandwidth of the resonant circuit and is defined as:

Figure 4. Series resonance circuit.

Materials:

 ADALM1000 hardware module

 Resistors: 100 Ω, 1 kΩ
 Capacitors: 1 μF, 0.01 μF
 Inductors: 20 mH

Procedure:

1. Set up the RLC circuit as shown in Figure 5 on your solderless breadboard, with
the component values RS = 100 Ω, R1 = 1 kΩ, C1 = 1 μF, and L1 = 20 mH.

133
 Figure 5. Parallel resonance circuit with a series resistance connected to a
source.

Figure 6. Parallel resonance circuit breadboard circuit.

2. Set the Channel A AWG Min value to 0.5 and AWG Max value to 4.5 V to apply
a 4 V p-p sine wave centered on 2.5 V as the input voltage to the circuit. From
the AWG A Mode drop-down menu, select SVMI mode. From the AWG A

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 Shape drop-down menu, select Sine. From the AWG B Mode drop-down menu,
select Hi-Z mode.
3. From the ALICE Curves drop-down menu, select CA-V and CB-V for display.
From the Trigger drop-down menu, select CA-V and Auto Level. Set the Hold
Off to 2 ms. Adjust the time base until you have approximately two cycles of the
sine wave on the display grid. From the Meas CA drop-down menu, select P-P
under CA-V and do the same for CB. Also from the Meas CA menu, select A-B
Phase.
4. Vary the frequency of the sine wave on the AWG A menu from 500 Hz to 2.5 kHz
in 100 Hz steps. For each frequency, write down the p-p voltage for Channel A
and Channel B and the A-B phase. Note the frequency where the voltage is
maximum at the output of the circuit for Channel B. This will be near the resonant
frequency of the circuit. Note that the phase should be nearly 0° at this
frequency. Adjust the frequency in 10 Hz increments around where you see a
maximum for CB p-p voltage until the A-B phase is exactly zero.

Figure 7. Input and output waveforms near resonant frequency.

135
Calculations

1/(2*3.14*1.414)*10000 = 0.11259*10000 = 1.1259 KHz

136
 YOUR PART
1. Vary the frequency of the sine wave on the AWG A menu from 500 Hz to 2.5 kHz
in 100 Hz steps. For each frequency, write down the p-p voltage for Channel A
and Channel B and the A-B phase. Note the frequency where the voltage is
maximum at the output of the circuit for Channel B. This will be near the resonant
frequency of the circuit. Note that the phase should be nearly 0° at this
frequency. Adjust the frequency in 10 Hz increments around where you see a
maximum for CB p-p voltage until the A-B phase is exactly zero.

CH A-B Phase minimum @1406 Hz CHB P-P V = 2.67V

137
Frequency CH A P-P CH B P-P A-B phase
Hz Voltage (V) Voltage (V) Degree
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1401
1402
1403
1404
1405
1406
1407
1408
1409
1410
1500
1700
1800
1900
2000
2100
…….. …… …… ……

2. The two additional frequencies ω1 and ω2 are also indicated; these are called
half-power frequencies. These frequencies locate those points on the curve at
which the voltage response is 1/√2, or 0.707 times the maximum value. They are
used to measure the bandwidth of the response curve. This is called the half-
power bandwidth of the resonant circuit and is defined as:

Here ω1 and ω2 @ 2.67*0.707 = 1.88 V

2. Find at which frequencies (ω1 and ω2) CH B P-P V is 1.88

138
3. Find out band width for your circuit

F1-Lower cut of frequency

139
 F2-Upper cut of frequency

f1 = 180 Hz

f2 = 3200 Hz

Band width = 3200-180 =3020 Hz

140
Phase angle from scope

Delta =0.047

Phase angle = 0.047*3200*360/1000 =54.14

(Delta* f * 360 /1000)

Direct reading = 50.6

141
 Inverting and non inverting amplifiers
Exp.No 12

Objective:

In this lab, we will introduce the operational amplifier (op amp), an active circuit that is
designed with certain characteristics (high input resistance, low output resistance, and a
large differential gain) that make it a nearly ideal amplifier and useful building-block in
many circuit applications. In this lab, you will learn about inverting and non inverting
amplifiers.

Materials:

 ADALM1000 hardware module

 Solder-less breadboard and jumper wire kit
 AD8542 devices (CMOS rail-to-rail amplifier)
 Two 0.1 μΩ capacitors (radial lead)

1.2 Op Amp Basics – AD 8542

Single-supply operation: 2.7 V to 5.5 V

Low supply current: 45 μA/amplifier

Wide bandwidth: 1 MHz

No phase reversal

Low input currents: 4 pA

Unity gain stable

Rail-to-rail input and output

142
OP AMP – PIN CONFIGRATION

First Step: Connecting DC Power

Op amps must always be supplied with dc power, therefore it is best to configure these
connections before adding any other circuit components. Figure 1 shows one possible
power arrangement on your solder-less breadboard. We use two of the long rails for the
positive supply voltage and ground, and one for 2.5 V mid-supply connections that may
be required. Included are the so-called supply decoupling capacitors connected
between the power supply and ground (GND) rails. It is too early to discuss in detail the
purpose of these capacitors, but they are used to reduce noise on the supply lines and
avoid parasitic oscillations. It is considered good practice in analog circuit design to
always include small bypass capacitors close to the supply pins of each op amp in your
circuit.

