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A Partial Theory of Everything And The Hierarchy Of Life In The Universe

By

Ian Beardsley

Copyright © 2024
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Contents

Important To Point Out…………………………………………..3

Introduction…………………………………………………………..4

1.0. The Theory………………………………………………….……8

2.0 The Proton………………………………………………………..11

3.0 The Solar Formulation……………………………………….15

4.0 Equating The Lunar And Solar Formulations

Yield Our 1 Second Base Unit………………………………….18

5.0 The Solutions For Jupiter and Saturn………………….20

6.0 The Origin of a Second………………………………………24

7.0 Integrating Analytic and Wave

Solutions of the Solar System………………………………….30

8.0 A Theory For Biological Hydrocarbons……………….35

9.0 Solving The F Class Star…………………………………….40

Appendix 1……………………………………………………………43

Appendix 2 (Data Used In This Paper)…………………….45

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Important To Point Out

You can speak of the structure of the solar system even though it changes with time. This is
important to understand when I refer to sizes of the Moon and the planets, and their orbital
distances.

The whole object of developing a theory for the way planetary systems form is that they meet the
following criterion: They predict the Titius-Bode rule for the distribution of the planets; the
distribution gives the planetary orbital periods from Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation. The
distribution of the planets is chiefly predicted by three factors: The inward forces of gravity from
the parent star, the outward pressure gradient from the stellar production of radiation, and the
outward inertial forces as a cloud collapses into a flat disc around the central star. These forces
separate the flat disc into rings, agglomerations of material, each ring from which a different
planet forms at its central distance from the star (it has a thickness). In a theory of planetary
formation from a primordial disc, it should predict the Titius-Bode rule for the distribution of
planets today, which was the distribution of the rings from which the planets formed.

Also, the Earth has been in the habitable zone since 4 billion years ago when it was at 0.9 AU.
Today it is at 1AU, and that habitable zone can continue to 1.2 AU. So we can speak of the
distance to the Earth over much time. The Earth and Sun formed about 4.6 billion years ago. As
the Sun very slowly loses mass over millions of years as it burns fuel doing fusion, the Earth slips
microscopically further out in its orbit over long periods of time. The Earth orbit increases by
about 0.015 meters per year. The Sun only loses 0.00007% of its mass annually. The Earth is at
1AU=1.496E11m. We have 0.015m/1.496E11m/AU=1.00267E-13AU. So,

(1.00267E − 13AU/year)(1E 9years) = 0.0001AU

The Earth will only move out one ten thousandth of an AU in a billion years. Anatomically
modern humans have only been around for about three hundred thousand years. Civilization
began only about six thousand years ago.

The unit of a second becomes important in my theory. We got the second from the rotation
period of the Earth at the time the moon came to perfectly eclipse the Sun. The Moon slows the
Earth rotation and this in turn expands the Moon’s orbit, so it is getting larger, the Earth loses
energy to the Moon. The Earth day gets longer by 0.0067 hours per million years, and the
Moon’s orbit gets 3.78 cm larger per year.

That is as the Earth’s day gets longer and the lunar orbit grows larger, we got the second at the
time that the Earth day was what it is during the epoch when the Moon perfectly eclipses the
Sun, 24 hours.

The near perfect eclipse is a mystery in the sense that it came to happen when anatomically
modern humans arrived on the scene, even before that, perhaps around Homo Erectus and the
beginning of the Stone Age. The Earth day was 18 hours long, long before that, 1.4 billion years
ago. Homo Erectus is around two to three million years ago.
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Introduction I have a theory that could be considered a partial, crude theory of everything. It
presents a solution to quantum mechanic’s Schrödinger wave equation used for atomic systems,
but for planetary systems, in particular for our star system, the Solar System. Also, the theory
solves the atom’s proton and shows a common characteristic time of about 1 second for both
these systems one on the macroscopic scale, star systems, and the other on the microscopic
scale, atomic systems, through the atom’s proton. Also, in common, it describes hydrocarbons,
the chemical skeleton’s of life, suggesting that life could be part of a universal process in the
Universe. As such, we have a partial theory of everything, but I say partial because it does not, so
far, go into particle physics in depth, for instance in treating the quarks that make up protons, or
other particles such as photons and electrons.

We want to apply the equations in the theory for our Solar System to other star systems, to see
what they don’t explain that they do explain in ours, and from that difference find relationships
between our star system and others which is where I think we will find not just our purpose but
the interconnected purposes between all life in the Universe. I would assume the equations I
have found for our star system where the Sun is a yellow, main sequence, spectral class G star
would apply for most such stars. But here is an example of how the civilization of one kind of
star system could have a relationship with our civilization in terms our star system, the Solar
system…

We consider the HR diagram (below) that plots temperature versus luminosity of stars. We see
the O, B, A stars are the more luminous stars, which is because they are bigger and more
massive and the the F, G stars are medium luminosity, mass, and size (radius). Our Sun is a G
star, particularly G2V, the two because the spectral classes are divided up in to 10 sizes, V for
five meaning main sequence, that it is part of the S shaped curve and is in the phase where it is
burning hydrogen fuel, its original fuel, not the by products. And we see the K and M stars are
the coolest, least massive, least luminous.
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We consider that the radius of our Sun, R⊙, is about 1.8 times longer than the orbital radius of
the Moon, rOurMoon. We notice that the mass of a gold atom to the mass of a silver atom is about
1.8 as well which is the same as comparing the molar mass of gold (Au=196.97 g/mol) to the
molar mass of silver (Ag=107.87 g/mol). We have

Au
1. R⊙ = rOurMoon
Ag
Gold (Au) and Silver (Ag) have been the primary metals for ceremonial jewelry for Earth
civilizations since ancient times. Our Sun is a spectral Class G2V. One spectral class above that is
spectral class F. A spectral class F 0V star has a radius of about 1.7 solar radii, written 1.7R⊙. We
have the radius of an F 0V star

2. RF0Vstar = 1.7R⊙

As it would turn out, the mass of a silver atom, Ag, to the mass of a copper atom, Cu (comparing
their molar masses) is about 1.7. If we are to write

Ag
3. RF0Vstar = R⊙
Cu
A g Au
4. Then, RF0Vstar = rOurMoon and we have
Cu A g
Au
5. RF05star = rOurMoon
Cu
Suggesting perhaps the inhabitants of F 0V stars are a copper and silver type civilizations
(where ceremonial jewelry is concerned) where we, the inhabitants of our G2V star, are a silver
and gold type civilization (where ceremonial jewelry is concerned). This would actually make
sense because F0V stars generally have lower metallicities than stars like ours, G2V. Copper and
silver being lighter than gold are often more easily formed in environments with lower
metallicity. They would be more accessible for a civilization around an F05 star, making them
favored for craftsmanship. We also have since RF0Vstar = 1.7R⊙ (equation 2)

1.7R⊙ = 1.7rF0Vmoon

6. R⊙ = rF0Vmoon

Which is to say that the orbital radius of the F0V system moon is the radius of our Sun, R⊙.

Something that is further interesting here is that the habitable zone of an F05 star is about as far
from the star as the center of the asteroid belt is from our star, the Sun. This is because F0V are
more massive and more luminous, as well as larger. Such a star has a mass of 1.61 solar masses
(about the golden ratio of the Earth’s Sun), a radius of 1.728 solar radii (which is about Ag/Cu),
and a luminosity of about 7.24 solar luminosities. By the inverse square law for luminosity such
a star has its habitable zone at

7. rhabitable = 7.24L⊙ = 2.7AU

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The habitable zone our star, the Sun, is where Earth is, 1AU. The asteroid belt in our solar
system is at 2.2 to 3.2 AU. Its center is then at 2.7AU. This may represent a shift in concept for a
habitable planet around the F0V star. The asteroid belt in our solar system is where a planet
can’t form. The same distance from an F0V star is where not just a planet can form, but where a
habitable planet can form.

