Stability Criteria for Sailing Vessels

P. Izaguirre-Alza¹, L. Pérez-Rojas¹, R. Zamora-Rodriguez¹

(¹): Model Basin Research Group (CEHINAV), Naval Architecture Department (ETSIN),
Technical University of Madrid (UPM).

Abstract But there already exist conventional

passenger vessels over 130 m, where is the
What do you know about sailing difference? Usually a sailing vessel under
yacht stability? Which are the peculiarities of bare poles is safer than a conventional
the stability of a sailing yacht? Is there any vessel because of her low center of gravity
supposition different from those applied in but under sail is more likely to suffer a risky
conventional ships? If you have to verify the situation because of the wind. Several
stability of your yacht, would you be sure of criteria of different countries establish for
which criteria you should applied? The aim sailing vessels the requirements for
of this paper is to answer these questions conventional vessel and additionally specific
among others. The authors assume that the criteria. This paper will be focused on the
readers of this paper come from varied specific rules of sailing monohulls.
backgrounds and experience. Some of you The specific classic requirements of
may not be totally familiar with these stability stability for sailing vessels were in general
requirements whereas others may use them developed in the beginnings of nineteenth
every day. It is hoped that this paper will be when computers enabling precise
some enlightenment for the former and be determination of ship characteristics were
an interesting review for the latter. not available. Most of the rules which are
In this paper the philosophy of applied in these days are a compendium of
sailing yacht stability will be presented. It will classic simple formulae for determining the
be also examined the criteria in force in stability of vessels under sail. Now that the
countries such as Spain, United Kingdom, characteristics of a vessel are obtained fast
United States and The Netherlands among and with a high degree of accuracy is has
others and the assumptions upon which they been able to establish modern requirements
are based will be highlighted. In order to for sailing ships. The wind heeling moment
clarify ideas two reference sailing yacht will and the dynamic aspects of stability are still
be subjected to different criteria and under a comprehensive analysis. Current
compared their severity. wind tunnels, new measurement systems,
increasing electronic technology and many
1. Introduction other progresses have made achievable to
take into account factors which were
In the nineteen nineties a Technical impossible to assess so far.
Committee of the International Standards Another important feature that is at
Organization (ISO) developed a standard for its peak is the information and operational
the assessment of the stability of pleasure guidance to the master in the stability
craft with a length up to 24 m, which booklet, ref [5]. The new standards available
included sailing crafts (ref [1], ref [2]). These to analyze and predict a sailing vessel’s
criteria left the small sailing yacht stability characteristics may now give an opportunity
scenario sufficiently studied. Furthermore, to provide better assistance to the captain
Australia (ref [3]) and United Kingdom (ref for avoiding dangerous situations.
[4]) have special criteria for small vessel
which permit answering the most questions 2. The Philosophy of Sailing Yacht
above easily. The problem comes when Stability
asking for large vessels and specially
passenger vessels. The capability of a sailing vessel to
Nowadays there is a big concern in withstand the action of the wind is
large vessels because there are large represented by the righting moment curve
monohull sailing vessels over 130 m in (see figure 1). Some of the most important
length under construction, each of which can parameters that describe the stability of
take up to 300 passengers. There have sailing yachts are the area under the righting
been carry out some studies to analyze the moment curve up to the angle of vanishing
influence of the size with the stability and stability, the righting lever at 90 degrees of
develop new criteria. heel and the downflooding angle, ref [2]. It is