143
 8

3 2.5V
1

2 4

Figure 1. Power connections.

Insert the op amp into your breadboard and add the wires and supply capacitors as
shown in Figure 1. To avoid problems later, you may want to attach a small label to the
breadboard to indicate which rails correspond to 5 V, 2.5 V, and ground. Color code
your wires: red for 5 V, black for 2.5 V, and green for GND. This can help to keep the
connections organized.

Next, attach the 5 V supply and GND connections from the ADALM1000 board to the
terminals on your breadboard. Use jumper wires to power the rails. Remember, the
power supply GND terminal will be our circuit ground reference. Once you have your
supply connections you may want to use a DMM to probe the IC pins directly to ensure
that pin 8 is at 5 V and pin 4 is at 0 V (ground).

Remember that you must have the ADALM1000 plugged into the USB port before
measuring the voltages with the volt meter.

Non inverting Amplifier:

The non inverting amplifier configuration is shown in Figure 8. Like the unity-gain buffer,
this circuit has the (usually) desirable property of high input resistance, so it is useful for
buffering non ideal sources with a gain greater than one.

144
 R1 Rf

Figure8. Non inverting amplifier with

Gain = A = 1 + Rf / R1

145
Non inverting amp with gain = 2

Assemble the noninverting amplifier circuit shown in Figure 8. Remember to shut off the
power supplies before assembling the new circuit. Start with R2 = 1 kΩ.

Apply a 500 Hz sine wave from CA-V set to a 2.0 V min value and a 3.0 V max value (1
V p-p centered on 2.5 V) and display both input and output waveforms on the scope.
Measure the voltage gain of this circuit and compare to the theory discussed in class.
Export a plot of the waveforms and include it in your lab report.

A plot example is presented in Figure 9.

146
Figure 9. Non inverting amplifier plot.

Increase the feedback resistor (R2) from 1 kΩ to about 4.7 kΩ. Remember you may
need to reduce the amplitude of the input to prevent the output from saturating
(clipping). What is the gain now?

Increase the feedback resistance until the onset of clipping—that is, until the peaks of
the output signal begin to be flattened due to output saturation. Record the value of
resistance where this happens. Now increase the feedback resistance to 100 kΩ.
Describe and draw waveforms in your notebook. What is the theoretical gain at this
point? How small would the input signal have to be in order to keep the output level to
less than 5 V given this gain? Try to adjust the waveform generator to this value.
Describe the output achieved.

The last step underscores an important consideration for high gain amplifiers. High gain
necessarily implies a large output for a small input level. Sometimes this can lead to
inadvertent saturation due to the amplification of some low-level noise or interference,
for example, the amplification of stray 60 Hz signals from power-lines that can
sometimes be picked up. Amplifiers will amplify any signals at the input terminals …
whether you want it or not!

147
 Inverting Amplifier

2
CH A
CH B
1
3

2.5V

Gain A = - Rf / Rin

Here the feedback is always given to inverting input.

Reference is given to non inverting terminal and input to inverting terminal through Rin.
Output will be an inverted waveform with gain multiplied to input waveform.

Gain A = - Rf/Rin

148
Non inverting amplifier

Gain = 2

R1= 1000

Rf = 1000

A =1+Rf/Rin =1+1000/1000= 2

0.58*2 = 1.16

149
Inverting amplifier

Inverting amplifier with gain = - 1

R1= Rf = 1000

Gain A = - Rf/Rin = -1000/1000 = -1

150
 YOUR PART

Ground

Construct circuit like this. (ground instead of 2.5 V)

Select CH A to DC source , CH B in Hz mode

CH A Voltage CH B Voltage Gain

0.5 2
1.0 2
0.5 1.5
1.0 1.5
0.1 10
0.2 10

151
Gain = 2

V out =A*Vin =1.5*2 = 3

152
Construct an Inverting Amplifier with gain = 0.5

Get the screen shot and output readings (p-p)

The example shown below is with gain = -1 (Rf = R1 = 1000)

Explain what do you understand from above wave form.

Change CH A to DC and give 2.0 & 3.0 V With gain = -1.Take screen shoot and what do
you understand.

153
 What Is Phase and Why Do We Care?
Exp.No 13

Objective:

The objective of this lab activity is to understand what is meant by the phase
relationship between signals and to see how well theory agrees with practice.

Background:

We will investigate the concept of phase by looking at sine waves and passive
components that will allow us to observe phase shift with real signals. First we will look
at a sine wave and the phase term in the argument. You should be familiar with the
equation:

ω sets the frequency of the sine wave as t progresses and θ defines an offset in time
that defines a phase shift in the function.

The sine function results in a value from +1 to –1. First set t equal to a constant—say, 1.
The argument, ωt, is now no longer a function of time. With ω in radians, the sin of π/4
is approximately 0.7071. 2π radians equals 360°, so π/4 radians correspond to 45°. In
degrees, the sine of 45° is also 0.7071.

Now let t vary with time like it normally does. When the value of the ωt changes linearly
with time, it yields a sine wave function as shown in Figure 1. As ωt goes from 0 to 2π,
the sine wave goes from 0 up to 1 down to –1 and back to 0. This is one cycle or one
period, T, of the sine wave. The x-axis is the time varying argument/angle, ωt, which
varies from 0 to 2π.