Stars like F0V stars would not be as good for hosting life as G2V stars like our Sun because they
are bigger and thus hotter meaning they burn up quick leaving less time for intelligence to
evolve and become technological. G2V stars like our Sun come just after them, however it is
possible that even better than G stars like our Sun are those that come after them in spectral
type, the so-called K stars known as orange dwarfs which have even better stability and longer
lifespans. Interestingly, we can’t apply our theory of ceremonial jewelry to them because these
elements, group 11 elements, started before the G star with the F star with copper and silver,
which were followed by silver and gold for G stars like our Sun and to go to a K star we have to
go to the next element heavier than gold in group 11 and there is only one more which is
Roentgenium (Rg). It is extremely radioactive and can only be created in the laboratory. If we
move along to the next spectral class, the M stars, they are brown dwarfs and while they can
have life and are stable for even longer than K stars (are less massive and cooler) there habitable
zones are so close in to the star that when they orbit the star they become tidally locked meaning
their orbital period equals their rotation period, which is saying they always have the same side
facing the star, and the same side turned away. This means they are very hot on one side and
very cold on the other meaning life is optimal only at the edge between one side and the other, in
the twilight between always day and always night. This would not be good for doing astronomy
and learning about the Universe and your place in it. M brown dwarfs are the most common
stars in the Galaxy, if not Universe, and because they are not very bright it is easier to detect
planets around them. Most of the planets we have found so far are in such star systems.
However, we hope with the advent of the James Webb Space Telescope we will be able to detect
Earth-like planets around Sun-like stars like ours. Thus we would conclude that planets with
intelligent life are mostly in the F/G/K region of the HR diagrams. We might suggest that
copper-silver F star life is less sophisticated than silver-gold G star life like ourselves, but that we
are less sophisticated than K star life, which might be the most sophisticated kind. We can look
at the stars that come before F stars, the A stars, such as Vega. These stars can have gas giants in
their habitable zones with moons that have habitable conditions. We want the radius of the
moon in the F0V star system for the habitable planet. We can get this value because we are
guessing, as is true in our Solar System that the moon as seen from the habitable planet
perfectly eclipses the star as our moon does with our Sun as seen from the Earth. We also know
that the orbital radius of the Moon in this system is equation 6, R⊙ = rF0Vmoon.

The condition for a perfect eclipse is

rplanet Rstar
8. =
rmoon Rmoon
Which becomes
rF0Vplanet RF0Vstar
9. =
rF0Vmoon RF0Vmoon
Which is
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rF0Vmoon
10. RF0Vmoon = RF0Vstar
rF0Vplanet

rF0Vplanet = 2.7AU(1.496E11m /AU ) = 4E11m

RF0Vstar = (1.7)(6.96265E 8m) = 1.18365E 9m

R⊙ = rF0Vmoon = 6.96265E 8m
(6.96265E 8m)
RF0Vmoon = (1.18365E 9m) = 2.060E6m
4E11m
Which is exactly the value we wanted to be able to determine because as we will see when I
present my theory that the moon of the habitable planet plays a key role in the wave solution to
the star system. We see that the Moon of the Earth is a natural yardstick. For instance it gives
the radius of our Sun in lunar radii as 400. We see this computation from the radius of the moon
of the F0V star is correct because

RF0Vstar 1.18365E 9 Ag
11. = = 1.69999 ≈ 1.7 =
rF0Vmoon 6.96265E 8m Cu
We also see

R⊙ 6.96265E 8m Au
12. = = 1.8132 =
rOurMoon 3.84E 8m Ag
RF0Vmoon 2.060
We have that = = 1.184 ≈ 1.2 (F0V moon 1.2 times bigger than ours).
ROurMoon 1.74
We have as well

Au
13. rF0Vmoon = rOurMoon
Ag
Making the inhabitants of these F stars our cousins, where we are of the inhabitants of the G
stars. We now want to know how the calendar of F star copper-silver civilizations work. To do
that we need to know the orbital period of their planet, and the orbital period of their moon. We
use Kepler’s law

The mass of the star is interestingly about the golden ratio of our Sun’s mass, which goes to
show another connection between the copper-silver civilizations and silver-gold civilizations. We
have

(1.61)(1.989E30kg)=3.2E30kg

4π 2
T2 = r 3
GMF0Vstar F0Vplanet
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4π 2 4π 2
= = 1.8485E − 19
GMF0Vstar (6.674E − 11)(3.2E 30kg)

TF0Vplanet (1.8485E − 19)(4E11m)3 = 1.087676E 8secon d s

TF0Vplanet = 3.44664years

Its planet has year of about 3 and half Earth years. Now we find the orbital period of its moon:

4π 2
T2 = rF0Vmoon3
GMF0Vplanet

I find if taking the mass of the planet to be a little less than the mass of the Earth — the mass of
the earth is 5.972E24kg — we get 16 moons per the planet’s year. I think this is what we want. If
we use the Earth mass we get 18.82 moons. I find that value is 5E24 kg.

4π 2
TF0Vmoon = (6.96E 8m)3 = 6315615secon d s
(6.674E − 11)(5E 24kg)

TF0Vplanet 1E 8secon d s
= ≈ 16m oon s
TF0Vmoon 6315615secon d s
I want 16 moons because my guess is that there are two arrays upon which Nature is founded: 12
(3 by 4) and 16 (4 by 4). This occurs not just in physics but in music. The dynamic 12 of
flamenco which is a rhythm of two three’s plus three two’s, and the rumba is four four’s, as well
as the crux of North Indian classical music which is tin tal played in four, four times, or we also
have the 12 bar blues. We have the standard model of particles physics, pictured below, the
particles are 6 quarks (lavender) and six leptons (green) make six two times is twelve, and we
have the four exchange particles responsible for the forces (in red). Adding these four to the 12
make 16. So the F-star copper-silver civilizations would be 16 moons per year, and the G-star
silver gold civilizations would be 12 moons per year, which is what we are.

The twelve moons divided by the 16 moons is 0.75=3/4 and 3

times four is 12. Three to four would be the relationship between
copper-silver civilizations and silver-gold civilizations. There may
be a reason for it, and it may be rooted in our intertwined
destinies that we will learn about when we achieve interstellar
space travel and visit these worlds.
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1.0 The Theory In my theory, that will be presented in this section and the next, the solution
to the Schrödinger wave equation for the atom applied to the Earth/Moon/Sun system, where
the Schrödinger wave equation in spherical coordinates is:

1.1

2m [ r 2 ∂r ( ∂r ) r 2 sin θ ∂θ ( ∂θ ) r 2 sin 2 θ ∂ϕ 2 ]
ℏ2 1 ∂ 2 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂2
− r + sin θ + ψ + V(r)ψ = E ψ

and has solutions for the atom as guessed at by Bohr before the wave equation was discovered

Z 2(kee 2 )2 me
1.2 En = −
2ℏ2 n 2
n 2 ℏ2
1.3 rn =
Z kee 2 me
is
R⊙ G 2 Me2 Mm3
1.4 K Ee = n ⋅
Rm 2ℏ2⊙

2ℏ2⊙ R⊙ 1
1.5 rn = ⋅ ⋅
GMm3 Rm n

Where G is the universal constant of gravitation, K Ee is the kinetic energy of the Earth in its
orbit around the Sun, Me is the mass of the Earth, Mm is the mass of the Moon, rn is the orbital
radius of the planet, n the orbital number (is three for Earth), R⊙ is the radius of the Sun, Rm is
the radius of the Moon, and ℏ⊙ is a Planck constant associated with the Solar System and is
given by

1.6 ℏ⊙ = (hC )K Ee

1.7 hC = 1secon d
Where

1 1 2 π rp
1.8 C= ⋅ ⋅
3 α2c 3 G mp3

Where rp is the radius of a proton, mp is the mass of a proton, c is the speed of light, and α is the
fine structure constant. I found this gives the characteristic time of one second in terms of a
proton (Equation 1.7). We guess the planetary scale is connected to the proton scale because the
planets formed from the protoplanetary disc are made of different combinations of protons. We
derive the value of our solar Planck constant
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1 1 1 2π rp
C= ⋅ ⋅ =
3 α2c 3 G mp3

1 18769 1 2π (0.833E − 15)

⋅ ⋅
3 299792458 3 (6.67408E − 11)(1.67262E − 27)3

=1.55976565E 33

s m s 2 kg s s2 s s 1 s2
= ⋅ = = ⋅ = ⋅
m kg 3 m 3 m kg 2 m 2 m kg ⋅ m kg m 2

1 m2 1
= kg 2 = mv 2 = en erg y
C s 2
hC = (6.62607E − 34)(1.55976565E 33) = 1.03351secon d s ≈ 1.0secon d s

( s ) ( kg m 2 )
m 1 s2
hC = kg 2 ⋅ m ⋅ s ⋅

( s ) ( kg m 2 )
m2 1 s2
= kg ⋅ = secon d s

1
K Eearth = (5.972E 24kg)(30,290m /s)2 = 2.7396E 33J
2
1.9 ℏ⊙ = (hC )K Eearth = (1.03351s)(2.7396E 33J ) = 2.8314E 33J ⋅ s

Where we used the maximum orbital velocity of the Earth (perihelion). We notice the kinetic
energy of the Earth is given by not just the mass of the Earth, but by the mass of the Moon
looking at equation 1.4:

R⊙ G 2 Me2 Mm3
K Ee = n ⋅
Rm 2ℏ2⊙

n is the orbital number of the Earth, which is 3. You will notice the radius of the sun, R⊙, and the
radius of the Moon, Rm, factors into the solution, which is because we are dealing with not just
an atom, but a planetary orbital system, which forms not just from the inverse square law of the
Newton’s gravity due to the Sun like occurs in the atom with electric fields, but has the
rotational centripetal force of the protoplanetary cloud from which the planets formed, and the
outward radiation pressure from the Sun. We guessed that the mass of the the Moon figured in
instead of the Sun, and that the characteristic time for determining the Planck-type constant for
the solar system in terms of the kinetic energy of the Earth was 1 second because I had found
that it is approximately true that:
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K Em
1.10 1secon d = (Ear th Da y)
K Ee

Where K Em is the kinetic energy of the Moon and EarthDay is the the rotation period of the
Earth (about 24 hours). It in fact may be that the fact that the Moon as seen from the Earth
nearly perfectly eclipses the Sun is a condition for optimal habitability of the Earth. That is for
habitable planets:
rplanet Rstar
1.11 ≈
rmoon Rmoon
That is the orbital radius of the planet (Earth) to the orbital radius of its moon (The Moon) is
about equal to the the radius of the star (The Sun) to the radius of its moon (The Moon). We say
the system is quantized by the Moon and the base unit of one second. It is a fact that the Moon
orbiting the Earth optimizes the conditions for life on Earth because it holds the Earth at its
inclination to its orbit around the Sun allowing for the seasons, preventing extreme hot and
extreme cold.