1
also important the shape of curve and the administration, there are several ways of
range of positive stability. Generally different representing the heeling arm curve.
criteria demand minimum values of these Sometimes, as in the static stability case
parameters. (formula-pressure-angle) are proposed but
For classic methods there are some in others a fixed value of area is requested.
characteristics of the vessel that must be The criteria of the American Coastguard
known, apart from the righting moment Agency (USCG) are based in the same
curve, such as the displacement in different philosophy but the minimum values are
loading conditions, sail area and the general presented as numerals, both in static and
arrangement with and without sails. dynamic stability.
As well as these two types of
• Classic methods requirements some countries such as United
States and the Netherlands require a
There are mainly two types of minimum metacentric height specifically
requirements that usually are presented calculated for sailing vessels.
together, static and dynamic stability. But there are some assumptions in
In the first type, the righting arm classic calculation of wind heeling and its
(GZ) curve is calculated and compared with effects on stability that have been lately
the heeling arm curve which is produced by discussed, ref[6] and ref[7]:
a stationary wind. Both curves are plotted
together and at the point which they cross (1) The wind is of uniform velocity at all
the steady heel angle is defined. This angle elevations.
must be below a certain value proposed by It is not uniform, there is a wind
the corresponding administration. gradient. This makes that the upper part of
Usually in each criterion a formula, a the rig contributes more than the hull which
pressure and an angle are proposed. The is in a very low velocity region. The gradient
formulation of the heeling arm curve is also reduces de heeling moment when
normally: sailing at large angles.
α
Heeling Arm = P x A x H / Δ x cos θ
(2) All sails have a heeling force coefficient
where, of unity
A: sail area That is, the force generated by the
H: distance between the geometric center of wind is always equal to the pressure times
sails and geometric center of underwater the sail area. But it has been demonstrated
body. in wind tunnel tests that the coefficient
Δ: displacement depends on plan forms, sail sheeting and
α: it was always 2 but new approaches have camber. The value can vary from 1 or 1.2 for
discovered that 1.3 fits better. high aspect ratio triangular sails to 1.6 or
θ: heel angle even 2 for four sided sails, ref [6].
P: wind pressure. It is very variable. Some
countries propose a pressure depending on (3) Overlapped sail areas produce no
the class of the vessels but others have heeling moment.
standard pressure independently of the size When sails are trimmed correctly the
and operation area of the yacht. total area is working in heeling the yacht.
The proposed maximum angle it is When struck by a gust from the beam,
usually the deck immersion angle. But in however, the sails will probably stall and
other cases, such as in the Spanish their projected area will be more relevant.
proposal (see appendix B), a fixed angle of
12º is required. (4) The heeling moment is maximised with
The second kind of requirements is the wind on the beam.
traditionally known as the “dynamic stability” This is not always true. For example
and refers to the capacity of the vessel to for a fore and aft rigged vessel the heeling
withstand a gust. The work done by a gust is moments is maximised with the sails
represented by the area under the wind sheeted in tight, but with the apparent wind
heeling arm curve, as the energy absorbed angle between 40 and 60 degrees, ref [7].
by the yacht which is represented by the
2
area under the righting arm curve. The angle (5) Heeling moments vary with cos (heel
at which these areas are equal defines the angle)
angle to which a vessel will be dynamically The moment was found to vary with
heeled by the gust. Depending on the cos1.3 in the work in wind tunnel undertaken