The value of θ is 0 in the function plotted in Figure 2. Since the sine(0) = 0, the plot
starts at 0. This is a simple sine wave with no offset in time, which means no phase
offset. Note that if we are using degrees, ωt goes from 0 to 2π or 0 to 360° to yield the
sine wave shown in Figure 2.

154
Figure 2. Two cycles of Sine(t).

What happens when we plot a second sine wave function in Figure 2 with ω, where the
same value and θ is also 0? We have another sine wave that lands on top of the first
sine wave. Since θ is 0, there is no phase difference between the sine waves and they
look the same in time.

Now change θ to π/2 radians, or 90°, for the second waveform. We see the original sine
wave and a sine wave shifted to the left in time. Figure 3 shows the original sine wave
(green) and the second sine wave (orange) with an offset in time. Since the offset is a
constant, we see the original sine wave shifted in time by the value θ, which in this
example is ¼ of the wave period.

Figure 3. Green: Sine(t), orange: Sine(t + π/4).

155
θ is the time offset or phase portion of Equation 1. The phase angle defines the offset in
time and vice versa. Equation 2 shows the relationship. We happened to choose a
particularly common offset of 90°. The phase offset between a sine and cosine wave is
90°.

When there are two sine waves displayed, for example, on a scope, the phase angle
can be calculated by measuring the time between the two waveforms (negative to
positive zero crossings, or rising edges, can be used as time measurement reference
points in the waveform). One full period of the sine wave in time is the same as 360°.
Taking the ratio of the time between the two waveforms, dt, and the time in one period
of a full sine wave, T, you can determine the angle between them. Equation 2 shows the
exact relationship.

Phase:

Where T is the period of the sinusoid.

Naturally Occurring Time Offsets in Sine Waves:

Some passive components yield a time offset between the voltage across them and the
current through them. The voltage across and the current through a resistor are a
simple time independent relationship, V/I = R, where R is real and in Ω. Thus, the
voltage across and current through a resistor are always in phase.

For capacitors and inductors, the equation relating V to I is similar. V/I = Z, where Z is
an impedance with real and imaginary components. We are only looking at capacitors in
this exercise.

The basic rule for capacitors is that the voltage across the capacitor will not change
unless there is a current flowing into the capacitor. The rate of change of the voltage
(dv/dt) depends on the magnitude of the current. For an ideal capacitor, the current i(t)
is related to the voltage by the following formula:

The impedance of a capacitor is a function of frequency. The impedance goes down

with frequency, while, conversely, the lower the frequency, the higher the impedance.

156
ω is defined as the angular velocity:

One subtle part of Equation 4 is the imaginary operator j. For example, when we looked
at a resistor, there was no imaginary operator in the equation for the impedance. The
sinusoidal current through a resistor and the voltage across a resistor have no time
offset between them because the relationship is completely real. The only difference is
the amplitude. The voltage is sinusoidal and is in phase with the current sinusoid.

This is not the case with a capacitor. When we look at the waveform of a sinusoidal
voltage across a capacitor it will be time shifted compared to the current through the
capacitor. Imaginary operator j is responsible for this. Looking at Figure 4, we can see
that the current waveform is at a peak (maximum) when the slope of the voltage
waveform (time rate of change dv/dt) is at its highest.

The time difference can be expressed as a phase angle between the two waveforms, as
defined in Equation 2.

Figure 4. Phase angle determination between voltage and current.

Note that the impedance of a capacitor is wholly imaginary. Resistors have real
impedances, so circuits that contain both resistors and capacitors will have complex
impedances.

157
To calculate the theoretical phase angle between voltage and current in an RC circuit:

Where Zcircuit is the total circuit impedance

Rearrange the equation until it looks like:

Where A and B are real numbers.

The phase relationship of the current relative to the voltage is then:

Materials:

 ADALM1000 hardware module

 Two 470 Ω resistors
 One 1 μF capacitor

Procedure:

1. Set up a quick measurement using ALICE Desktop:

o Be sure the ALM1000 is plugged into a USB port and start up the ALICE
Desktop application.
o The main screen should look like a scope display with adjustable range,
position, and measurement parameters.
o Check along the bottom of the screen to be sure that CA V/Div and CB
V/Div are both set to 0.5.
o Check that CA V Pos and CB V Pos are set to 2.5.
o CA I mA/Div should be set to 2.0 and CA I Pos should be set to 5.0.
o In the AWG controls window, set the Frequency of CHA and CHB to 1000
Hz with 90° phase, 0 V minimum, and 5 V maximum values (5.000 V
peak-to-peak output). Select SVMI mode and the sine waveform shape.

158
 o Under the Meas drop-down, select P-P for both CA-V, CA-I, and CB-V.
o Set the Time/Div to 0.5 ms and under the Curves drop-down, select CA-
V, CA-I, and CB-V.
o On your solderless breadboard, connect the CHA output to one end of a
470 Ω resistor.
o Connect the other end of the resistor to GND.
o Click on the scope Start button.