We find our unit of one second pans out nearly perfect in deriving the ground state for the Solar
System by writing

ℏ2⊙ 1
1.12 Mm3 = ⋅
1secon d G c
Where c is the speed of light. We consider equation 1.4

R⊙ G 2 Me2 Mm3
1.4 K Ee = n ⋅
Rm 2ℏ2⊙

We want to eliminate ℏ⊙ from the equation because we don’t know if it is the same for star
systems other than ours, the Solar System. 1.12 and 1.4 yield

R⊙ GMp2 1
1.13 K Ee = 3 ⋅ ⋅
Rm 2 (1sec)c
Using the fact the the orbital velocity of the Earth is

GM⊙
ve =
re

And,

1
K Ee = Me ve2
2
We have
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re R⊙
1.14 3Me ⋅ ⋅ = (1secon d )c
Rm M⊙

We use equation 1.11

rplanet Rstar
≈
rmoon Rmoon
It is

re R⊙
1.15 ≈
rm Rm
Which can be written
rm
1.16 Rm = R⊙
re
So equation 1.14 becomes

Me re2
1.17 3 ⋅ = (1secon d )c
M⊙ rm

Which can be written

3 Me 2
1.18 rm = ⋅⋅ re
(1sec)c M⊙

We now want to write this in a general form not just Earth mass but planet mass, and not just
solar mass but stellar mass. We have

3 Mp
1.19 rm = ⋅ ⋅ rp2
(1sec)c M⋆
2.0 The Proton I said my theory predicts the Earth/Moon/Sun system and the atom’s proton
with have a characteristic time of a second in common. Let’s show this more explicitly than I
presented so far. I found 1 second is the base unit of the orbital dynamics of the solar system. I
find I can create three spacetime operators, one that acts on the radius of the proton to its mass,
and the other that acts on the radius of the Sun to its mass, and one that acts on angular
momentum to speed. h is Planck’s constant, G is the universal constant of gravitation, c is the
speed of light, α is the fine structure constant, rp is the radius of a proton, mp is the mass of a
proton, Mm is the mass of the Moon, Rm is its radius, and the EarthDay is the rotation period of
the Earth:
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rp
( 6α 2 G c ) mp
1 4πh
2.1 ⋅ = 1secon d

( Rm ) M⊙
Mm R⊙
2.2 (Ear th Da y) ⋅ = 1secon d

2 π rp 1 h
2.3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ = 1secon d
3 α G mp3 3 c

They seem to suggest that the Earth orbit might by quantized in terms of the Moon and a base
unit of one second, which we will see can be considered a characteristic time of the Universe.
Equation 2 is actually 1.3 seconds but rounds to one second. However it is derived from another
equation that gives 1.2 seconds. Namely, equation 1.10:

K Em
1secon d = (Ear th Da y)
K Ee
It says one second is the Earth Day (completion of one rotation of the Earth) adjusted by the
kinetic energy of the Moon, to the kinetic energy of the Earth.
We see the spacetime operators solve the atom by giving us the radius of a proton. We set
equation 2.1 equal to equation 2.3

2 π rp 1 h
2.3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ = 1secon d
3 α G mp3 3 c

rp
( 6α 2 G c ) mp
1 4πh
2.1 ⋅ = 1secon d

These two yield

2 h
2.4 rp = ⋅
3 cmp

I find this is close to the experimental value of the radius of a proton. I find I can arrive at this
radius of a proton another way, energy is given by Planck’s constant and frequency

E = hf
We have

f = 1/s, h = J ⋅ s, h f = (J ⋅ s)(1/s) = J
 14 of 46

E = J = Joules = en erg y

We take the rest energy of the mass of a proton mp:

E = mp c 2

The frequency of a proton is

mp c 2
fp =
h
Since our theory gave us the factor of 2/3 for the radius of a proton we have:

mpc 2 rp 2 mp c
⋅ = ≈ϕ= rp
h c 3 h
2 h
mprp = ⋅
3 c
The radius of a proton is then

2 h
rp = ⋅
3 cmp

This is very close to the value upon which the proton radius converged historically by two
independent methods which was 0.877E-15m. The result from our theory is

2 6.62607E − 34
rp = ⋅ = 0.88094E − 15m
3 (299,792,458)(1.67262E − 27)
The 0.877fm was challenged in 2010 by a third experiment making it 4% smaller and was
0.842E-15m. We find it may be that the radius of a proton is actually

h
2.5 rp = ϕ ⋅ = 0.816632E − 15m
cmp

Where ϕ is the golden ratio constant (0.618…). This is more along the lines of more recent
measurements. Both equations 2.4 and 2.5 for the radius of the proton can be right depending
on the dynamics of what is going on; the radius of a proton is not precisely defined, it is more of
a fuzzy cloud of subatomic particles. Thus we have solved the atom with our spacetime
operators by producing the radius of a proton. I began working on this theory when the proton
radius was 0.833 fm so it is what I have been using in this paper. We continue to be honing in on
its experimental value every year with more experiments. The vast gap between the historical
0.877fm and the 2010 0.842fm is known in physics as the proton puzzle.

Indeed over the full range of values for the radius of a proton, the characteristic time is very
close to one second. The large value they got a long time ago gives:
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rp
( 6α 2 G c ) mp
1 4πh
⋅ = 1secon d

(18769)((0.88094E − 15m) (6.62607E − 34J ⋅ s)(4π)

= 1.06284secon d s
6(1.67262E − 27kg) (6.674E − 11)(299,792,458m /s)

The current value, which they believe they have really closed in on as very accurate in two
different experiments in 2019 using different methods, which is rp = 0.833E − 15m, gives a
time of 1.00500 seconds.

Let us consider the radius of a proton is

h
rp = ϕ ⋅ = 0.816632E − 15m
cmp

If we can say that the radius of a proton is always the same value, which we can’t because it
depends on what is going on, we might say it is usually this like the classical radius of an
electron is used in most problems. However, here we are using it as it applies to the formation of
the planets from the protoplanetary disc made-up of these protons. If and when the proton
radius is this, then the spacetime operators are

rp
( 6α 2 G c ) mp
1 4πh
2.1 ⋅ = 1secon d

( Rm ) M⊙
Mm R⊙
2.2 (Ear th Da y) ⋅ = 1secon d

π rp 1 h
2.3 ϕ⋅ ⋅ = 1secon d
α 4G mp3 3 c

In which case

π rp 1 h
ϕ⋅ ⋅ = 1secon d
α 4G mp3 3 c

(352,275,361)π (0.833E − 15m 1 (6.62607E − 34)

= (0.618)
(6.674E − 11)(1.67262E − 27)3 3 (299792458)

=0.9950796 seconds ~ 1 second

 16 of 46

The condition for a perfect eclipse:

R⊙ rearth
=
Rmoon rmoon
Which says the radius of the Sun to the radius of the Moon equals the Earth orbital radius to the
lunar orbital radius are equal does indicate that the Earth/Moon/Sun system converges on the
basis unit of one second of time for the solution of the Schrödinger wave equation during the
time we are in where such an eclipse happens. That is the basis unit of time in the solution is
given by

ℏ2⊙ 1
2.6. ⋅ = 1secon d
GMm3 c
It may be this eclipse condition is the condition for the optimization of the habitability of the
Earth. We can show that the epoch that this condition holds gives the unit of a second as the
solution by using it to form a solar solution to the wave equation and equating it with our lunar
solution. Let’s do that now…

3.0 The Solar Formulation Our solution of the wave equation for the planets gives the
kinetic energy of the Earth from the mass of the Moon orbiting the Earth, but you could
formulate based on the Earth orbiting the Sun. In our lunar formulation we had:

