UNIT 6 SHORT ESSAY ●Totals can be placed at the bottom of the

columns.
1.EXPLAIN FEATURES OF TABULATION?
●Explanatory cues can be placed directly
● It conserve space and reduces explanatory
beneath the table for any explanatory
and descriptive statement to a minimum
footnotes.
● It facilitate the process of comparison.
●Two or three small tables are to be preferred
● It facilitate the summarization of item and to one larne one
detection of errors and omissions.
●Items should be arranged either in
●statistical computations that may be carried alphabetical, chronological or geographical
the A table is a tabular representation of order or according to size.
statistical data. ●Tabulation is the first step
2.EXPLAIN METHOD OF PRESENTATION OF THE
before datacan be used for further statistical
DATA?
analysis and interpretation.
DATA PRESENTATION
● The tabulation means the systematic
presentation of the information contained in Tables and graphs share some common
the data in rows and columns in features, but for any specific situation, one is
likely to be more suitable than the
●It provides a basis for various statistical
other.methods of data presentation
computation.
1.tables 2 graphs. 3 diagram
●.The table should be precise,
understandable,and self-explanatory. TYPES OF TABLES

●.Every table should have title, which is placed 1. Frequency distribution tables
at the top of the table. The title must describe
2. Contingency tables
the content clearly and precisely.
3. Multiple response tables
●Items should be arranged alphabetically or
according to size, importance, and causal 4. Miscellaneous tables
relationship to facilitate comparison.
1.FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLES
.●Rows and columns are to be compared with
one another, and should therefore have similar To distribute frequency and percentage of
arrangement. information Keep the class interval constant.
(10 20, 21-30)Ex. Demographic data of the
●The contents of the table, as a whole as well participants
as item-wise in each column and row should be
defined clearly and fully. 1.a.One Way Frequency Table

●The unit of measurement must be clearly 1.b.Two-Way Frequency Tables

stated. In these tables two or more than two variables
●Percentage can be given in parenthesis or can are represented
be worked out to one decimal figure to draw 2.Contingency Tables
the reader attention to the fact that the figure is
a percentage and not an absolute number.
◆Tables report the frequency distribution of a. Scatter plot
two nominal variables simultaneously and
b. Stem and leaf plot
include the totals
C. Box plot
◆Known as cross tabs that present two or more
variables. d. Kaplan Meier plot
◆Shows the relationship or association e. ROC
between variables.
GRAPHS VERSUS TABLES
◆Can be prsent as 2x2,2x3,3x3 base the
number of variables and used in chi square test. ●Advantages

3. Multiple Response Tables Simplicity, clarity

The various responses of the participants can be Easily remembered visual image
depicted in the form of table Picture of complex relationships
4. Miscellaneous Tables Emphasis
These tables are used to present data other Popular
than frequency or percentage such as mean,
median, mode, range, SD etc. ●Disadvantages

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA Lack of precision

◆Diagramatic Lack of flexibility

Representation ADVANTAGES OF DIAGRAMS AND CHARTS

a. Bar diagram It gives Bird's Eye view

b. Pie diagram Easy to understand

c. Pictogram Easy for comparison

d. Cartogram Easy to memorize

◆Graphic Common man can also understand

Representation No need of Mathematical knowledge

a. Histogram Attractable & Reachable to audience

b. Frequency Save time and labor

polygon Comparing to textual & tables, charts and

graphs are better
C. Frequency
TYPES OF DIAGRAM
curve
1. Bar Diagram
◆Plot
Simple, Multiple, Proportional, Inverted and
Representation
Percentage 4. Scattered or Dotted Diagrams

2. Pie chart It is a graphic presentation to show correlation

between two variables. Ex: height and weight in
3. Histogram
men aged 20yrs. It is also called correlation
4. Scatter diagram diagram.

5. Line graph 5. Line graph

6. Pictogram & Cartogram It is presented in lines. Its used when data are
collected over a long period. On x axis values of
7. Others independent variable and in axis values of
1. Bar Diagram dependent variables.