If the board has been calibrated correctly you should see one sine wave on top of
the other, with CHA and CHB both equal to 5.00 V p-p. If the calibration isn’t
correct, you might see two sine waves in phase with the amplitude of CHA
different from CHB. Recalibrate if there is a significant voltage difference.

2. Measure the phase angle between two generated waveforms:

o Be sure that CA V/Div and CB V/Div are both still set to 0.5 and that CA V
Pos and CB V Pos are set to 2.5.
o CA I mA/Div should be set to 2.0 and CA I Pos should be set to 5.0
o Set the Frequency of CHA and CHB to 1000 Hz with 90° phase, 0 V
minimum, and 5 V maximum values (5.0 V peak-to-peak output). Select
SVMI mode and the sine waveform shape.
o In the AWG control window, change the phase, θ, of CHB to 135° (90 +
45).

The CHB signal should look like it is leading (happening before) the CHA signal.
The CHB signal crosses the 2.5 V axis from below to above the CHA signal. It

159
 turns out a positive θ, which is called a phase lead. The low to high crossing time
reference point is arbitrary. The high to low crossing could also be used.

o Change the phase offset of CHB to 45° (90 – 45).

Now it looks like the CHB signal lags the CHA signal.

o Set the Meas display for CA to Frequency and A-B Phase. For the CB
display, set it to B-A Delay.
o Set the Time/Div to 0.2 ms.
o Press the red Stop button to pause the program. Using the left mouse
button, we can add marker point on the display.

Measure the time difference (dt) between the CHA and CHB signal zero
crossings by using the markers.

o The measured dt and Equation 2 is used to calculate phase offset θ (°).

Note that you cannot measure the frequency of a signal that does not have at
least one full period displayed on the screen. Usually you need more than two
cycles to receive consistent results. You are generating the frequency so you
already know what it is. You don’t need to measure it in this part of the lab.

3. Measure magnitude using a real rail-to-rail circuit.

Figure 5. Rail-to-rail circuit.

160
 o Build the circuit shown in Figure 5 on your solderless breadboard using
two 470 Ω resistors.

Figure 6. Rail-to-rail breadboard connections.

o In the AWG controls window, set the Frequency of CHA to 200 Hz with
90° phase, 0 V minimum, and 5 V maximum values (5.0 V peak-to-peak
output). Select SVMI mode and the sine waveform shape.
o Select Hi-Z mode for CHB. The rest of the settings for CHB do not matter
because it is now being used as an input.
o Connect the CHA output to the CHB input and GND with the wires as
shown by the colored test points.
o Set the Horizontal Time Scale to 1.0 ms/div to display two cycles of the
waveform.
o Click on the scope Start button if it is not already running.

The voltage waveform displayed in CHA is the voltage across both resistors (V R1
+ VR2). The voltage waveform displayed in CHB is the voltage across just R2
(VR2). To display the voltage across R1, we use the Math waveform display
options. Under the Math drop-down menu, select the CAV-CBV equation. You
should now see a third waveform for the voltage across R1 (V R1). To see both
traces, you can adjust the vertical position of a channel to separate them. Make
sure to set the vertical position back to realign the signals.

o Record peak-to-peak values VR1, VR2, and VR1 + VR2.

161
 Can you see any difference between the zero crossings of V R1 and VR2? Can you
even see two distinct sine waves? Probably not. There should be no observable
time offset and, thus, no phase shift.

4. Measure the magnitude and phase of a real RC circuit.

o Replace R2 with a 1 μF capacitor C1.

Figure 7. RC circuit.

162
Figure 8. RC breadboard connections.

o In the AWG controls window, set the Frequency of CHA to 500 Hz with
90° phase, 0 V minimum, and 5 V maximum values (5.0 V peak-to-peak
output). Select SVMI mode and the Sin waveform shape.
o Select Hi-Z mode for CHB.
o Set the Horizontal Time Scale to 0.5 ms/div to display two cycles of the
waveform.

Because there is no direct current through the capacitor, we have to handle the
average (dc) values of the waveforms differently.

o On the right-hand side of the main screen there are places to enter a dc
offset for Channel A and Channel B. Set the offset values as shown in
Figure 9.

Figure 9. Adjust Gain/Offset menu.

o Now that we have removed the offset from the inputs, we need to change
the vertical position of the waveforms to recenter them on the grid. Set CA
V Pos and CB V Pos to 0.0.
o Click on the scope Start button if it is not already running.
o Measure CA-V, CA-I, CB-V, and math (CAV – CBV) peak-to-peak.

What signal is the math waveform?

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 o Record VR1, VC1, IR1, and VR1 + VC1.

Now let’s move on to doing something with phase. Hopefully you see a few sine
waves with time offsets or phase differences displayed on the grid. Let’s measure
the time offsets and calculate the phase differences.

o Measure the time difference between VR1, IR1, and VC1 and calculate the
phase offsets.
o Use Equation 2 and the measured dt to calculate the phase angle θ.

The markers are useful for determining dt. Here’s how.

o Display at least 2 cycles of the sine waves.

o Set the Horizontal Time/Div to 0.5 μs. Be sure to click on the red Stop
button before trying to place markers on the grid.

Note that the Marker Delta display keeps track of the sign of the difference.

You can use the measurement display to see the frequency. Since you set the
frequency of the source, you don’t need to depend on the measurement window
for this value.