R⊙ G 2 Me2 Mm3
3.1 K Ee = 3 ⋅
Rm 2ℏ2⊙

We remember the Moon perfectly eclipses the Sun which is to say

R⊙ re
3.2 =
Rm rm
Thus equation 3.1 becomes

re G 2 Me2 Mm3
3.3 K Ee = 3 ⋅
rm 2ℏ2⊙

The kinetic energy of the Earth is

1 GM⊙ Me
3.4 K Ee = ⋅
2 re
Putting this in equation 3.3 gives the mass of the Sun:

GMe Mm3
3.5 M⊙ = 3re2 ⋅ ⋅ 2
rm ℏ⊙

We recognize that the orbital velocity of the Moon is

 17 of 46

GMe
3.6 vm2 =
rm
So equation 3.5 becomes

Mm3
3.7 M⊙ = 3re2 ⋅ vm2 ⋅ 2
ℏ⊙

This gives the mass of the Moon is

M⊙ℏ2⊙
3.8 Mm3 =
3re2 vm2

Putting this in equation 3.1 yields

R⊙ G 2 Me2 M⊙
3.9 K Ee = ⋅
Rm 2re2 vm2

We now multiply through by Me2 /Me2 and we have

R⊙ G 2 Me4 M⊙
3.10 K Ee = ⋅
Rm 2re2 vm2 Me2

Thus the Planck constant for the Sun, ℏ⊙, in this the case the star is the Sun, is angular
momentum quantized, the angular momentum we will call Lp, the subscript p for Planck. We
have

m2
Lp = re vm Me = re vm Me = (1.496E11m)(1022m /s)(5.972E 24kg) = 9.13E 38kg ⋅
s
m4
Lp2 = re2 vm2 Me2 2
= 7.4483E 77J ⋅ m ⋅ kg = 8.3367E 77kg ⋅ 2 2
s
We write for the solution of the Earth/Sun system:

R⊙ G 2 Me4 M⊙
3.11 K Ee = ⋅
Rm 2Lp2

We can write 3.11 as

R⊙ G 2 Me4 M⊙
3.12 K Ee = ⋅
Rm 2ℏ2⊙

We say. ℏ⊙ = ℏ⊙ /2π. That is

ℏ⊙ = 9.13E 38J ⋅ s
 18 of 46

h⊙ = 2π ℏ⊙ = 5.7365E 39J ⋅ s

Let us see how accurate our equation is:

R⊙ G 2 Me4 M⊙
K Ee = ⋅
Rm 2ℏ2⊙

R⊙ (6.67408E − 11)2(5.972E 24kg)4(1.9891E 30kg)

=
Rm m4
2(8.3367E 77kg 2 ⋅ )
s2

R⊙
= (6.759E 30J )
Rm
R⊙ 6.957E 8m
= = 400.426
Rm 1737400m

K Ee = 2.70655E 33J

We have that the kinetic energy of the Earth is

1
K Eearth = (5.972E 24kg)(30,290m /s)2 = 2.7396E 33J
2
Our equation has an accuracy of

2.70655E 33J
= 98.79 %
2.7396E 33J
Which is very good.

We call Lp the same ℏ⊙ in our solar solution. But we now want our rn solution for the solar
formulation. Me is the mass of the Earth and M⊙ is the mass of the Sun. We have our solution
might be

ℏ2⊙ Rm
3.13 rn = ⋅
GMe3 R⊙

Where h⊙ is

ℏ⊙ = 9.13E 38J ⋅ s

We have

(9.13E 38)2 1
3.14 r3 = ⋅ = 1.4638E11m
(6.67408E − 11)(5.972E 24kg) 400.5986
3
 19 of 46

This has an accuracy of

1.4638E11m
100 = 97.85 %
1.496E11m
Thus the solutions to the wave equation

2m [ r 2 ∂r ( ∂r ) r 2 sinθ ∂θ ( ∂θ ) r 2 sin 2θ ∂ϕ 2 ]
ℏ2 1 ∂ 2 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂2
− r + sinθ + ψ + V(r)ψ = E ψ

for the solar formulations are

R⊙ G 2 Me4 M⊙
3.15 K Ee = ⋅
Rm 2ℏ2⊙

ℏ2⊙ Rm
3.16 rn = ⋅
GMe3 R⊙

ℏ⊙ = 9.13E 38J ⋅ s

h⊙ = 2π ℏ⊙ = 5.7365E 39J ⋅ s

4.0 Equating The Lunar And Solar Formulations Yield Our 1 Second Base Unit

Let us equate equation 1.4 with equation 3.12:

R⊙ G 2 Me2 Mm3
1.1 K Ee = n ⋅
Rm 2ℏ2⊙

R⊙ G 2 Me4 M⊙
3.12 K Ee = ⋅
Rm 2ℏ2⊙

R⊙ G 2 Me2 Mm3 R⊙ G 2 Me4 M⊙

3 ⋅ = ⋅
Rm 2ℏ2⊙ Rm 2Lp2

This gives:
Me2 M⊙
4.1 Lp = ⋅ ℏ⊙
Mm3 3

We remember that

ℏ⊙ = (hC )K Ep
 20 of 46

hC = 1secon d

1 1 1 2π rp
C= ⋅ ⋅
3 α2c 3 G mp3

1 h 4π rp2
= 1.004996352secon d s
6α 2 mp Gc

This gives
1 rp h 4π 1 Me2 M⊙
4.2 re vm Me = ⋅ ⋅ Me ve2 ⋅
6α 2 mp Gc 2 Mm3 3

We have

ve2 Me2 M⊙
4.3 2vm = (1secon d )
re Mm3 3

This equates the orbital velocity of the Moon with the centripetal acceleration of the Earth in
terms of one second by way of the mass of the Earth, the mass of the Sun, the mass of the Moon,
and the orbital number of the Earth. Let us compute

Me2 M⊙ (5.972E 24kg)2(1.9891E 30kg)

4.4 = = 321,331.459 ≈ 321,331
Mm3 3 (7.34763E 22kg)3(1.732)

Let us see how well equation 19 works. vm at aphelion is 966 m/s and ve = 29,800m /s.
re = 1AU = 1.496E11m. We have

(29,800m /s)2
2(966m /s) = (1sec)(321,331.459)
1.496E11m
1,907m /s = 1,932m /s
That is an accuracy of

1907
= 98.7 %
1932
Equation 4.3 can be written:

vm Mm3 3
4.5 1secon d = 2re
ve2 Me2 M⊙
 21 of 46

In terms of other star systems this is

vm Mm3 3
4.5 1secon d = 2rp
vp2 Mp2 M⋆

5.0 The Solutions For Jupiter and Saturn

Now we want to find what the wave equation solutions are for Jupiter and Saturn because they
significantly carry the majority of the mass of the solar system and thus should embody most
clearly the dynamics of the wave solution to the Solar System.

I find that as we cross the asteroid belt leaving behind the terrestrial planets, which are solid,
and go to the gas giants and ice giants, the atomic number is no longer squared and the square
root of the the orbital number moves from the numerator to the denominator. I believe this is
because the solar system here should be modeled in two parts, just as it is in theories of solar
system formation because there is a force other than just gravity of the Sun at work, which is the
radiation pressure of the Sun, which is what separates it into two parts, the terrestrial planets on
this side of the asteroid belt and the giants on the other side of the asteroid belt. The effect the
radiation pressure has is to blow the lighter elements out beyond the asteroid belt when the
solar system forms, which are gases such as hydrogen and helium, while the heavier elements
are too heavy to be blown out from the inside of the asteroid belt, allowing for the formation of
the terrestrial planets Venus, Earth, and Mars. The result is that our equation has the atomic
number of the heavier metals such as calcium for the Earth, while the equation for the giants has
the atomic numbers of the gasses. We write for these planets

Z G2 M 2m3
E=
n 2ℏ2⊙

So, for Jupiter we have (And again using the maximum orbital velocity which is at perihelion):

1
K Ej = (1.89813E 27kg)(13720m /s)2 = 1.7865E 35J
2
ZH (6.67408E − 11)2(1.89813E 27kg)2(7.347673E 22kg)3
E=
5 2(2.8314E 33)2

ZH
E= (3.971E 35J ) = ZH (1.776E 35J )
5
1.7865E 35J
ZH = = 1.006pr oton s ≈ 1.0pr oton s = hydr ogen(H )
1.776E 35J
Jupiter is mostly composed of hydrogen gas, and secondly helium gas, so it is appropriate that
Z = ZH.
Our equation for Jupiter is
 22 of 46

2 2 3
ZH G Mj Mm
5.1 E5 =
5 2ℏ2⊙

Where ZH is the atomic number of hydrogen which is 1 proton, and n= 5 for the orbital
number of Jupiter, n = 5. Now we move on to Saturn…

1
K ES = (5.683E 26kg)(10140m /s)2 = 2.92E 34J
2
Z (6.67408E − 11)2(5.683E 26kg)2(7.347673E 22)3
E=
6 2(2.8314E 33)2

Z
= (3.5588E 34J ) = Z(1.45259E 34J )
2.45
Z(1.45259E 34J ) = (2.92E 34J )

Z = 2pr oton s = Heliu m(He)

The equation for Saturn is then

ZHe G 2 Ms2 Mm3

5.2 E6 =
6 2ℏ2⊙

It makes sense that Saturn would use Helium in the equation because Saturn is the next planet
after Jupiter and Jupiter uses hydrogen, and helium is the next element after hydrogen. As well,
just like Jupiter, Saturn is primarily composed of hydrogen and helium gas.