2
by the Wolfson Unit to develop stability The Wolfson Unit and sponsored by
criteria of sailing vessels, ref[7]. The new the UK Department of Transport developed
exponent makes the best fit to the data for new stability criteria appropriate for the safe
different types of rig even bare pole and operation of sailing vessels which were
makes the value of the heeling moment be included in the Maritime Coastguard
higher for every heeling angle, see figure 2. Agency’s (MCA) Large Commercial Yachts
The full scale data obtained in the Code (ref [8]) and they have turned into a
SLIP (ref [5]) project appeared to validate reference in sailing vessel stability methods.
the cos1.3 as opposed to the cos2 function These criteria are clearly explained
used by the USCG regulations. in ref [9]: “The wind speed required to heel a
yacht to its downflooding angle will depend
(6) When considering response to a gust, on the sails set, apparent wind angle,
the increase in wind speed is instantaneous. sheeting and other factors, but the moment
Significant gusts have a rise time of required to heel to that angle will be the
10 to 20 seconds and because this rise is same regardless of the circumstances. It
normally greater than the natural roll period therefore a simple matter to use the heeling
of a sailing vessel, it does not respond as if arm required to cause downflooding or
to an impact on the mast. The yacht is able capsize, calculate the corresponding heeling
to adjust its heel angle as the heeling arm when the yacht is upright, then halve
moment increases. It is clearly explained in this value to derive a heeling arm curve and
ref [7]. its intersection with the GZ curve which
defines the maximum “safe” angle of heel in
(7) The vessel’s inertia and damping have the mean wind. See figure 3. Provided this
no effect on its gust response. angle is not exceeded the yacht should be
With bare poles the damping is safe from downflooding in the event of
purely the hydrodynamic contribution from severe gusts.”
the hull. The addition of sails causes a It was decided to establish a lower
significant increase in the damping, and a limit of 15 degrees after consideration of the
further increase is provided with wind values derived for known vessels including
applied to the sails. The high damping casualties. This decision was taken in order
provided by the rig prevents the vessel from to guard against the operation of a vessel
responding in the dynamic way normally with a particularly low downflooding angle,
considered by naval architects as they which would result in an unrealistically low
assume for conventional vessels. maximum steady heel angle, ref [7]. In the
In the work of the Wolfson Unit (ref Spanish requirements (appendix B), the
[7]) variations of inertia were studied and lower limit is 15 degrees for vessels
resulted in no alteration to the rate of operating in protected waters but as the
change of heel angle in response to the operation area is further away from the
gusts, or to the maximum heel angle coast the limit increases up to 28º.
measured. Consequently the effects were There are two remarkable ideas in
considered negligible in comparison to the this new criterion. The first is that when
damping and stability of a vessel when struck by a gust a sailing vessel will heel to
struck by a gust. the corresponding steady heel angle at the
gust wind speed (pressure) during the gust,
As it has been presented, several ref [7]. The second idea is that the standard
assumptions of traditional methods have refers to gusts and not to squalls. The term
been sufficiently refuted by experts. squalls refers to a large scale turbulence,
International community realized that a new resulting from a small scale weather system
point of view was necessary. Subsequently whereas the gust is defined as the higher
the relevance has been focused in the velocities of the fluctuating wind speed
relation between the new stability which occur in the earth’s atmospheric
approaches and the operational guidance to boundary layer. Different studies indicate
the master who should know when sailing at that the maximum likely gust speed factor is
a certain angle the effect of a severe gust 1.4, and such a gust will increase the wind
strike. This guidance should be useful for pressure and heeling moment by a factor of
any sailing condition, weather, sail set, 2 (this is why the heeling arm at
among other factors. downflooding angle must be halved).
Squalls, which can reach speed factors as
• New developments high as 10, are taken into account in the
stability booklet thanks to a graphical

3
presentation that relates the intensity of the criteria, they proposed arguments in favour
squall (wind speed) to the stability of the of a relaxation of the requirements.
vessel (steady heel angle). In October 2006 it was published the
report of the research project of the Wolfson
• Range of stability Unit (ref [10]) which described a review of
the sailing vessel stability requirements of
This is a very important stability the Large Yacht Code of United Kingdom,
parameter which has always been included and considered the validity of their
in the criteria even in the new developments. application to modern, very large yachts.
With the new stability approach the According to the report, in general,
effective range of stability can be found by the relationship between heeling moment
drawing the heeling arm curve that is and righting moment does not tend to vary
tangential to the righting arm curve. This with size, so that there is no justification for
situation will only be found however if the relaxing the requirements for large yachts on
range of stability is less than 90 degrees the basis of size alone. But it is also
(see figure 4). That is, a yacht whose range recognised in the report that some vessels
is less than 90 degrees is particularly may have a very high initial stability and/or
vulnerable whilst a yacht with a range of 90 small rig, such that it would require
degrees or more cannot be capsized by the unreasonably high wind speeds to caused a
wind unless if has a downward component. capsize. For such cases a criterion is
The standards that come from this new proposed alternatively.
approach consequently require a minimum The Maritime and Coastguard
range of 90 degrees. Agency of UK published a notice (June
Another important feature of a large 2007) advising of the research of the
range of positive stability is that increases Wolfson Unit mentioned before and making
the survivability after a breaking wave clear that the work validated the method for
capsize. Yachts with low range of stability larger yachts and recommends how the
use to remain inverted following such stability of large yachts which fail to achieve
capsize. The larger the wave encountered, the criteria in full may be managed, ref[11].
the more likely is the capsize, so smaller
vessels have a higher probability of capsize. • Stability booklet
Frequently standards require a greater
range of positive stability for small yachts or Once the administration of each
for those sailing in exposed waters where a country has approved the stability
larger wave is more probable. For example requirements of a certain vessel there must
in the MCA standard there is an alternative be a bridge between that information
for vessel of more than 45 m, ref[8]. In this developed by the naval architect and the
particular case a range of less than 90 master. This is materialized in the stability
degrees may be considered but it can be letter, or stability booklet, and it should be a
subject to agreed operational criteria. In the practical stability guidance to the master and
Spanish requirements it is only oblige the the crew and a method to assess risky
yachts sailing far away from the coast to situations. Because of these motives the
have a range of stability of more than 90 letter must be clearly and understandable
degrees, see appendix B. More examples presented. It shouldn’t include operational
can be seen in next part “Exposition of orders but means of assessing dangerous
Different Criteria”. situations based on the sail combinations,
weather and other factors.
• Large vessels Thanks to the development of new
stability approaches it can be easier achieve
As it is has been raised in the these objectives. Following, two
introduction the size of the sailing vessel is presentation models will be introduced.
increasing as the number of passengers The MCA requires in the stability
does. The problem is that the size of these booklet a graphical presentation of the
yachts is larger than of those included in the maximum heel angle at which the vessel
database used to develop the new stability may be sailed in a given wind speed, in
approach. The question is if the increase in order to withstand a squall of a certain
size affects the stability. Because the strength. It must be remember that their
designers of these large yachts experienced stability criteria are based on gusts and that
difficulties in complying with the stability maintaining a mean heel angle below the
maximum recommended by the new