Assume dt is 0 if you can’t see any difference with one or two cycles of the sine
wave onscreen.

o Put a first marker at the negative to positive zero crossing location for the
CA-V (VR1 + VC1) signal. Put a second marker at the nearest negative to
positive zero crossing location for the math (VR1) signal. Record the time
difference (dt) and calculate the phase angle (θ). Note that dt may be a
negative number. Does this mean the phase angle leads or lags?

To remove the markers for the next measurement, click on the red Stop button.

o Put a first marker at the negative to positive zero crossing location for the
CA-V (VR1 + VC1) signal. Put a second marker at the nearest negative to
positive zero crossing location for the CB-V (VC1) signal. Record the time
difference (dt) and calculate the phase angle (θ).
o Put a first marker at the negative to positive zero crossing location for the
math (VR1) signal. Put a second marker at the nearest negative to positive
zero crossing location for the CB-V (VC1) signal. Record the time
difference (dt) and calculate the phase angle (θ).

Is there any measurable time difference (phase shift) between the math (V R1)
signal and the displayed CA-I current waveform? Since this is a series circuit, the
current sourced by AWG Channel A is equal to the current in R1, and C1.

164
Questions:

1. Using Equation 5 and Equation 6, determine the impedance (Zcircuit) and phase
(θ) relationship of the current relative to the voltage for a RC circuit by replacing
the A and B variables with proper values.
2. For the RC circuit in Figure 7, measure the time difference and calculate the
phase θ offset at 1000 Hz frequency.

Calculations

Phase angle θ = dt * f * 360 /1000

(since dt is in milliseconds & f = 1/ T)

165
Scope with all wave forms

166
Voltage across and current through the capacitor

Phase angle between voltage across the capacitor & and current through the capacitor

Delta = 1 ms

Phase angle = θ = 250*1*360/1000 = 90°

Current through the capacitor leads the voltage across the capacitor by 90°

Voltage across the resistor and current in series circuit are in phase

167
Power factor

Power factor = phase difference between current through channel A and voltage of
channel A

Power factor = θ = 250*0.787*360/1000 = 70.83°

(Leading)

168
Phase angle finding procedure validation

CHA-B phase from direct reading = 34.8

From scope = 0.318*250*360/1000 = 28.62

Almost same to validate your procedure.

169
 Your part
Repeat the same experiment with 20 mH inductor instead of capacitor.

Find power factor, phase angle between inductor current and voltage, CHA-B phase.

170
 Power and power factor in AC circuits
Exp.No 14

Objective:

In this lab activity you will determine real, reactive, and apparent power in
RC, RL, and RLC circuits. You will also determine the amount of
capacitance that is required to correct the power factor in a series RL
circuit.

Background:

For time varying voltages and currents, the power delivered to a given load
also varies with time. This time, varying power is called instantaneous
power. The power at any instant in time can be either positive or negative.
That is to say, power is going into the load and being dissipated as heat or
stored in the load as energy when positive and coming out of the load (from
the stored energy in the load) when negative. The real (or actual) power
delivered to the load is the average value of the instantaneous power.

For ac sinusoidal voltages and currents, the real power (P), in units of
watts, dissipated in an RC, RL, or RLC load circuit is dissipated in only the
resistance part. There is no real power dissipated in an ideal reactive
element like a capacitor or inductor. In a reactive element, energy is stored
during half of the ac cycle and released (sourced) during the other half of
the cycle. The power in a reactive element is referred to as reactive power
(Q) and has the units of var (volt-ampere reactive).

The real power (P) dissipated in a load can be calculated as follows:

Where R is the resistive part of the load and I is the (true) rms current.

The reactive power in a load can be calculated as follows:

Where X is the reactance of the load and I is the ac rms current.

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When a load has an ac rms voltage (V) across it and an ac rms current (I)
through it, the apparent power (S) is the product of the rms voltage and rms
current in volt-amperes (VA). The apparent power can be calculated as
follows:

If the load has both resistive and reactive parts, apparent power represents
neither real power nor reactive power. It is called apparent power because
it uses the same equation as dc power but does not take into account the
possible phase difference between the voltage and current waveforms.

A power triangle (vector diagram) can be drawn using the real, reactive,
and apparent power. The real power is along the horizontal axis, the
reactive power is along the vertical axis, and the apparent power forms the
hypotenuse of the triangle as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Power triangle.

Using geometry, S can be calculated by:

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The cosine of angle θ is defined as the power factor (pf). The power factor
is the ratio of the real power (P) to the apparent power (S) and is calculated
as follows:

Where θ is the phase difference between the voltage waveform (across the
load) and the current waveform (through the load). The power factor is
thought of as lagging when the load current lags the load voltage
(inductive) and leading when the load current leads the load voltage
(capacitive).

The real power can also be found from the apparent power by multiplying
the apparent power by the power factor:

The real power, in watts, dissipated in the load can be calculated from the
true rms resistor current and the resistance as follows:

The reactive power in an RC circuit, as in Figure 3, can be calculated

using:

Where VC is the rms voltage across the capacitor, I is the rms capacitor
current, and XC is the capacitive reactance.

The reactive power in an RL circuit, as in Figure 4, can be calculated using:

Where VL is the rms voltage across the inductor, I is the rms inductor
current, and XL is the inductive reactance.

