Coordinates Systems

Contents
• Introduction
• Terrestrial coordinates
– Local Astronomical System
– Local Geodetic system
– Geodetic system
– Conventional terrestrial
• Relationships between the systems
• Transformations between the systems
• Map projections
• Terrestrial Reference systems
– Geodetic datum
– International terrestrial reference system/frame
 Introduction
• We will discuss the Precise definitions of, and
Transformation between, the coordinates
systems to which positions on or above the
surface of the earth are referred to.
• To define coordinate system
– The location of origin point
– The orientation of the three axis
– The parameters (Cartesian, curvilinear)
• There are three distinct coordinates systems used in
geodesy
– Terrestrial
– Celestial
– Orbital
• The definition depends on the motions of the earth
and satellites in space
– Earth rotates on its axis and revolves around the sun
– Satellites orbit the earth
 Terrestrial coordinates
• They are earth fixed
• Define position of coordinates on the surface of
the earth
• Rotate and revolve with earth.
• Two types
– Topocentric and
– Geocentric
 Terrestrial Topocentric
• Topocentric
– Local astronomic
– Local geodetic
 Local Astronomical System
• Used when measuring positions in the local area
• Origin – observer’s point
• Orientation
– Z (U)– normal to equipotential surface
– X (N)– orthogonal to z in direction of north
– Y (E)– points the east to complete a Left handed
system
• Scale (Cartesian and curvilinear coordinates)
 Local Astronomical System
• System which observations are
made on
• To locate a point we use
Astronomical azimuth, A,
altitude angle, v, and distance, r.
• Uses Cartesian coordinates and
curvilinear coordinates.
• Relative coordinates
 Position of point (LA)
𝑥 cos 𝑣 cos 𝐴
𝑦 = 𝑟 cos 𝑣 sin 𝐴
𝑧 𝐿𝐴 sin 𝑣
A = astronomical Azimuth
v = altitude angle

Example:
The relative position of A to B is (201.35m,223.24°, 46.52°) in astronomic coordinates
Convert AB to LA Cartesian

𝑥 cos(46.52) cos(223.24) −100.932

𝑦 = 201.35 cos(46.52) sin(223.24) = −94.914 m
𝑧 𝐿𝐴 sin 𝑣(46.52) 146.103
 Local Geodetic System
• Used when measuring positions in the local area
• Origin – observer’s point
• Orientation
– Z – normal to ellipsoidal surface
– X – orthogornal to z in direction of geodetic north
– Y – points the east to complete a Left handed system
• Scale (cartesian (x,y,z) and curvilinear coordinates (A,
v, r))
• To locate a point we use ellipsoidal azimuth, ,
ellipsoidal zenith, , and distance, r.
Relationship LA and LG