4
approach will not necessarily provide but be aware of the basis of the different
protection against downflooding in a squall, criteria.
since the wind pressure produced by a
squall may be many times that of the • United Kingdom, ref[8]
preceding wind.
The curves of maximum steady heel The rules are applied to sailing
angle in this graphical presentation (see vessels of 24 metres in load line length and
figure 5) are derived using the same over (and less than 85 m) in commercial use
philosophy as was developed for deriving for sport or pleasure and carry no cargo and
the corresponding angle for gusts, ref [7] no more than 12 passengers. The Code only
and ref [8]. applies to vessels of less than 3000GT. Sail
The second presentation model is training vessels are included in this
being developed in the SLIP (Stability Letter application.
Improvement Project) project of SNAME, ref
[5]. They have realized that the required a) Curves of statical stability (GZ curves) for
stability letters by the USDG are not fully at least the Loaded Departure with 100%
useful and need to have a renewal. consumables and the Loaded Arrival with
The first change is the point of view 10% consumables should be produced.
of the stability method since until now, the
classic requirements are used. One of the b) The GZ curves should have a positive
aims of the project is developing new range of not less than 90º. For vessels of
stability analysis approaches. They will likely more than 45 m, a range of less than 90º
be based in similar assumptions to the ones may be considered but may be subject to
used in the modern methods and include agreed operational criteria.
new assumptions on weather parameters
such as potential wind gust magnitudes and c) The angle of steady heel should be
durations that could be experienced. greater than 15 degrees (see figure 3). The
One of the graphical models angle of steady heel is obtained from the
proposed in the project is the color code intersection of a "derived wind heeling lever"
matrix. For this format (see figure 6) the curve with the GZ curve. This criterion is
color coding is used to indicate the level of based in the new stability approaches.
risk present. The basic colors are proposed
to indicate the following risk levels. • SPAIN (see appendix B)
Green: indicates an angle of heel below
deck immersion. These regulations are not
Yellow: indicates the deck edge is likely to compulsory and for the time being are solely
be submerged but the heel angle remains in indicative under an equivalent point of view.
the safe zone established by the MCA code. The rules are applied to passenger sailing
Orange: indicates a heel angle greater than monohulls and are based on both classic
the MCA code limit but less than the angle and new stability approaches. Vessels
which corresponds to bulwark immersion. should meet:
Red: indicates an angle of heel
corresponding to between 84% and 100% of a) General rules of conventional passenger
GZ max and results in a high level of vessels issued by de Spanish
weather related risk form downflooding administration.
through hatches.
Black: indicates sailing at heel angle at or b) Static stability (Pressure + angle +
beyond GZ max. formula). The pressure depends on the
For all color zones, the position in class of operation, the angle is 12º (and the
each color band also provides an additional vessel will not immerse more than half the
indication of the risk. freeboard). The formula is similar to the one
presented before with 1.3 in the exponent.
3. Exposition of Different Criteria
b1) Alternatively, for vessel in sport use, the
In this part the regulations of seven requirement c) of United Kingdom can be
countries will be explained. Only the applied. The only difference is that the
Spanish rules are included in the appendix B steady heel angle must be greater than a
because the other can easily be obtained. value that depends on the class: 28º 23º,
The aim of this paper it is not applying rules 19º and 15º (from unlimited waters to
protected waters).