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The reactive power in an RLC circuit, as in Figure 5, can be calculated
using:

Where VX = VC – VL is the rms voltage across the combined total

reactance, I is the rms current in the reactance, and X = XC – XL is the
combined total reactance. The rms voltage across the total reactance is
equal to the difference between the capacitor voltage (VC) and the inductor
voltage (VL), because the voltages have a 180° phase difference (out of
phase) between each other.

Power Factor Correction:

Power factor correction is generally required for inductive loads like large
ac motors. Because a power factor of 1 (unity) requires less peak current, it
is advantageous to compensate for the inductance bringing the power
factor as close to unity as possible. By doing this we make the real power
close to being equal to the apparent power (VI). Power factor is corrected
by connecting a capacitor in parallel with the inductive load.

To find the correct capacitor value required (Figure 6), first we need to
know the reactive power of the original RL circuit. This is done by drawing
the power triangle and solving for the reactive power. The power triangle
can be drawn from the real power and the apparent power and the power
factor angle, θ. Once the reactive power for the original load circuit has
been found, the capacitive reactance, XC, needed to correct the power
factor can be calculated as follows:

Where V is the rms voltage across the RL circuit. Rearranging …

174
… with a value for XC, the required capacitance can be found based on the
frequency (F) as follows:

Rearranging:

With the correct capacitor connected in parallel with the RL load (motor),
the power factor will be close to unity—that is, the voltage and current are
in phase with each other. And the real power will be nearly equal to the
apparent power.

Materials:

 ADALM1000 hardware module

 Solderless breadboard and jumper wires
 One 47 Ω resistor
 One 100 Ω resistor
 One 10 μF capacitor
 One 47 mH inductor

Directions for the RC Circuit:

Construct the RC circuit shown in Figure 3 on your solderless breadboard

with the component values R1 = 100 Ω and C1 = 10 μF. Three connections
to the ALM1000 are required as shown by the green boxes. Open the
ALICE oscilloscope software.

175
Figure 3. RC ac load circuit.

Figure 4. RC ac load breadboard.

Procedure:

On the right-hand side of the main scope window, enter 2.5 for the CA-V
and CB-V offset adjustment. In this experiment we need to apply ac signals
(±voltage) across the load and we are referencing all the measurements to
the 2.5 V common rail. Also enter 0 for the CH-A and CH-B vertical position
settings (along bottom of scope window). The vertical scales should now be
centered on 0 and go from –2.5 to +2.5. Set the CA-I vertical scale to 5
mA/Div.
176
Set the Channel A AWG Min value to 1.08 V and the max value to 3.92 V
to apply a 2.84 V p-p, 1 V rms sine wave centered on 2.5 V as the input
voltage to the circuit. Set the frequency to 250 Hz and the phase to 90°.
From the AWG A Mode drop-down menu, select SVMI mode. From the
AWG A Shape drop-down menu, select Sine. From the AWG B Mode
drop-down menu, select Hi-Z mode.

From the ALICE Curves drop-down menu, select CA-V, CA-I, and CB-V
for display. From the Trigger drop-down menu, select CA-V and Auto
Level.

This configuration uses the oscilloscope to look at the ac voltage and

current signals driving the circuit on Channel A and the voltage across the
resistance on Channel B. The voltage across the capacitor is simply the
difference between Channel A and Channel B (select CAV – CBV from the
Math dropdown menu). Make sure you have checked the Sync AWG
selector.

The software can calculate the rms values for the Channel A voltage and
current waveforms, as well as the Channel B voltage waveform. In addition,
the software also calculates the rms value of the point-by-point difference
between the Channel A and Channel B voltage waveforms. In this
experiment this will be the rms value of the voltage across the capacitor. To
display these values, select RMS and CA-CB RMS under -CA-V- and RMS
under the -CA-I- sections of the Meas CA drop-down menu. Select RMS
under -CB-V- section of the Meas CB drop-down menu. You may also wish
to display the max (or positive peak) values for CA-V, CA-I, and CB-V.

177
Click on the Run button. Adjust the time base until you have more than two
cycles of the sine wave on the display grid. Set the Hold Off to 4.0 ms. You
should see four traces: the Channel A voltage, Channel B voltage, Channel
A current, and CA-CB voltage Math trace. Because 100 Ω was chosen for
the resistor and the vertical scale for the current is 5 mA/Div, the trace of
the current in the resistor will fall right on top of the trace for voltage across
the resistor, Channel B, with its vertical scale set to 0.5 V/Div (0.5 mA time
100 Ω = 0.5 V).

Record the rms value for the voltage across the total RC circuit (CHA V
RMS), the rms value for the current through R1, which is also the current in
Channel A in this series circuit (CHA I RMS), the rms value for the voltage
across the resistor (CHB V RMS), and the rms value for the voltage across
the capacitor (A-B RMS).

Figure 5. RC ac load waveforms and measurements.

Based on these values, calculate the real power (P) for the RC circuit.
Calculate the reactive power (Q). Calculate the apparent power (S).

Based on your calculated values for P, Q, and S, draw the power triangle,
as in Figure 2. Determine the power factor (pf) and θ for the RC circuit.