𝑥 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑅2 𝜉 𝑅1 𝜂 𝑦
𝑧 𝐿𝐴 𝑧 𝐿𝐺
Where
𝜉 = Φ−𝜙
𝜂 = Λ − 𝜆 cos 𝜙 Components of the astro-geodetic
deflection of the vertical
 Terrestrial Geocentric
• Origin is near centre of earth
• Primary pole aligned to earth’s axis of rotation
• Primary axis is intersection between the
primary plane and plane containing
Greenwich Meridian
• The systems are right handed
 Conventional System
• Most ideal system Primary pole
• Origin – near centre of gravity of the earth Secondary axis
• Orientation
– Z – directed towards the conventional terrestrial pole (CTP /CIO –
average north pole of 1900 - 1905)
– X – lies in the Greenwich meridian plane Primary axis
– Y – completes the right handed system Secondary pole
• Scale (metre, Cartesian – X, Y, Z)
• Position of a point defined by x, y, z
Primary plane –
• absolute coordinates
equatorial plane
Relationship between LA and CT
P2 = reflection matrix reflects yLA from
𝑋 𝑥 left hand to right hand coord. system
𝑌 = 𝑅3 180° − Λ 𝑅2 90° − Φ 𝑃2 𝑦
R2 = rotation around new Y
𝑍 𝐶𝑇 𝑧 𝐿𝐴
R3 = rotation around Z
Converting from LA to CT
𝑋 𝑥
𝑌 = 𝑅3 180° − Λ 𝑅2 90° − Φ 𝑃2 𝑦
𝑍 𝐶𝑇 𝑧 𝐿𝐴
 Instantaneous System
• True instantaneous pole, the
instantaneous position of pole given
by xp and yp (from IERS).
• Position of pole changes due to polar
motion.
• Origin – centre of gravity of the earth
• Orientation
– Z – directed towards the true
(instantaneous) rotation of the earth
– X – lies in the Greenwich meridian
plane Relationship Between CT and IT
– Y – completes the right handed system 𝑥 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑅1 𝑦𝑝 𝑅2 𝑥𝑝 𝑦
𝑧 𝐼𝑇 𝑧 𝐶𝑇
𝑅1 𝑦𝑝 𝑅2 𝑥𝑝 = W (Wobble matrix)
 Geodetic System
• Used when measuring positions in the local area
• Origin – centre of ellipsoid
• Orientation
– Z – along minor axis
– X – directed to ellipsoidal 0 meridian
– Y – completes a right handed system
• Scale (Cartesian (x,y,z) and curvilinear coordinates (lat,
long, h) – geocentric/geodetic/reduced)
• Global ellipsoidal coordinates
 Position of point (LG)
𝑥 cos 𝛿 cos 𝛼
𝑦 = 𝑠 cos 𝛿 sin 𝛼
𝑧 𝐿𝐺 sin 𝛿
 = ellipsoidal Azimuth
= altitude angle

Relationship between LG and G

𝑥 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑅3 180° − 𝜆 𝑅2 90° − 𝜑 𝑃2 𝑦
𝑧 𝐺 𝑧 𝐿𝐺
P2 = reflection matrix reflects yLG from
left hand to right hand coord. system
R2 = rotation around new Y
R3 = rotation around Z
 Relationship between G and CT
• A geodetic system is made in such a way that the its axis are parallel
to the CT.
• The relationship between CT and G is defined by three translations,
X, Y, Z.
• Where the translations are 0 it is called a absolute geodetic system.(
i.e. GRS80)
𝑥 𝑥 Δ𝑥 Translation
𝑦 = 𝑦 + Δ𝑦 vector
𝑧 𝐶𝑇 𝑧 𝐺 Δ𝑧
• If axis are not parallel we introduce a rotation matrix
• Instantaneous to Apparent place system
• AP z axis coincides with IT z axis
𝑥 𝑥 GAST – Greenwich Apparent Sidereal Time
𝑦 = 𝑅3 −𝐺𝐴𝑆𝑇 𝑦  Greenwich hour angle of the vernal equinox.
𝑧 𝐴𝑃 𝑧 𝐼𝑇  Time related to earth rotation
 Determined by IERS