5
 response to a gust. This criterion (c) is still
c) Dynamic stability: the areas up to the based on the classic methods.
angle of maximum arm and up to the angle
of vanishing positive stability (or • NETHERLANDS, ref[13]
downflooding if less) should be greater than
certain values that depend on the These rules for sailing vessels of
operational class and the displacement. Commercial Cruising Vessels (CCV) apply
The values are related to the ones to seagoing cruising vessels for commercial
obtained by the working Group 22 of use with a length exceeding 12 metres,
Technical Committee 188 of the designed and built for recreational use by
International Standards Organization when passengers but not more than 36. In all
developing the standard for the assessment possible load conditions, the following
and categorization of the stability of pleasure specific criteria for sailing vessels shall be
craft with a length up to 24 m, ref [2]. met, as well as some others of conventional
vessels:
d) The righting arm curve must have a range
of positive stability beyond 90º for vessels a) A minimum initial metacentre height for all
that sail 20 miles away from shelter and type of sailing vessels.
class B (less than 20 miles away).
b) Static stability (Pressure + angle +
• USA, ref[12] formula). There are two values for pressure,
one for lowered sails and another for under
The criteria is applied to sailing sail. The angle is 20º (or the deck immersion
monohull vessels to be operated on angle if it is less) and the formula is similar
exposed waters and/or to be operated to the one presented before with the same
during non-daylight hours and/or of unusual exponent of the cosine, 2.
type and/or carry more than 49 passengers
and/or school vessels and/or on which c) Dynamic stability. In this case there are
downflooding occurs at angles of 60º or less also two pressures, for lowered sails and for
and/or have a cockpit longer than Length sails up. The aim of this requirement is that
Over Deck (LOD)/5. These vessels must the mentioned pressures caused by a gust
fulfil three requirements that are based on shall not result in an angle of heel of more
the classic stability methods: than 50º or the downflooding angle if it is
less.
a) The metacentric height in each loading
condition must be equal or greater than a • AUSTRALIA, ref[3]
value calculated with a formula that depends
on the length between perpendiculars, the The Australian rules apply to
area of service (ocean, Great Lakes, commercial vessels. There is an additional
protected waters), the projected lateral area comprehensive stability criteria for all sailing
without sails, the displacement and the ships that have an alternative for vessels up
angle of deck immersion. to 24 metres and another alternative for
monohulls less than 15 metres in areas of
b) The range of positive stability must be operation D(partially smooth water
equal or greater than 70º for vessels operation) and E (smooth water operation).
operating in partially protected water or in All monohulls that set sails must comply
protected waters. In the case of sailing in with:
exposed waters the minimum range is 90º.
a) A positive range of stability of not less
c) Depending on the service (exposed than 90º for A (unlimited domestic operation)
waters or not) three numerals must be and B (offshore operation) and not less than
exceeded. The regulation considers three 70º for C (restricted offshore operation),D
events with physical significance: and E.
c1) Deck immersion
c2) Immersion of downflooding points b) Static stability (pressure + angle +
c3) Capsize formula). The pressure is the same for all
The first is static stability and is related to sailing vessels and the angle is the one of
the heeling moment provided by a steady deck immersion.
wind of Force 5. The other two events are
dynamic stability requirements of the