The accuracy for Earth orbit is

R⊙ G 2 Me2 Mm3
En = n
Rm 2ℏ2⊙
R⊙ 6.96E 8m
= = 400.5986
Rm 1737400m

(6.67408E − 11)2(5.972E 24kg)2(7.347673E 22kg)3

E3 = (1.732)(400.5986) =
2(2.8314E 33)2
=2.727E36J

The kinetic energy of the Earth is

1
K Ee = (5.972E 24kg)(30,290m /s)2 = 2.7396E 33J
2
 23 of 46

2.727E 36J
100 = 99.5 %
2.7396E 33J
Which is very good, about 100% for all practical purposes. The elemental expression of the
solution for the Earth would be
2
ZCa G 2 Me2 Mm3
5.3. E3 = 3
2ℏ2⊙

Where

R⊙
→ Z2
Rm
In this case the element associated with the Earth is calcium which is Z=20 protons.
 24 of 46

6.0 The Origin of a Second It is worth looking at ancient systems of looking at time because
that is where the origins of our current systems began. Indeed our system came from the ancient
Sumerians and Babylonians. They divided the day into 12 units where the day is given by the
rising and setting of the Sun, which in turn is given by the period of the rotation of the Earth.
Thus the day was given by the period from the rising of the Sun to its setting, which was divided
into 12 units which we call, today, hours. Thus the day from sunrise to sunrise, or sunset to
sunset, is 24 hours. Why they chose 12 units could come from the fact that 12 is the smallest
abundant number, which means it has a lot of divisors: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6. Abundant means their sum
is greater than 12 itself: 1+2+3+4+6=16. We know for certain they chose 12 because there are
three sections on each finger, so with 4 such fingers your can touch each such section with your
thumb to count to twelve. The Babylonians got base 60 from the Sumerians and further divided
each hour into 60 minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds. Why base 60 was chosen is that it
has a lot of divisors as well, including the first 6 integers. It is the smallest number that does
this.

We see dividing the day into 24 hours and dividing that further with base 60 lead to the duration
of a second we have today. Only on planet Earth would we have the primitive, ancient origins of
our mathematics in the end line up with modern physics in that, as it would turn out, it gave us
our basis unit of a second to be a natural constant. Though we could guess that on other planets
the ancient civilizations when first inventing mathematics and astronomy, would use base 60
because it is so convenient for doing math being evenly divisible by the first 6 integers. However,
we did that and combined it with divisions of 24 units. Not necessarily would any planet do that.
However, we had other reasons to do that; the Moon orbits the Earth close to 12 times in the
time it takes the Earth to go once around the the Sun. However, there is an ancient system
where the people didn’t divide the day into 24 units, but rather into 60 units, meaning that their
hour was 24 minutes long. That is (24h ours)(60min /h our) = 1440min /d a y and
1440minutes /60 = 24minutes /h our. This was the Vedic time-keeping system in ancient
India. Leave it to the Hindu Indians to have extraterrestrial intelligence in their ancient
beginnings. So let’s go into this. We will see that base 60 combined with 24 describes the
angular momentum of the Earth. That means it doesn’t just include the rotation period of the
Earth, but the size of the Earth (its radius) and the mass of the Earth.

Indeed if the dynamics of the factors the ancients gave us to create the duration of a second are
connected to the dynamics of stars systems then the second should define the rotational angular
momentum of the Earth since we divide the rotation period of the Earth into these factors to get
the unit of second, and should be connected to our Planck constant for the solar system which is
in units of angular momentum as well, as is Planck’s constant for the atom.

The angular momentum of the Earth with respect to the Sun is 2.66E40 kg m2/s. The rotational
angular momentum is 7.05E33 kg m2/s. In orbit angular momentum is given by

L = 2π M f r 2
For a uniform rotational sphere it is given by

4
L= π M f r2
5
We found our solar system Planck constant was

ℏ⊙ = 2.8314E 33J ⋅ s

This gives
 25 of 46

Learth 7.05E 33 1
6.1. = = 2.4899 ≈ 2.5 = 2
ℏ⊙ 2.8314E 33 2

We are now equipped to show that the ancient Sumerians were right in dividing the rotation
period of the Earth (the day) into 24 units (the hour) because

2.5(24) = 60
That is

Learth
6.2. 24 = 60
ℏ⊙

Which is to say the angular momentum of the Earth to its Planck constant gives the base 60
counting in terms of the 24 hour day, the 60 of 60 minutes in an hour, and 60 seconds in a
minute, that determine our base unit of duration we call a second that happens to be, as I have
shown, the base unit of the wave solution to the atom and the Earth/Moon/Sun system.

Our equation in this paper for the Earth energy as a solution of the wave equation 1.4

R⊙ G 2 Me2 Mm3
1.4 K Ee = n ⋅
Rm 2ℏ2⊙

does not depend on the Moon’s distance from the Earth, only its mass. The Moon slows the
Earth rotation and this in turn expands the Moon’s orbit, so it is getting larger, the Earth loses
energy to the Moon. The Earth day gets longer by 0.0067 hours per million years, and the
Moon’s orbit gets 3.78 cm larger per year. Equation 6.2

Learth
6.2. 24 = 60
ℏ⊙

only specifies divide the day into 24 units, and hours into 60 minutes and minutes into 60
seconds, regardless of what the Earth rotational velocity is. But it was more or less the same as it
is now when the Sumerians started civilization. But it may be that it holds for when the Earth
day is such that when the Moon perfectly eclipses the Sun, which we said might be a condition
for the optimization of life preventing extreme hot and cold. That is when the following holds
rplanet Rstar
≈
rmoon Rmoon
Which holds for today and held for the ancient Sumerians and holds for when the Earth rotation
gives the duration of a second we have today.

We want the basis set of equations for the solar system. We have

ℏ2⊙
λmoon = = 3.0281E 8m
GMm3
We have from equation
 26 of 46

λmoon ℏ2⊙ 1
= ⋅ = 1.0secon d s
c GMm3 c
and,

ℏ⊙ = (hC )K Ee

hC = 1secon d
From these it becomes clear that

GMm3 c
6.3. ℏ⊙ =
K Ee

GMm3 c
6.4. K Ee =
ℏ⊙

Thus combining equation 6.2 with the following…

Learth
6.2. 24 = 60
ℏ⊙

We write

ℏ⊙ = (1secon d )K Ee

From 6.3 we have

GMm3 c
ℏ⊙ = (1secon d )
ℏ⊙

ℏ2⊙ = (1secon d )GMm3 c

Which gives us

( 60 ) GMm3 c
2 2
24 Learth
6.5. 1secon d =

( 60 ) (6.67408E − 11)((7.347673E 22kg)3(299792458m /s)

2
24 (7.05E 33)2
= =

( 60 )
2
24
6.262sec = 1.002secon d s = 1.00secon d s

This is very accurate to give us a second. But notice 6.262 is approximately 2π. We see that
 27 of 46

( 60 )
2
24
6.6. 1 = 2π

2π is the circumference of a unit circle, it could be that the circumference of the Earth orbit, can
be taken as 1 (unity) and essentially we have the mystery of base 60 and the 24 hour day of the
ancient Sumerians is solved, it connects unit circle to 1 (unity).

2 24
6.7. = π
2 60
24
6.8. cos(45∘) = cos(π /4) = π
60
The Hindu Vedic System has a day is 60 ghatika of 24 minutes each, each ghatika is divided into
60 palas of 24 seconds each, and each pala is divided into 60 vispalas, each vispala of 0.4
seconds each. So where our system has a base unit of 1 second, theirs has a base unit of 0.4
seconds, so that could be an advantage to their system, a smaller unit of time is more refined.
Further their day is divided into 60 units, ours into only 24, so their hour, the ghatika is only 24
minutes long, and ours is 60 minutes long, The proponents of this system in India say since
when working and doing chores we do a few chores in an hour, they do about one per ghatika is
24 minutes, which makes the measure of time more manageable. That could be an advantage I
think. They say our hour is so long because the lines had to be far apart on the Egyptian Sun Dial
so the shadow cast by the Sun didn’t cross-over onto another line. But today, with modern
technology we can make clock lines marking hours closer together and measure them with a
pointer hand pointing to them without any problems, and the result is we would have a smaller
more refined hour (60 of them in a day as opposed to 24). They suggest this method of
measuring time would work better in science and engineering as well, that we have to get away
from the way sun dials had to be made in Egypt in ancient times.