Earth Orientation Parameters

• GAST
• 𝑥𝑝 , 𝑦𝑝
Summary of terrestrial coordinates
1. Coordinates systems
2. Relationships
3. Coordinates
– Cartesian (x, y, z) all
– Curvilinear (, , h) G
– Curvilinear (v, A, r) LA
– Curvilinear (a, , r) LG
 Terrestrial reference systems
• Reference systems have evolved over the years
because of satellite technology.
• Countries are revising, re-defining and updating
their networks
• Traditionally reference systems were defined by
local, regional datum.
• Morden reference systems are defined by a
global datum
 Geodetic datum
• There are two natural surfaces of earth
– The Terrain and
– The Geoid
• Control points are measured on the terrain.
– Vertical measurements are referred to the geoid
– Horizontal measurements to the Ellipsoid of
rotation(an unnatural figure of the earth)
 Geodetic datum
• Other simpler surface can be sufficient
approximation to the geoid if the area under
consideration is sufficiently small, and/or the
control application permits lower order of
accuracy.
– Sphere
– plane
 Geodetic datum
• Datum describing the relationship of the earth to a
coordinate system
• For practical utilization the datum parameters must be
accessible
• There are eight parameters needed to describe this
relationship
– Origin (3) (x,y,z coordinates of the origin)
– Orientation (3) – 3 rotations
– Ellipsoid (2) ( a and b, a and 1/f, a and e)
 Datum position parameters
• In order to establish an ellipsoid as the reference
surface for a system of control we must specify
– Size and shape ( a and b, a and 1/f, a and e)
– Position with respect to the earth (datum position
parameters)
• A well positioned datum will closely approximate
the geoid over the area covered by the network
of control points.
 Datum position parameters
Two kinds of datum position parameters in use
• Geocentric case • Topocentric case
– Origin near the surface of the earth
– Origin is near the geocentre – Geodetic coordinates of initial
point (φ0, λ0, N0)
– Origin (x0, y0, z0)
– Rotation angles (ξ0, η0, δα0)
– Axis are assumed not to be • N – geoid height
parallel • ξ – deflection of vertical north –
south component
– Rotation angles (w1, w2, w3) • η – deflection of vertical east west
component
• δα – angle between geodetic
azimuth and astronomic azimuth
 Establishment of datum
• Datum’s are created in such a way that the ellipsoid is a best fit to
the geoid
• The origin could be made to coincide with the geo-centre however
this was difficult before the advent of satellite technology.
• Alternatively a point on the surface of the earth can be chosen as
the “origin”, the initial datum point. This kind of datum will
normally approximate the geoid in a local sense. Hence, different
countries and regions will have differing datum’s.
• Modern datum’s are global in nature, they approximate the geoid
over the entire earth
 Establishment of Datum
• 8 parameters required
– (a, b, x0, y0, z0, w1, w2, w3) or
– (a, b, φ0, λ0, N0, ξ0, η0, δα0)
• (N, ξ, η) is chosen in such a way that it is not
excessive and w1 = w2 = w3 = 0 (axes are parallel)
• For global networks if x0 = y0 = z0=0 it is termed a
geocentric datum otherwise it is a local datum
 GEODETIC DATUM PARAMETERS
DATUM SPHEROID ORIGIN LATITUDE LONGITUDE
Cape Modified Clarke 1880 Buffelsfontein 33˚59’32.000”S 25˚30’44.622”E

Hart94 WGS84 Geocentre

Arc 1950 Modified Clarke 1880 Buffelsfontein 33˚59’32.000”S 25˚30’44.622”E

BGNRS02 GRS80 Geocentre

AGD84 ANS Johnson Geodetic 25°56’54.5515”S 133°12’30.0771”E

station
GDA94 GRS80 Geocentre

NAD27 Clarke 1866 Meade’s Ranch, 39°13’26.686”N 98°32’30.506”W

Kansas.
NAD83 GRS80 Geocentric
 International terrestrial reference
system • Reference system
• Responsibility of IERS - • Reference frame
• Realized through the ITRF (International Terrestrial
Reference Frame) . It consists of an adopted global set
of Cartesian station coordinates and velocities.
Origin Mass centre of earth
Scale metre
Ellipsoid GRS80
Orientation BIH system 1984
Realization coordinates and velocities of a large number of instrument locations of geodetic
observatories equipped with one up to six techniques in parallel

Notation ITRF .yy and ITRFyyyy

Techniques VLBI, SLR, LLR, GPS, DORIS

Current ITRF is ITRF2014

BGRS02 based on ITRF2000
 Summary of terrestrial coordinates
Reference poles Reference planes
Handedness
System Primary Pole Secondary Pole Primary Secondary (y – axis)
(z – axis) (x – axis)
LG Zenith Geodetic North Tangent plane Geodetic meridian Left
at stn.
LA Zenith Astronomic North Local horizon Astronomic Left
meridian at stn.