6
c) Dynamic stability. In this case the method ships and open sailing boats other than sail
is also (pressure + angle + formula). The training ships of 15 metres or less in length.
pressure depends on the operational area It is basically the same as the
and the angle is the downflooding angle (or Large Commercial Vessels Yacht Code of
60º if it is less). MCA. The significant differences are in the
positive range of stability. In this rule, the
d) Dynamic stability. It is also (pressure + curves of statical stability (loaded departure
angle + formula) but the angle is the and loaded arrival conditions) must have a
vanishing positive stability angle (or 90º if it positive range of stability of:
is greater) and the pressures differ from the - L(length) ≥ 24 m: 90 degrees;
ones in c). - 15 m ≤ L < 24 m (that do not proceed
beyond offshore limits): not less than 110
The criteria are similar to the degrees;
requirements of USA except next - 15 m ≤ L < 24 m (that proceed beyond
differences: offshore limits): not less than 115 degrees;
1.3
- The moment is obtained with cos instead - L < 15 m: the positive range of stability of
2
of cos . the loaded departure condition must not be
- The criterion b) in the case of USA(c1) is less than 95 degrees.
divided in two. This criterion will be
equivalent of the partially protected waters • FRANCE
of the American criterion.
- It is not used a numeral as in the American Over 24 m of length, the IMO
case but a certain pressure that is resolution A.749(18), transposed within
equivalent. Division211 of the French Arrêté du 23
- The formula for calculating the heeling novembre 1987 relatif à la sécurité des
levers in c) and d) is different from the navires should be met. This regulation will
American but the concept is the same. be soon superseded by an adaptation of the
MCA Code, which includes specific criteria
The alternative criteria for vessels for sailing vessels as it has been explained.
up to 24 m are similar to the English. The
only difference is that the requirement of 4. Application to Reference Yacht
positive range of stability in this case is 110º
instead of 90º. And the alternative for In order to compare the different
vessels less than 15 m in operation areas D criteria mentioned before, they are applied
and E is a criterion based on static stability to two yachts. The first of them, A, smaller
(pressure + angle + formula). Both than B, is a yacht already in operation and
alternatives can be found in ref[3]. has all the convenient stability certificates.
The yacht B has been obtained from a
• NEW ZELAND project of a passenger sailing vessel of 100
feet in length. In the appendix C the
With regards to design, construction fundamental features of both yachts are
and equipment there is no maritime rule included and all the data that is necessary
specifically for sailing ships. As a for the application of the criteria that are
consequence, Maritime Rule Part 40A presented in this paper.
Design, construction and equipment – The results of the application can be
Passenger ships which are not SOLAS observed in table 1. The criteria of Spain,
ships is being used instead. This rule is not United Kingdom, United States and the
suitable for sailing ships as it is written for Netherlands have only been applied since
ships that are primarily powered by an they are the most characteristics.
engine, not by sail. The new rule under As it can be seen on the table, both
development is titled Maritime Rule Part yachts fulfil the Spanish criteria as long as
40E Design, construction and equipment – the alternative criterion b1) is met instead of
sailing ships. It has been drafted using b). It can be also deduced that the American
reference from the MCA’s Large Yacht requirements are the strictest. Both yacht A
Code, MCA’s Small Yacht Code and their and B meet the criteria of United Kingdom
own Maritime Rules. It applies to every and Netherlands.
New Zealand commercial sailing ship The requirement B) of Spain is
except ships of 45 metres or more in length similar to c1) of United States and b2) of the
that proceed beyond restricted limits, fishing Netherlands. In this last one the wind
pressure, independently of the operational