But they further point out that their system describes Nature. They say theirs are 108,000
vispalas in a day, and 108,000 vispalas in a night giving 216,000 vispalas in a 24 hour day. The
diameter of the Sun is 108 that of the Earth, and the average distance from the Sun to the Earth
is 108 solar diameters, and the average distance from the Moon to Earth is 108 lunar diameters.
108(10)(10)(10)=108,000. Ourselves and them use base 10 counting, and that is probably
because we have ten fingers to count on.

The incredible thing here is that the wonderful equations:

Learth 7.05E 33 1
= = 2.4899 ≈ 2.5 = 2
ℏ⊙ 2.8314E 33 2
Learth
24 = 60
ℏ⊙

unify the Mesopotamian system with the Hindu system because

1vispal a = 0.4secon d s

(0.4s)(2.5) = 1secon d
 28 of 46

This suggests that the Hindu system is just as Natural as the Western system.

We have said the ancient Sumerians gave us the duration of a second we have today by dividing
up the rotation period of the Earth into 24 units we call hours, which the Babylonians divided
into 60 minutes and 60 seconds that they got from the Sumerian base 60. We have found in my
theory that the 1 second is a natural constant because it is the base unit of our solution to both
the solar system and the atom. We further found the Hindu’s used similar numbers in an
inverted way to the way of the West that came from the Sumerians, and that their system relates
not just to the West’s but to our theory in a dynamic way concerning the angular momentum of
the Earth and our Planck constant for the Solar system.

The Sumerians of Mesopotamia and the Hindus of the Indus Valley Civilization were of the first
civilizations, but so was Egypt. If the second was in Mesopotamia and in India, it was only
necessary to find it in Egypt. Since the Earth spin has been the natural clock for which the
humans first measured time since ancient times, the rising and setting of the Sun due to it, I
looked at how much distance through which the earth rotates at its equator in one second. It is,
since this distance is

s = rθ
where theta is in radians, and the the radius of the Earth is 6.378E6m. The earth rotates through
360 degrees per 24 hours, or per 86,400 seconds = 0.004167 degrees per second = 7.27E-5
radians. We have

s = (6.378E6m)(7.27E − 5r a d ) = 464m = 0.464k m = 0.2883mi ≈ 0.3mi

If the second was to exist in ancient times in Egypt we should see it in the Great Pyramids. The
three largest are in a line and are separated by

Khufu to Khafre (0.25 miles)

Khafre to Menkaure (0.3 miles)

We see the second and third pyramids built, Khafre and Menkaure, which were built in the 25th
century BC and were of the the 4th dynasty of the old kingdom, are 0.3 miles apart, the distance
through which the Earth rotates in one second, the one second we found to be a natural constant
at the basis of the the atom and solar system.

The ancient Sumerians say they got there mathematics in their writings from the Gods who
came to Earth from the sky they called the Anunaki. Some have suggested the Anunaki were
ancient aliens. The Ancient Egyptians built enormous pyramids from heavy stones weighing
tons, somehow lifted 50 feet to be stacked in near perfect mathematical proportions. This has
been a deep mystery in Archaeology. Again some suggest ancient aliens here. I have shown all
three of these civilizations have a system of measurement (the Egyptians had a 24 hour day as
well) that is intrinsic to the laws of nature describing the atom and the solar system in modern
times. It can be suggested that the second was given to them by ancient aliens.

A really good find is the following…

 29 of 46

My theory suggests the Sumerians could have ultimately got the unit of a second for measuring
time from ancient Aliens, they called the Anunaki who the say came from the sky. The same
second I have found is characteristic of our solar system and the proton. Scholars have puzzled
over the the depiction in Sumerian art of the strange watch-like bracelets around the wrists of
the Anunaki gods, who they say came from the sky and gave them mathematics. They have
twelve divisions like our clocks today have because the 12 and 6 o’clock positions have two
pointers running together as one.
 30 of 46

7.0 Integrating Analytic and Wave Solutions of the Solar System We would like to see
how our wave solution for the solar system figures into the classical analytic theory of the
formation of our solar system.The protoplanetary disc that evolves into the planets has two
forces that balance its pressure, the centripetal force of the gas disc due to its rotation around
the protostar vϕ2 /r and the inward gravitational force on the disc from the protostar GM⋆ /r 2,
and these are related by ρ the density of the gas that makes up the disc. The pressure gradient of
the disc in radial equilibrium balancing the inward gravity and outward centripetal force is
2
GM⋆ vϕ
( r2 r)
dP
7.1. =−ρ −
dr

We can solve this for pressure in the protoplanetary disc as a function of r, distance from the
star, as follows: Assume the gas is isothermal, meaning the temperature T is constant so we can
relate pressure and density with

P = cs2 ρ

Where cs is the speed of sound in the gas which depends on its temperature. We take the gas to
be in nearly Keplerian rotation. That is the rotation is given by Newtonian gravity:

GM⋆
vK =
r
And we take into account that the rotational velocity is slowed down by gas pressure using the
the parameter η which is less than one:

vϕ = vK (1 − η)

We can say for a protoplanetary disc like that from which our solar system originated that its
density varies with radius as a power law:
−s

( r0 )
r
ρ(r) = ρ0

ρ0 is the reference density at r0 and s is the power law exponent. We can write
GM⋆
vϕ2 = vK2 (1 − η)2 ≈ (1 − 2η).
r2
We have from 7.1:

( r 2 ⋅ 2η )
dP GM⋆
7.2. =−ρ
dr

Since P = cs2 ρ, we have that d P/dr = cs2 dρ /dr which gives from 2:
 31 of 46

dρ 2ηGM⋆
=− dr
ρ cs2r 2
We integrate both sides:
ρ
dρ 2ηGM⋆ r
∫ρ cs2r 2 ∫
=− r0 dr
0
ρ

And, we have

( ρ0 ) ( r0 r )
ρ 2ηGM⋆ 1 1
ln = −
cs
2

cs2 ( r0 r )
2ηGM⋆ 1 1
ρ(r) = ρ0 ex p −

cs2 ( r0 r )
2ηGM⋆ 1 1
7.3 P0 = cs2 ρ0 ex p −

We take

cs2 ( r0 r )
2ηGM⋆ 1 1
−

as small because η is small and r is large so we can make the approximation e x ≈ 1 + x. We

have

cs2 ( r0 r )
2ηGM⋆ 1 1
7.4. Pr ≈ P0 1 + −

P0 = cs2 ρ0

What we can get out of this is since the deviation parameter, η, is given by

2 ( vK ) dln R
2
1 cs dln P
7.5. η=− and

kBT
7.6. cs =
μmH
Where, kB = 1.38E − 23J/K is the Boltzmann constant, μ ≈ 2.3 is the molecular weight of
hydrogen, and mH is the mass of hydrogen is basically the mass of a proton is 1.67E-27kg. Since
for a protoplanetary cloud at Earth orbit T is around 280 degrees Kelvin we have
 32 of 46

cs = 1k m /s

Typically in discs the pressure decreases with radius as a power law

P(R) ∝ R −q

Where q ≈ 2.5, so

dln P
7.7. ≈ − 2.5
dln R

2 ( 30k m /s )
2
1 1k m /s
η=− (−2.5) = 1.5E − 3

So, essentially, by the chain rule

dln P dln P d R 1 dP R dP
= ⋅ = ⋅R =
dln R d R dln R P dR P dR
to clarify things. The reason 7.7 is significant is that equation

Learth 7.05E 33 1
= = 2.4899 ≈ 2.5 = 2
ℏ⊙ 2.8314E 33 2

Where

4
Learth = π Me fe Re2
5
ℏ⊙ = 2.8314E 33J ⋅ s

λmoon ℏ2⊙ 1
= ⋅ = 1.0secon d s
c GMm3 c
The spacetime operators are…
 33 of 46

rp
( 6α 2 G c ) mp
1 4πh
1) ⋅ = 1secon d

( Rm ) M⊙
Mm R⊙
2) (Ear th Da y) ⋅ = 1secon d

2 π rp 1 h
3) ⋅ 4 ⋅ = 1secon d
3 α G mp3 3 c

So we have

R dP L
7.8. = − earth
P dR ℏ⊙

We have

dP L dR
7.9. = − earth
P ℏ⊙ R

Integrate both sides

dP L dR
∫ P ℏ⊙ ∫ R
= − earth

Learth
ln P = − ln R + C
ℏ⊙

If P0 is the reference pressure at the reference radius R0 then the pressure as a function of radius
for the protoplanetary disc from which our solar system formed is:
L
− earth
ℏ

( R0 ) ( R0 ) [ ℏ⊙ ]
R ⊙
R L
7.10. P(R) = P0 or, P(R) = P0 ex p − earth

Where

4
Learth = π Me fe Re2
5
λmoon ℏ2⊙ 1
ℏ⊙ = GMm3 c(1secon d ) from = ⋅ = 1.0secon d s
c GMm3 c
 34 of 46

rp
( 6α 2 G c ) mp
1 4πh
⋅ = 1secon d
 35 of 46

8.0 A Theory For Biological Hydrocarbons I have found that the basis unit of one second
is not just a Natural constant for physical systems like the atom and the planets around the Sun
but for the basis of biological life, that it is in the sixfold Nature of the chemical skeletons from
which life is built, the hydrocarbons. I found

1 rp 4πh
1). 1secon d = ⋅
6α 2 mp Gc
K Em
2). 1secon d = (Ear th Da y)
K Ee

Where α = 1/137 is the fine structure constant, rp is the radius of a proton, mp is the mass of a
proton, h is Planck’s constant, G is the constant of gravitation, c is the speed of light, K Em is the
kinetic energy of the Moon, K Ee is the kinetic energy of the Earth, and Ear th Da y is the
rotation period of the Earth is one day.