Intersection of Greenwich
G Semi – minor axis Parallel to CT Hour circle of Right

meridian an equatorial
observer’s zenith

CT CTP average plane Average terrestrial Greenwich Right

terrestrial pole equator Meridian

IT Instantaneous Instantaneous Greenwich Right

terrestrial pole terrestrial equator Meridian

AP Parallel to true True equatorial Equinoctial colure Right

Vernal equinox
Celestial Pole plane
 Coordinate operations

http://kartoweb.itc.nl/geometrics/coordinate%20transformations/coordtrans.html
 Coordinate operations
• Change of coordinates from one coordinate
reference system to another. There are two types of
coordinate operations
Coordinate
Datum 1 transformation 1 Datum 2
Coordinate system A Coordinate system A

Coordinate
conversion
Datum 1 Coordinate
Coordinate system B Transformation
(concatenated operation)
 Coordinate conversion

• A change of coordinates from one coordinate

system to another based on the same datum
• No change in datum
• Conversion parameters have constant values
• i.e. geodetic Cartesian or geodetic 
projected
Source
Datum 1
Coordinate Target
Datum 1
conversion
Coordinate system A Coordinate system B
 Projected coordinates
• A map projection grid is related to the geographical
graticule of an ellipsoid through the definition of a
coordinate conversion method and a set of parameters
appropriate to that method.
• Projected coordinates parameters
– Natural origin
– False Easting, False Northing LO parameters

– Longitude of origin/Central meridian

– Zone
 Projected coordinates
– Scale factor
• Cartesian
– UTM
– Lo
• They use Eastings and Northings. Eastings are
measured from the central meridian and Northings
from latidude of origin.
• To minimise distortions the projections are done for a
small portion of the earth.
 Coordinate conversions
• Map projections (Gauss Kruger)
– Refer to handout
– Example southern hemisphere
LO parameters
Projection Transverse Mercator
Central Meridian 2° interval east of 11°E
Latitude of origin 0°
CM scale factor 1.0000
Zone width 2°
False Easting 0
False Northing 0
 Coordinate transformation
• Change of coordinates from one coordinate
reference system to another based on different
datum
• Target datum not same as source datum
• Parameters are derived empirically
• i.e. WGS84  cape datum
Source Coordinate Target
Datum 1 transformation Datum 2
Coordinate system A Coordinate system A
 Coordinate transformation
1. Three parameter transformation
2. Seven parameter
3. Abridged Molodensky
4. Conformal transformations
 3 parameter
ZS
• YS ZT

XS YS
Z
YT
X Y
XT
 Three parameter transformation
 X T   X S  X  • Geocentric to geocentric
 Y    Y    Y  transformation
 T   S    • Used when

 ZT  
 ZS  
 Z 
 – Axes of system are parallel
– The systems have the same
Target coordinates Datum shifts scales
Source coordinates • If a sufficient number of
Example:
coordinates is known in both
WGS84 to Cape datum
systems, datum shifts can be
X =135.4m determined
Y=106.7m • Less accurate
Z=291.7m
From XFORM
 Example 1
• The WGS84 coordinates of a reference mark are

X 5216434.493m
Y 2535719.472m
Z -264738.271m

• Convert to Cape datum coordinates ECEF

– WGS84 to Cape datum datum shifts;X =135.4m, Y=106.7m, Z=291.7m
Xcape= 5216434.493 + 135.4 = 5216569.893m
Ycape= 2535719.472 + 106.7 = 2535826.172m
Zcape= -264738.271 + 291.7 = -264446.571m
 ZT
Source datum
RZ Lo System
RY
RX
Target datum
WGS 84 Z YT
Y
X
XT
 7 parameter
• Relates two Datums through a rotation(3), origin
shift (3) and scale factor (1)
• Geocentric  geocentric