7
area, is 7 kg/m² which is equivalent to a criteria is the definition of classes and the
Beaufort 5. Furthermore, the maximum application. Usually assigned class depend
steady heel angle is 20 degrees. Therefore on the operational area of sailing. Some
the Spanish requirement is stricter because countries such as Spain distinguish 5
it demands for a wind pressure of 12.6 kg/m² classes (A, B, C, D and E) that go from
a steady heel angle lower than 12º. It must unlimited waters to port areas. In United
be also be highlighted that because of the States there are only two possibilities:
fact that in the Spanish criteria the exponent protected waters (or partially protected) and
of the formula of the heeling arm is 1.3 exposed waters. Other countries either don’t
instead of 2 as in the Netherlander the have different classes or the operational
requirement becomes even stricter. area is unlimited waters.
Regarding the American criterion, it With respect to the scope of
demands an steady heel angle lower than application there is not a common
the deck immersion angle for a wind denominator, in the number of passengers
pressure of 10.9 kg/m², which is equivalent above all. The criteria of UK apply to vessels
to a Beaufort 6, and with exponent 2. It can carrying no more than 12 passengers. The
be also concluded that the Spanish is American is obligatory when carrying more
stricter assuming that the angle of deck than 49 but it may be applicable if for
immersion is considerably greater than 12º. example, sailing in unlimited waters even if
The philosophy of the criterion c2) of with one passenger. The Netherlanders
Spain is the same as the American c2) but requirements are applied for vessels
the requirements are different. In both cases carrying no more than 36 passengers. As it
the objective is that there should be can be seen there is a broad range of
sufficient area under the righting arm curve possibilities.
up to the downflooding angle to dynamically
withstand a wind gust. In the Spanish 5. Conclusions
requirement a certain value is directly
demanded whereas in the American Through the previous paragraphs
criterion the gust pressure is proposed for several aspects of the stability of the sailing
the heeling moment formula. ships have been presented. The following
The requirement d) of Spain is conclusions can be considered:
similar to the b) of United Kingdom and
American b). In the three cases it is required - The stability of the sailing ships shows
a range of positive stability beyond 90º. such characteristics that specific criteria are
If it is compared the value of metacentric needed.
height that must be exceed depending of the
country we realized that the differences are - The traditional criteria based on
enormous. Conventional vessels need a conventional calculation of wind heeling
minimum value of GM of 0.15 m. According have been lately discussed.
to the criterion a) of the Nederland the value
should be higher than 0.5 m. The value GM - The new approach refers to gust and a
of the American requirement a) must be sailing vessel when struck by a gust heels to
calculated with a formula as it has been the corresponding steady angle at the gust
explained before. In the application to the wind speed. Squalls are considered in the
reference yacht the values obtained are 1.75 stability booklet.
m for A and 1.59 m for B.
It is worth considering if yacht A and - These criteria proposed by the English
B would verify the equipments that are not Maritime Administration have turned into a
fulfilled if a lower operational area is reference in sailing vessel stability methods.
supposed, (see table 2). It has been
checked that none of them verify the - Some classic requirements are stricter
criterion b) of Spain even if the vessel sail in than the new approach.
port zones. In the case of the American
requirements if the yacht A is supposed to Acknowledgment
sail in protected waters (or partially
protected waters) the criteria a) and c1) This work was based in the
would be met but not c2). Yacht B would restlessness of the Spanish Maritime
meet c3) but neither c1) nor c2). Administration about sailing ship criteria and
Another point that should be the work done under a contract signed
emphasized when comparing different between Dirección General de la Marina

8
Mercante and Universidad Politécnica de
Madrid about this topic. The authors express [11] Research Project No: 534, Research
their gratitude to this support. into Stability Criteria for Large Sailing
Yachts, Marine Information Note 286 (M).
References Maritime and Coastguard Agency, United
Kingdom, June 2007.

[12] Code of Federal Regulations, 46

Shipping, Chapter I, Parts 170-171, National
[1] UNE-EN ISO 12217-2. Pequeñas Archives and Records Administration of
embarcaciones. Evaluación y clasificación United States of America, Revised 2006.
de la estabilidad y la flotabilidad.
Embarcaciones propulsadas a vela de [13] Rules for Commercial Cruising Vessels,
eslora igual o superior a 6 m., 2002. Nederland Maritiem Land, May 2004.

[2] P. Van Oossanen, Development of

Proposed ISO 12217 Single Stability Index
th
for Mono-Hull Sailing craft, The 13
Chesapeake Sailing Yacht Symposium,
1997.

[3] The National Standards for Commercial

Vessels (NSCV), Subsection 6A of Part C,
chapters 6A, 6B and 8A, Australian
Transport Council, April 2008.

[4] The Small Commercial Vessel and Pilot

Boat Code of Practice, Maritime and
Coastguard Agency, Department for
Transport of United Kingdom, November
2004.

[5] J. C. Miles, B. Johnson, J. Womack, I.

Franzen, SNAME’s Stability Letter
Improvement Project (SLIP) pro Passenger
th
Sailing Vessels, The 18 Chesapeake
Sailing Yacht Symposium, 2007.

[6] B. Deakin, Sailing Vessel Stability: A

Review of the Current State of the Art and
Proposals for Worthwhile Research, New
England Sailing Yacht Symposium, March
1988.