The first can be written:

1 h 4π rp2
3). = 6pr oton ⋅ secon d s = carbon(C )
α 2 mp Gc

1 h 4π rp2
4). = 1pr oton ⋅ 6secon d s = hydr ogen(H )
α 2 mp Gc

From which instead of saying the left sides of these equations are seconds, we say they are
proton-seconds by not letting the units of mp cancel with the bodies of these equations on the
left, which are in units of mass, but rather divide into them, giving us a number of protons. I say
this is the biological because these are the hydrocarbons the backbones of biological chemistry.
We see they display sixfold symmetry. I can generate integer numbers of protons from the time
values from these equations for all of the elements with a computer program. Some results are:
 36 of 46

A very interesting thing here is looking at the values generated by the program, the smallest
integer value 1 second produces 6 protons (carbon) and the largest integer value 6 seconds
produces one proton (hydrogen). Beyond six seconds you have fractional protons, and the rest of
the elements heavier than carbon are formed by fractional seconds. These are the hydrocarbons
the backbones of biological chemistry. And carbon is the core element of life. We see the
duration of the base unit of measuring time, 1 second, given to us by the ancients (the base 60,
sexagesimal, system of counting of the Sumerians who invented math and writing and started
civilization), is perfect for the mathematical formulation of life chemistry. Here is the code for
the program, it finds integer solutions for time values, incremented by the program at the
discretion of the user:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(int argc, const char * argv[]) {

int n;
float value=0, increment,t=0, p=1.67262E-27, h=6.62607E-34,G=6.67408E-11,
c=299792458,protons[100],r=0.833E-15;

do
{
printf("By what value would you like to increment?: ");
scanf("%f", &increment);
printf("How many values would you like to calculate for t in equation 1 (no more than 100?): ");
scanf("%i", &n);
}
while (n>=101);
{

for (int i=0; i<n;i++)

{
protons[i]=((137*137)/(t*p))*sqrt(h*4*(3.14159)*(r*r)/(G*c));

int intpart=(int)protons[i];
float decpart=protons[i]-intpart;
t=t+increment;
if (decpart<0.25)
{ printf("%.4f protons %f seconds %f decpart \n", protons[i], t-increment, decpart);
}}}}

We have that

1 rp 4π h 0.833E − 15 4π (6.62607E − 34)

⋅ = 18769 = 6.029978s ≈ 6s
α2 mp Gc 1.67262E − 27 (6.67408E − 11)(299,792458)

Since this 6 seconds is also proton-seconds we have

1 1 rp 4π h
5). ⋅ 2⋅ = 1secon d is carbon (C)
6pr oton s α m p Gc

1 1 rp 4π h
6). ⋅ 2⋅ = 6secon d s is hydrogen (H)
1pr oton α m p Gc
 37 of 46

Our Theory For Hydrocarbons With all that has been said we are equipped to proceed. We
want to consider the radius of a hydrogen atom and the radius of a carbon atom. The radius of
a carbon atom given in your periodic table of the elements is often 70 to 76 picometers. The
covalent radius of hydrogen is given as 31 picometers. The atomic radius of hydrogen is 53
picometers and the atomic radius of carbon is 67 picometers. We want to consider the atomic
radii of both, because the covalent radius, determined by x-ray di raction for diatomic
hydrogen, is the size of two hydrogen atoms joined H2 divided by two, where it is measured
that way, joined, in the laboratory. Carbon is C2 divided by 2. We are interested in the single
carbon and hydrogen atoms, because we want to know what our theory for their six-fold
symmetry with one another in their representations in proton-seconds says about the way they
combine as the skeletons of life chemistry. We start with the Planck constant, h, which is like
ux, a mass (perhaps a number of particles) per second over an area. That is it is kilograms per
second over square area:

kg
h = 6.62607E − 34J ⋅ s = 6.62607E − 37 ⋅ m2
s
We have equations 1 and 2:

1 1 rp 4π h
1). ⋅ 2⋅ = 1secon d is carbon (C)
6pr oton s α m p Gc

1 1 rp 4π h
2). ⋅ 2⋅ = 6secon d s is hydrogen (H)
1pr oton α m p Gc

We can write these

( )
kg 6secon d s
6.62607E − 37 ⋅ m2 =
s mp

( )
kg 6secon d s
3). 6.62607E − 37 ⋅ m2 = 2.37689E − 6m 2
s 1.67262E − 27kg

( ) 6mp
kg 1secon d
6.62607E − 37 ⋅ m2 =
s

( )
kg 1secon d
4). 6.62607E − 37 ⋅ m2 = 6.602486E − 8m 2
s 6(1.67262E − 27kg)
We have from 3 and 4…

h (6seconds)
⋅
mp 1 2.37689E − 6m 2
5). = = 35.9999 ≈ 40
h
⋅
(1second ) 6.602486E − 8m 2
mp 6

We nd the ratio between the surface areas of the hydrogen and carbon atoms:
fl
fi
ff
 38 of 46

6). Hsurface = 4π (rH2 ) = 3.52989E − 20m 2

7). Csurface = 4π (rC2 ) = 5.64104E − 20m 2

4π (53pm)2
= 0.62575 ≈ 0.618... = ϕ
4π (67pm)2
It is the golden mean. These atomic radii are the radii between the nucleus of the atoms and
their valence shell, which is what we want because the valence shell is the outermost electrons
responsible for the way the hydrogen and the carbon combine to make hydrocarbons. We will
write this

rH2
8). = ϕHC
rC2
I am guessing the reason we have the golden mean here is that it is the number used for
closest packing. But what we really want to do is look at the concept of action, for hydrogen
given by six seconds and carbon given by 1 second. We take equations 1 and 2:

1 1 rp 4π h
1). ⋅ 2⋅ = 1secon d is carbon (C)
6pr oton s α m p Gc

1 1 rp 4π h
2). ⋅ 2⋅ = 6secon d s is hydrogen (H)
1pr oton α m p Gc

And, we write

Gc t
h ∫0
9). mp d t = rA

Where rA is the radius of the atom, and t its time values given here by equations 1 and 2. We have for
hydrogen

Gc t (6.67408E − 11)(299,792,458) 6sec

h ∫0 ∫0
10). mp d t = (1.67262E − 27k g) dt
6.62607E − 34

=(9.2E − 12m /s)(6secon d s) = 5.5E − 11m

This is actually very close to the radius of a hydrogen which can vary around this depending on how you
are looking at it, which we said is given by 5.3E-11m. For carbon we have:

Gc t (6.67408E − 11)(299,792,458) 6sec+1sec

h ∫0 ∫0
11). mp d t = (1.67262E − 27k g) dt
6.62607E − 34

=(9.2E − 12m /s)(7secon d s) = 6.44E − 11m

And this is actually very close to the radius of a carbon atom which is 6.7E-11m. The thing is if we consider
the bond length of the simplest hydrocarbon CH4, methane, which can be thought of as
 39 of 46

16). rH + rC = 5.3E − 11m + 6.7E − 11m = 1.2E − 11m

our, equations give

17). rH + rC = 5.5E − 11m + 6.44E − 11m = 1.2E − 11m

which are the same thing. Thus we have the basis for a theory of everything in that it includes the macro
scale, the Earth/Moon/Sun System, because we had:

K Em
1secon d = (Ear th Da y)
K Ee
and it includes the radius of the proton which is the radius and mass of a proton and gives 1
second

1 rp 4πh
1secon d = ⋅
6α 2 mp Gc

and we have the hydrocarbons the skeleton of the chemistry of life give one second

1 1 rp 4π h
1). ⋅ 2⋅ = 1secon d is carbon (C)
6pr oton s α m p Gc

1 1 rp 4π h
2). ⋅ 2⋅ = 6secon d s is hydrogen (H)
1pr oton α m p Gc

and because they predict the radii of the carbon and hydrogen atoms at the core of life