 X T  X   1 RZ  RY   X S 
 Y    Y   1  S  R 1 RX  Y 
 T     Z  S 

 ZT  
 Z 
 
 RY  RX 1  ZS 
Target coordinates
Datum shifts Scale error Rotations around Source coordinates
three axis
 Abridged Molodensky
• Geographic to geographic
• Parameters
– 3 translations; X, Y, Z
– a = at-as
– f = = ft- fs
 ϕt = ϕs + ϕ
λt = λs + λ
ht = hs + h
Where
1
Δ𝜑 " = −∆𝑋 sin 𝜑𝑠 cos 𝜆𝑠 − ∆𝑌 sin 𝜑𝑠 sin 𝜆𝑠 + ∆𝑍 cos 𝜑𝑠 + 𝑎𝑠 ∆𝑓 + 𝑓𝑠 ∆𝑎 sin 2𝜑𝑆
𝜌𝑠 sin 1"

1
Δ𝜆" = −Δ𝑋 cos 𝜆𝑠 + ∆𝑌 cos 𝜆𝑠
𝜈𝑠 cos 𝜑𝑠 sin 1"

Δℎ = ∆𝑋 cos 𝜑𝑠 cos 𝜆𝑠 + ∆𝑌 cos 𝜑𝑠 sin 𝜆𝑠 + ∆𝑍 sin 𝜑𝑠 + 𝑎𝑠 ∆𝑓 + 𝑓𝑠 ∆𝑎 sin2 𝜑𝑠 − 𝑎

 conformal
• Relates 2D cartesian 𝑋𝑡 = 𝑋0 + 𝑎𝑋𝑠 + 𝑏𝑌𝑠
coordinates 𝑌𝑡 = 𝑌0 − 𝑏𝑋𝑠 + 𝑎𝑌𝑠
• Parameters
– Rotation, 
– Scale (uniform), k Where
– And translation 𝑎 = 𝑘 cos 𝜃
𝑏 = 𝑘 sin 𝜃
X0,Y0 – coordinates of the origin
source coordinates expressed in
We get target coordinates
𝜃 = tan−1 𝑏 𝑎
And
𝑘=𝑎 cos 𝜃 or 𝑘 = 𝑏 sin 𝜃
 Map projections
• Mathematical method of transforming the curved
surface of the earth to a flat/plane surface.
Cannot be done without some distortion
• Map projections are constructed by
– using a geometric surface (developable surface)that
can be flattened to a plane surface without further
distortions
– By preserving a metric property (showing one
characteristic accurately at the expense of others)
 Earth to Globe to Map

Map Scale: Map Projection:

Representative Fraction Scale Factor
= Globe distance = Map distance
Globe distance
Earth distance
(e.g. 1:24,000) (e.g. 0.9996)
 Developable surfaces
• Simple geometric surface that capable of being flattened
without stretching. Three types; cylinder, cone, plane
• Give the following projections
– Cylindrical projections
– Conic projections
– Azimuthal projection
• Axis of surface can be varied to get
– Normal, transverse and oblique aspect
• The surfaces can also cut through the globe
 Cylindrical Projections
(Mercator)
Tangent Secant

Transverse

Oblique
Conic Projections
(Albers, Lambert)
Azimuthal
(Lambert)
 Preserved property
• Map properties preserved; Scale, Area, Direction, Shape
• Equidistant projection
– Maintain constant scale in all directions from one or two standard
points.
• Equal area
– Conserves area but distorts shapes & angles
• Conformal
– Shapes of small surface features are shown without distortion
– Results from correctly representing local angles
• Azimuthal
– Shows all great circles as straight lines
• Basic concepts
– Graticule; network of lines formed by meridians and
parallels either on the sphere or map
– Grid; system of squares drawn on a map from which
the graticule and points of detail are drawn
– Scale factor; the ratio of a straight line on the map
joining two points to the corresponding distance on
the sphere
• For conformal map scale factor at is equal in all directions
• There for a small feature angles on the surface of the sphere
are correctly represented on the sphere