To represent nominal and ordinal data. It's the 5. Cumulative Frequency Curve Or Ogive
easy method to compare the magnitude of Represents cumulative frequency. The
different frequencies. It can be vertical or cumulative frequency are plotted corresponding
horizontal bars. to upper limit if the classes
2. Pie Diagram 6. Pictogram
To present discrete data of qualitative A method to impress the frequency of
characteristics Complete circle is the entire data occurrence of event to a common people such
100% Only percentage of data must be used to as attacks, death, accidents, admissions etc.
prepare pie diagram.
6. Cartogram or Map Diagram
3. Histogram
to show geographical distribution of frequency
It represent grouped frequency distribution. of characteristics.
Variable are indicated on a horizontal line and
frequencies in vertical line. 7.a. Stem and Leaf Displays

3.a. Frequency polygon 7.b. Box Whisker Plot

It's a curve obtained by joining the midpoints of 7.c. ROC Curve

the top of rectangle in a histogram by straight
7.d. Kite Diagram:
line.
LIMITATIONS OF GRAPHS
3.b. Frequency Curves
Limited Application:
3.c. Symmetrical and Skewed Curves
Symmetrical curves: Asymmetrical or Skewed subjective
curves:
Lack of Accuracy:
3.d. Kurtosis
Misleading Conclusions:
Playkurtic curve:

Leptokurtic curve:

Mesokurtic curve:
3.EXPLAIN INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA?
Definition ●Interpretation is one of the most essential
tasks in a research process to frame the
Interpretation is the process of making sense of
recommendations of a research study, so that
numerical data that has been collected,
empirical evidences generated through research
analyzed, and presented .The activity of
process can be used during implementation
analyzing and interpreting data in order to
phase of the research study.
make predictions is known as inferential
statistics.It is important to select appropriate ● Interpretation is a very subjective activity; it is
statistical tool to make useful interpretation of not guarded with the scientific methods and
the data procedures.

●Ater the data are analysed using descriptive ● Therefore,it is liable to bias and errors such as
and inferential statistics, results are described in publication bias or reporting bias (selective
light of the statistical tindings and statistical reporting of results).
principles.
●To present this adverse consequence,
●The next step is the interpretation of data, researcher must be very careful and critical
which is written in a separate section as while examining the study results to draw the
'Discussion'. interpretations .

●After interpretation of results in Discussion ●Interpretations must be based on the study

section ot research report, finally conclusion is results only, so that chances of
drawn and recommendations are are made misinterpretations or over-interpretations of
the unstudied facts can be avoided.
●In research reports (thesis or research paper),
Discussion' is written as a separate sec on after ●Each part, aspect, and segment of the
analysis of data or "Results' section, which is analysed result must receive close attention, so
written in logical sequence including synthesis that misrepresentation can be
and interpretation of res ults, description of avoided.Stratogies for effective interpretations:
study limitations, statistical and clinical
◆Interpretations must be made in light of
significance, conclusion and recommendation of
research problem, objectives, conceptual
study.
framework, hypotheses, and assumptions.
●Interpretation of data reters to the critical
◆Critical examination of each element of study
examination of the analysed study results to
results before framing the interpretations.
draw inferences and conclusions.
◆Careful consideration and recognition of the
●Interpretation of the research findings of a
limitations of the research study so that
study involves a search for their meaning in
inappropriate interpretation can be avoided.
relation to the research problem, objectives,
conceptual frame-work, and hypotheses. Essential elements
●This is an activity of critical thinking, which is ●Major findings of the study in concurrence
done carefully through brainstorming to inter with objectives, hypothesis and conceptual
the condensed and statistically computed data, framework of the study
so that research questions can be answered and
hypothesis can be tested. ●Meaning and importance of study findings
●Comparison and contrasting with prevous data.◆The data is depicted here along the x-axis
research findings of the graph and the length of the bars denote
the values.
●Alternative explanation of the study findings
C)A multiple bar graph
●Clinical relevance of study findings Limitations
of study (i.e. posing major threat to internal and shows the relationship between different
external validity) values of data. Each data value is represented
by a column in the graph. In a multiple bar
●Recommendations of further research
graph, multiple data points for each category of
4.DESCRIBE THE TYPES OF BAR GRAPH? data are shown with the addition of columns...
Create a multiple bar graph to display the data.
Bar Graph :-The bars drawn are of uniform
width and the variable quantity is represented 5.EXPLAIN THE CLASSIFICATION OF DATA?
on one of the axes. Also, the measure of the
DEFINITION
variable is depicted on the other axes. ◆The
heights or the lengths of the bars denote the "Classification is the process of arranging
value of the variable and these graphs are also things(either normally or notionally) in groups
used to compare certain quantities. ◆The or classes according to their resemblances and
frequency distribution tables can be easily affinities and give expressions of the unity
represented using bar charts which simplify the attributes that may subsist amongst a diversity
calculations and understanding of data. ◆The individualsS" Conner
bar graphs can be vertical or horizontal. ◆The
FUNCTIONS OF CLASSITFICATIONS
primary feature of any bar graph is its length or
height.◆ If the length of the bar graph is more, ◆Bulk of the data
then the values are greater of any given data.
◆Simplifies of the data
The types of bar graph
◆Facilitates comparison of characteristics
1. Vertical bar chart
◆Renders the data for statistical analysis
2. Horizontal bar chart
◆Simplifies and makes data more
3. Multiple Bar Diagram comprehensible
a) Vertical Bar Graphs:-When the grouped data ◆Condense the data
are represented vertically in a graph or chart
with the help of bars, where the bars denote ◆Brings out the points of similarity and
the measure of data, such graphs are called dissimilarity
vertical bar graphs.◆The data is represented ◆Comparison of characteristics
along the y-axis of the graph and the height of
the bars shows the values. ◆Brings out the cause and effect relationship