Gc t (6.67408E − 11)(299,792,458) 6sec

h ∫0 ∫0
10). mp d t = (1.67262E − 27k g) dt
6.62607E − 34

=(9.2E − 12m /s)(6secon d s) = 5.5E − 11m

Gc t (6.67408E − 11)(299,792,458) 6sec+1sec

h ∫0 ∫0
11). mp d t = (1.67262E − 27k g) dt
6.62607E − 34

=(9.2E − 12m /s)(7secon d s) = 6.44E − 11m

 40 of 46

9.0 Solving The F Class Star We now want see how our theory or the wave solution of our
solar system (section 1.0) applies to our theory about F, K, and G stars in terms of being
associated with copper-silver civilizations and silver-gold civilizations (Introduction in this
paper). We have equation 1.17

Me re2
1.17. 3 ⋅ = (1secon d )c
M⊙ rm

Which can be written

1sec rm
9.1 Mp = ⋅ c ⋅ M⋆ ⋅
3 rp2

1sec (6.96265E 8m)

= (299,792,458)(3.2E 30kg) = 2.410E 24kg
1.732 (4E11m)2
In our theory, outlined in the introduction, we surmised for a16 month year of the F0Vstar that
the mass of the planet would have to be a little less than the Earth’s, about 5E24kg. Thus we see
the basis unit of time for our F class star would be different than for ours, which is 1 second. We
find it is:

(2.410E 24)t = 5E 24

t = 2secon d s
Nicely it is about 2 seconds, or very closely exactly double our 1 second so, we see our system of
measuring time may very well have given the second as something Natural in the Universe. With
a characteristic time of 2 seconds we have the Planck constant for this spectral class F star
system. We have from the following equations

1.6 ℏ⊙ = (hC )K Ee

1.7 hC = 1secon d

1 1 2 π rp
1.8 C= ⋅ ⋅
3 α2c 3 G mp3

That,

2 h 2 π rp
9.2 ℏ⋆ = ⋅ ⋅ K Ep = (2sec)K Ep
3 α2c 3 GMp3

1 GM⋆ (6.674E − 11)(3.2E 30kg

K Ep = Mp vp2, vp = = = 23,107m /s
2 rp 4E11m

1
K Ep = (5E 24kg)(23,107m /s)2 = 1.33483E 33J
2
 41 of 46

9.3 ℏ⋆ = (2sec)(1.33483E 33J ) = 2.67E 33J ⋅ s

We have the Planck constant for this F star copper-silver civilization. Now we find the mass of
its moon. We use the equation for the ground state of our solar system, equation 2.6:

ℏ2⊙ 1
2.6. ⋅ = 1secon d
GMm3 c
We write it for the spectral class F star system

ℏ2⋆ 1
9.4 ⋅ = 2secon d s
GMm3 c

ℏ2⋆ 1 (2.67E 33)2

Mm3 = = = 5.6268E 22kg
G c 2sec (6.674E − 11)(299,792459)2sec
Thus the density of this moon is

4 4
Vm = π Rm3 = π (2.060E6m)3 = 3.66E19m 3
3 3
5.6268E 22kg
ρm = = 1,537.377kg /m 3 = 1.537g /cm 3
3.66E19m 3
These are very good, and realistic, results. This is, in fact, the density of Saturn’s Moon,
Enceladus. Enceladus is considered one of the most promising candidates for life in our Solar
System. It has a liquid water ocean beneath its icy crust confirmed by the Cassini spacecraft. The
presence of geysers at its South Pole suggest hydrothermal vents at it ocean floor that could
provide the energy and chemistry to support life. Cassini detected complex organic molecules in
the plumes of water vapor erupting from its surface that could potentially be the building blocks
for life. We may be able to sample this material from the subsurface ocean because the plumes
eject material into space.

We now present the solution to the Schrödinger wave equation for this copper-silver civilization
spectral class F star:
2 2 3
R⋆ G Mp Mm
9.5 K Ep = 3 ⋅
Rm 2ℏ2⋆
For this system, the condition of the eclipse gives

R⋆ rp R⊙ r
= = 574.5, where as for ours it is = e = 400
Rm rm Rm rm
We have
 42 of 46

(6.674E − 11)2(5E 24kg)2(5.6268E 22kg)3

K Ep = (1.732)(574.5) = 1.38446E 33Joules
2(2.67E 33J ⋅ s)2

We had found that K Ep = 1.33483E 33J. So this is an accuracy of

1.33483E 33
100 = 96 %
1.38446E 33
This is good.
 43 of 46

Appendix 1

If we want to prove that our planetary Planck constant is correct, the delocalization time for the
Earth should be 6 months using it, the time for the Earth to travel the width of its orbit. We want
to solve the Schrödinger wave equation for a wave packet and use the most basic thing we can
which is a Gaussian distribution. We want to then substitute for Planck’s constant h that is used
for quanta and atoms our Planck-type constant ℏ⊙ (h bar solar) for the Earth/Moon/Sun system
then apply it to predict the delocalization time for the Moon in its orbit with the Earth around
the Sun.

We consider a Gaussian wave-packet at t=0:

x2 −
ψ (x,0) = Ae
2d 2
We say that d is the delocalization length and decompose the wave packet with a Fourier
transform:

x2 dp
2d 2 ∫ 2π ℏ
i px
ψ (x,0) = Ae − = ϕp e ℏ

ϕp is the harmonics of the wave function. We use the identity that gives the integral of a
quadratic:
∞
π β2
∫−∞
−α 2 x+βx
e dx = e 4α
α

Solve the equation

p̂
iℏ∂t ψ (x, t) = ψ (x, t)
2m
With the initial condition

p2 d2

∫
i
ψ (x,0) = dp ⋅ e 2ℏ2 ⋅ e − ℏ px

A plane wave is the solution:

i
e ℏ ( px−ϵ( p)t)
p2
Where, ϵ( p) =
2m
The wave-packet evolves with time as

p2 d2 p2

∫
i
ψ (x, t) = dp ⋅ e 2ℏ2 ⋅ e − ℏ ( px− 2m t)

Calculate the Gaussian integral of dp

 44 of 46

d2 it ix
α2 = + and β =
2ℏ2 2mℏ ℏ
The solution is:

[ d 1 + t 2 /τ 2 ]
2 x2 1 m d2
ψ = ex p − 2 ⋅ where τ =
ℏ

d is the delocalization distance, which for instance could be the width of an atom. τ is the
delocalization time, the average time for say an electron to traverse the diameter of the atom and
even leave it, to delocalize. If we substitute for ℏ our ℏ⊙, and say that the delocalization distance
is for the Moon, the width of the Earth orbit, we should get a half a year for the delocalization
time, the time for the Moon and Earth to traverse the diameter of their orbit around the Sun. We
have

mmoon(2rmoon )2
τ =
ℏ⊙

Where mmoon is the mass of the Moon, and rmoon is the orbital radius of the Moon. We have

(7.34767E 22kg)(3.844E 8m)2

τ =4 = 15338227secon d s
2.8314E 33J ⋅ s
Now let’s compute a half a year…

(1/2)(365.25)(24)(60)(60)=15778800 seconds

So we see our delocalization time is very close to the half year over which the Earth and Moon
travel from one position to the opposite side of the Sun. The closeness is

15338227
100 = 97.2 %
15778800
Thus we know our ℏ⊙ is accurate, it continues to function in a theoretical framework. The thing
about this is that it means we can predict the mass of the Moon from the Earth year. In terms of
what we said earlier that the Moon allows for life by creating the seasons, holding the Earth at
its tilt to the Sun, so we don’t go through extreme heat and cold, this suggests the Moon has a
mass that follows from Earth orbit, which is the habitable zone of the Sun, the right distance for
water to exist as liquid, and thus could be as it is for a reason, which means life might be part of
a physical process throughout the Universe, that it unfolds naturally in the evolution of star
systems.
 45 of 46

Appendix 2

Some of the data used in this paper:

mP : 1.67262 × 10−27 kg (Proton Mass)

h : 6.62607 × 10−34 J ⋅ s (Planck Constant)
rp : 0.833 × 10−15m (Proton Radius)
m2
G: 6.67408 × 10−11N 2 (Gravitational Constant)
kg
c : 299,792,458m /s (light speed)
α : 1/137 (Fine Structure Constant)
qp = qe = 1.6022E − 19coulom bs
Nm 2
ke = 8.988E 9 2
C
Earth day=(24)(60)(60)=86,400 seconds. Using the Moon’s orbital velocity at aphelion, and
Earth’s orbital velocity at perihelion we have:

1
K Emoon = (7.347673E 22kg)(966m /s)2 = 3.428E 28J
2
1
K Eearth = (5.972E 24kg)(30,290m /s)2 = 2.7396E 33J
2
 46 of 46

The Author