The oscilloscope traces are displaying the time relationship between the
voltage (the green Channel A voltage trace) and current (the cyan Channel
A current trace). Using the display markers or the time cursor, measure the
178
time difference between the zero crossings of the two traces and, from that,
the phase angle between them. Use this angle (θ) to calculate the power
factor.

How does this compare to the value you obtained from the P, Q, and S and
the power triangle? Is the power factor lagging or leading and why?

Directions for the RL Circuit:

First measure the dc resistance of the 47 mH inductor using the dc

ohmmeter tool in ALICE. The total series resistance of the RL circuit will be
the inductor resistance plus the 47 Ω external resistor R1. The total
resistance will need to be factored into your calculations for the real and
reactive power.

Construct the RL circuit shown in figure 5 on your solderless breadboard

with the component values R1 = 47 Ω and L1 = 47 mH.

Figure 6. RL ac load circuit.

179
Figure 7. RL ac load breadboard.

Procedure:

Click on the Run button. Adjust the time base until you have more than two
cycles of the sine wave on the display grid. Set the Hold Off to 4.0 ms.
You should see four traces: the Channel A voltage, Channel B voltage,
Channel A current, and CA-CB voltage Math trace.

Record the rms value for the voltage across the total RL circuit (CHA V
RMS), the rms value for the current through R1, which is also the current in
channel A in this series circuit (CHA I RMS), the rms value for the voltage
across the resistor (CHB V RMS), and the rms value for the voltage across
the inductor (A-B RMS).

Based on these values, calculate the real power (P) for the RL circuit.
Calculate the reactive power (Q). Calculate the apparent power (S).

Based on your calculated values for P, Q, and S, draw the power triangle,
as in Figure 2. Determine the power factor (pf) and θ for the RL circuit.

The oscilloscope traces are displaying the time relationship between the
voltage (the green Channel A voltage trace) and current (cyan channel A
current trace). Using the display markers or time cursor measure the time
difference between the zero crossings of the two traces and from that the
phase angle between them. Use this angle (θ) to calculate the power
factor.

180
How does this compare to the value you obtained from the P, Q, and S and
the power triangle? Is the power factor lagging or leading and why?

Directions for the RLC Circuit:

Construct the RLC circuit shown in Figure 8 (a) on your solderless

breadboard with the component values R1 = 47 Ω, C1 = 10 μF, and L1 = 47
mH.

Figure 8 (a). RLC ac load circuit measuring the capacitor.

Figure 8 (b). RLC ac load circuit measuring the capacitor breadboard.

181
Procedure:

For the RLC circuit you will need measurements for the ac rms voltage
across each element. In the configuration shown in Figure 8 (a), with
Channel B connected to the junction of C1 and L1, we can get the rms
voltage across C1 from the difference between the CA and CB waveforms.
With Channel B connected to the junction of L1 and R1, we can get the rms
voltage across R1 directly from the CB waveform. Record the rms value for
the voltage across the total RLC circuit (CHA V RMS), the rms value for the
current through R1, which is also the current in Channel A in this series
circuit (CHA I RMS), the rms value for the voltage across the resistor (CHB
V RMS) and the rms value for the voltage across the capacitor (A-B RMS)
when CHB is connected to the junction of C1 and L1 and the combined
reactance of L1 and C1 when CHB is connected to the junction of L1 and R1.

We still need the rms voltage across the inductor L1. By swapping the order
of the components in this series connected circuit, as shown in Figure 8 (c),
we do not change the total overall impedance of the load circuit. However,
we can now obtain the rms voltage across L1 from the difference between
the CA and CB waveforms as we did with the capacitor in Figure 8 (a).
Record the rms value for the voltage across the total RLC circuit (CHA V
RMS), the rms value for the current through R1, which is also the current in
Channel A in this series circuit (CHA I RMS), the rms value for the voltage
across the resistor (CHB V RMS), and the rms value for the voltage across
the inductor (A-B RMS). Check that the value across the total circuit as well
as the current through the load and the value across R1 is the same as
what was measure for Figure 8 (a). Why is this true?

182
Figure 8 (c). RLC ac load circuit measuring the inductor.

Based on these values calculate the real power (P) for the RLC circuit.
Calculate the reactive power (Q) for the combined LC reactance and the L
and C individually. Calculate the apparent power (S).

Increase the frequency of Channel A from 250 Hz to 500 Hz and

remeasure the rms voltages for the RLC circuit. How has that changed the
real, reactive, and apparent power? Is the load current lagging or leading
and why?

Decrease the frequency of Channel A from to 125 Hz and re measure the

rms voltages for the RLC circuit. How has that changed the real, reactive,
and apparent power? Is the load current lagging or leading and why?

Directions for Power Factor Correction:

The circuit shown in Figure 9 for the power factor correction exercise is the
same as Figure 6 with the addition of capacitor C1 in parallel with L1.

183
Figure 9. Power factor correction for an RL ac load

Figure 10. Power factor correction for an RL ac load breadboard.

Based on your measurements from Figure 6 and the equations in the

power factor correction section in the background information for this lab
activity, calculate the appropriate value for C1 at 2500 Hz. Use the closest
standard value (or parallel combination of standard values) capacitor for
C1.