.(b) Horizontal Bar Graphs ◆Prepare the data for tabulation

When the grouped data are represented

horizontally in a chart with the help of bars,
then such graphs are called horizontal bar
graphs, where the bars shows the measure of CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASSIFICATION
◆Unambiguous. ◆Stable ◆Flexible. When the data are arranged according to
◆Exhaustiveness◆Mutually exclusive alphabetical order, it is called alphabetical
classification. For example state-wise density of
OBJECTIVES OF CLASSIFICATIONS
population in India is depicted in an alphabetical
◆To condense the mass of data◆To prepare order below;
the data for tabulation◆To study the relationsh
6.LIST ANY 5 PRINCIPLE OF TABULATION?
ips◆To facilitate comparison
TABULATION OF DATA
TYPES OF CASSIFICATIONS
The process of placing classified data into
◆Geographical (or spatial) classification
tabular form is known as tabulation. A table is a
◆Chronological classification symmetric arrangement of statistical data in
rows and columns.
◆Qualitative classification
PRINCIPLES
◆Quantitative classification
◆Precise, comprehensive and self explanatory.
◆Alphabetical classification
◆A title must be on the top explaining the
GEOGRAPHICAL (OR SPATIAL) CLASSIFICATION content clearly.Table should suit the size of
When the data classified according to paper and, therefore, width of the column
geographical location or region (like states, should be decided before hand.
cities, regions, zones , areas etc) It is called a ◆Follow a sequence in arranging the
geographical classification. For example, the items.Items should be arranged either in
production of food grains in INDIA may be alphabetical, chronological or geographical
presented state- wise in following manner order or according to size.
CHRONOLOICAL CLASSIFICATION ◆Rows and columns must have similar
When data are observed over a period of time content.Number of columns and rows should be
the type of classification is known As neither be too large not too small.
chronological classification Various the serious ◆State the unit clearly. Unit must be either in
such as figures annual output of National the caption/stubs.
income wheat monthly expenditure of a house
hold daily consumptions of milk, etc. Are some ◆Write the foot notes at the bottom of the
examples of chronological classification. table.As far as possible figures should be
approximated before tabulation. This would
QUANTTTATVE CLASSIFICATION reduce unnecessary details
Quantitative classification is refers to the 7.
classification of data according to some
characteristics that can be measured, such as
height, weight ,income, sales profit, production,
etc. For example, the student of a college may
be classified according to weight as follows:

ALPHABETICAL CLASSIFICATION 8.EXPLAIN THE PROCESS OF COMPILING DATA?

DATA COMPILATION ◆Make sure documentation is understandable
and stored with and separately from data
1.Data Entry
4. Data Handling and Analysis
2. Data Cleaning
◆Analysis:
3.Data Security and Analysis
Prepare preliminary plan of data analysis
4.Data handling
◆Documentation:
1.Data Entry
Other researchers should be able to confirm
◆For small projects enter data manually in
results based on data analysis
paper or enter into Microsoft Excel or directly
into SPSS 9 . DESCRIBE THE METHOD OF PRESENTING
THE COMPILED DATA? SAME ANS 8TH
◆For large projects, create a database with
Microsoft Access 10

◆ Keep variables names in the first row, with 11.STEPS IM DATA ANALYSIS?
«=8 characters, and no internal spaces
1. Data Preparation: Cleaning and organizing
◆Enter as little text as possible and use codes the data for analysis
for categories, such as 1=male, 2=female
2.Describing the Data: Using descriptive
2.Data Cleaning statistics

◆Routine checks 3. Testing Hypotheses: Using inferential

statistics
◆Verify computer file entries against data
sheets. 1.Data Requirements Specification

◆Eliminate values for measurements that are it consist following steps

known to be invalid
Data Collection
◆Replace missing data from a backup data
Data Processing
◆Adjust measurement values unit changes. e.g.
Data Cleaning
cm to meter
Data Analysis
◆Document the changes made to the data.
Communication
3. Data Security
◆.DATA REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATION
◆Primary data sets storage
The data required for analysis is based on a
◆Backup copy at all data transfer points
question or an experiment.•Based on the
◆Off-site storage requirements of those directing the analysis,
the data necessary as inputs to the analysis is
◆Storage medium can be read or accessed
identified (e.g., Population of people).•Specific
when needed
variables regarding a population (e.g., Age and
Income) may be specified and obtained.•Data support their decisions and further action.• The
may be numerical or categorical. feedback from the users might result in
additional analysis. •The data analysts can
◆ DATA COLLECTION
choose data visualization techniques, such as
Data Collection is the process of gathering tables and charts, which help in communicating
information on targetedvariables identified as the message clearly and efficiently to the
data requirements.• The emphasis is on users.• The analysis tools provide facility to
ensuring accurate and honest collection of highlight the required information with colour
data.• Data Collection ensures that data codes and formatting in tables and charts.
gathered is accurate such that the related
2 Describing the Data
decisions are valid. •Data Collection provides
both a baseline to measure and a target to This is done by using descriptive statistics,
improve. •Data is collected from various which are used to describe the basic features of
sources ranging from organizational databases the data in a study and provide summaries
to the information in web pages.• The data thus about the sample and the measures in simple
obtained, may not be structured and may terms.• They form the basis of almost every
contain irrelevant information. •Hence, the quantitative analysis of data.
collected data is required to be subjected to
3 Testing Hypotheses
Data Processing and Data Cleaning.
This is done by using inferential statistics.
◆.DATA PROCESSING
•These are concerned with population and use
The data that is collected must be be processed the data to make inference about a population.
or organized for analysis. •This includes Examples are finding differences, relationships,
structuring the data as required for the relevant and association between two or more variables.
Analysis Tools. •For example, the data might
have to be placed into rows and columns in a SHORT ANSWER UNIT 6
table within a Spreadsheet or Statistical
1,2,5,6,10,12 repeated
Application. •A Data Model might have to be
created. 3.DEFINE FOOTNOTE?
◆.DATA CLEANING A footnote is a reference placed at the bottom
of a page or footer. When writing your research
The processed and organized data may be
paper, you would use a footnote to cite sources
incomplete, contain duplicates, or contain
of facts or quotations. Footnotes are referenced
errors.•Data Cleaning is the process of
in the text in the same way as a citation.
preventing and correcting these errors.• There
are several types of Data Cleaning that depend 4.DEFIBE SUMMARIZATION?
on the type of The process might require
additional Data Cleaning or additional Data It is the processes of representing the collected
Collection, and hence these activities are data in an accurate and compact way without
iterative in nature. losing any information, it also involves getting a
information from collected data.
◆ COMMUNICATION
Ex: Display the data as a graph and get the
The results of the data analysis are to be mean, median, mode etc.
reported in a format as required by the users to
 statistical tool to make useful interpretation of
the data

7.DEFINE INCLUSIVE METHOD OF

CLASSIFICATION?

In the inclusive method, the upper limit of a

class interval is included in the class itself. (1)
When the upper limit of the class is excluded
from the class and is included in the next class,
it is called exclusive method.

8.DEFINE EXCLUSIVE METHOD OF

CLASSIFICATION?

Exclusive Method: This method is useful

whether the value is complete number or in
decimals. In case of exclusive series, value of
the upper limit of a class is included in the lower
limit of the next class interval. Value of the
upper limit of the class is included in that very
class interval.

9.DEFINE CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY?

Cumulative Frequency (Ogive): It is the running

total of frequencies, that is, the total of a
frequency and all frequencies below it in a
frequency distribution. Cumulative frequency
gives the total number of events that occurred
up to some value and is used extensively in risk
or reliability analysis to determine the chances
for an event to occur. For example, in an
objective test for a class of 50 students, the
maximum score assigned is 100. The scores
obtained by the students fall in the range of 0 to
98. The raw data aranged from lower to higher
scores

11.DEFINE INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Interpretation is the process of making sense of

numerical data that has been collected,
analysed, and presented. The activity of
analysing and interpreting data in order to
make predictions is known as inferential
statistics. It is important to select appropriate