Procedure:

184
As you did for the simple RL circuit record the rms value for the voltage
across the total RL circuit (CHA V RMS), the rms value for the current
through R1, which is also the current in Channel A in this series circuit
(CHA I RMS), the rms value for the voltage across the resistor (CHB V
RMS), and the rms value for the voltage across the inductor (A-B RMS).

Based on these values, calculate the real power (P) for the RL circuit.
Calculate the reactive power (Q). Calculate the apparent power (S).

Based on your calculated values for P, Q, and S, draw the power triangle,
as in Figure 2. Determine the power factor (pf) and θ for the pf corrected
RL circuit. Compare this pf to the one you calculated for just the RL load
circuit. How close was the calculated capacitor value to the optimal value
needed to make the pf equal to unity? Explain any differences.

Appendix:

Using other component values

It is possible to substitute other component values in cases where the

specified values are not readily available. The reactance of a component
(XC or XL) scales with frequency. For example, if 4.7 mH inductors are
available rather than the 47 mH called for, all that is needed to do is
increase the test frequency from 250 Hz to 2.5 kHz. The same would be
true when substituting a 1.0 μF capacitor for the 10.0 μF capacitor
specified.

Using the RLC impedance meter tool

ALICE desktop includes an impedance analyzer/RLC meter that can be

used to measure the series resistance (R) and reactance (X). As part of
this lab activity it might be informative to use this tool to measure the
components R, L, and C used to confirm your test results.

185
Figure 11. Screen capture with the new values from the Appendix with
Time/Div set to 0.5 mS.

186
Calculations

RC circuit

voltage across the total RC circuit = 0.98

rms value for the current through R1=8.05mA

rms value for the voltage across the resistor=0.79

rms value for the voltage across the capacitor=0.52

The real power (P) dissipated in a load can be calculated as follows:

187
Where R is the resistive part of the load and I is the (true) rms current.

P = 8.05*8.05*100/1000000= 6.4 mW = 0.0064 W

When a load has an ac rms voltage (V) across it and an ac rms current (I)
through it, the apparent power (S) is the product of the rms voltage and rms
current in volt-amperes (VA). The apparent power can be calculated as
follows:

S = 0.98*8.05 = 7.9 /1000= 0.0079 W

The reactive power in an RC circuit, as in Figure 3, can be calculated

using:

Where VC is the rms voltage across the

Q = 0.52*8.05 = 4.186/1000 = 0.0041 W

The cosine of angle θ is defined as the power factor (pf). The power factor
is the ratio of the real power (P) to the apparent power (S) and is calculated
as follows:

Where θ is the phase difference between the voltage waveform (across the
load) and the current waveform (through the load). The power factor is
thought of as lagging when the load current lags the load voltage

188
(inductive) and leading when the load current leads the load voltage
(capacitive).

Cos θ = P/S = 0.0064/0.0079 = 0.81

θ = 35.9 °

θ from scope = 0.359 * 250*360 =32.31° (dt * f * 360°/1000)

189
Power factor calculation ,Phase between CH A I & CH A V . Here current is
leading the voltage.

θ = 0.359*250*360/1000 =32.31°

(delta*f*360/1000)

190
RL Circuit

Current lagging the voltage.

rms value for the voltage across the total RL circuit =1.38 V

rms value for the current through R1 = 3.3 mA

rms value for the voltage across the resistor = 0.27 V

rms value for the voltage across the inductor = 1.23 V

real power (P) = 3.3*3.3*47 = 511.83/1000000 = 0.00051 W

191
apparent power (S) = 1.38*3.3 = 4.554/1000 = 0.004554 W

reactive power (Q) = 1.23*3.3 = 4.059/1000 = 0.004059 W

Cos θ = P/S = 0.00051/0.004554 = 0.111

θ = 83.62 °

Power factor = 0.062*2500*360/1000 = 55.8°

To find the correct capacitor value required (Figure 6), first we need to
know the reactive power of the original RL circuit. This is done by drawing

192
the power triangle and solving for the reactive power. The power triangle
can be drawn from the real power and the apparent power and the power
factor angle, θ. Once the reactive power for the original load circuit has
been found, the capacitive reactance, XC, needed to correct the power
factor can be calculated as follows:

Where V is the rms voltage across the RL circuit. Rearranging …

… with a value for XC, the required capacitance can be found based on the
frequency (F) as follows:

Rearranging:

With the correct capacitor connected in parallel with the RL load (motor),
the power factor will be close to unity—that is, the voltage and current are
in phase with each other. And the real power will be nearly equal to the
apparent power.

193
Xc = 1.38*1.38 /0.004 = 476.1 ohm

C = 1 / (2*3.14*2500*476) =0.14 mF

Power factor without capacitor

Power factor lagging= 0.058*2500*360/1000 =52.2°

(CH A current lagging CH A voltage)

194
Power factor leading = 0.023*2500*360/1000 = 20.7° (with 0.2 mF
capacitor in parallel to inductor)

(CH A current leading CH A voltage)

195
 Your part
Repeat all the steps from calculations to the end with the frequencies 250
Hz & 1500 Hz.

Explain briefly about power factor and power factor corrections from your
observation

Explain what you observe from total power consumed from the source
before and after power factor correction.

Explain why we want to keep the power factor near unity.

Explain the effect of frequency on power factor.

196