[7] B. Deakin, The Development of Stability

Standards for UK Sailing Vessels, RINA
Spring Meetings, 1990.

[8] The Large Commercial Yacht Code,

Maritime and Coastguard Agency,
Department for Transport of United
Kingdom, August 2005.

[9] A.R. Claughton, Sailing Yacht Design,

Ed. Longman, 1998.

[10] Stability Criteria for Large Sailing

Yachts, Wolfson Unit Report No. 1924 for
the Maritime and Coastguard Agency,
October 2006.

9
Appendix A: Pictures and Charts

Figure 1: Righting arm curve

cos^2 cos^1.3

1,2

0,8

0,6

0,4

0,2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Heeling angle (º)

Figure 2: Influence of the exponent on the heeling arm curve

Figure 3: New stability approach, MCA’s Large Commercial Yacht Code, ref [8]

10
Figure 4: The stability curve of the ‘Isaac H. Evans’ with a heeling arm curve leading to capsize,
ref[7].

Figure 5: Stability booklet, graphical representation, ref [7]

Figure 6: Stability letter, graphical representation, ref [5]

11
 Yacht A Yacht B
UNITED KINGDOM
b) [Positive range stability] √ √
c) [Steady heel angle > 15º] √ √
SPAIN
b) [Static Stability (StatStab), angle < 12º] X X
b1) [Steady heel angle > 15º, 19º, 23º, 28º] √ √
c1) [Dynamic stability (DynStab), maximum arm] √ √
c2) [DynStab, vanishing GZ or downflooding] √ √
d) [Positive range of stability]
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
a) [Metacentric height, GM] X √
b) [Positive range stability] √ √
c1) [StatStab, deck immersion] X X
c2) [DynStab, downflooding] X X
c3) [DynStab, vanishing positive stability] √ X
NETHERLANDS
a [Metacentric height, GM] √ √
b1) [StatStab, lowered sails] √ √
b2) [StatStab, under sail] √ √
c1) [DynStab, lowered sails] √ √
c2) [DynStab, under sail] √ √
√: it is verified; X: it is not verified.
Table 1: Application of different criteria to reference yachts

Yacht A Yacht B
SPAIN
b) [Static Stability (SS), angle < 12º] X ÆX XÆX
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
a) [Metacentric height, GM] XÆ√
c1) [StatStab, deck immersion] XÆ√ XÆX
c2) [DynStab, downflooding] XÆX XÆX
c3) [DynStab, vanishing positive stability] XÆ√
√: it is verified; X: it is not verified.
Table 2: Reduction of class

12
Appendix B: Summary of the Criteria of
Spain

Stability of passanger vessels propelled

by sails (Estabilidad de los buques de
pasaje navegando a vela. Dirección
General de Marina Mercante) Agust 23,
2003.

Rules of stabilty for passenger sailing

monohulls:
c) The minimum dynamic stability will be in
a) General rules of passenger vessels accordance with the values indicated in the
issued by de Spanish administration. next table. (D is displacement)

b) In addition to a), with all sails set, the Class Dynamic stability up to the angle
angle of balance with the wind pressure of maximum arm (m·gr)
corresponding for each class (indicated in
the next table) will be less than 12º and the D < 40 T D > 40T
vessel will not immerse more than half the > 20 (42,9-0,57D) 20,1
freeboard. miles
B (28,6-0,38D) 13,4
Class Wind Pressure (kg/m2)
C (13,3-0,17D) 6,5
> 20 12,6
DyE (9,9-0,13D) 4,7
B 10,0
C 8,0
Class Dynamic stability up to the angle
DyE 5,0
of arm zero o the downflooding
angle (m·gr)
The heeling moment will be: D < 40 T D > 40 T
> 20 (102-1,35D) 48
M= P A h cos1,3 q
miles
B (68-0,9D) 32
P= wind pressure en kg/m2
A = longitudinal projected area of sails and C (31,7-0,41D) 15,3
lateral area of the vessel above the water in DyE (23,4-0,3D) 11,4
m2
h= distance between the geometric centre of d) The righting arm curve must have a
immerse and not immerse surfaces in m. positive range of stability beyond 90º for
vessels that sail 20 miles away from shelter
Alternatively, for vessel in sport use, the and class B.
angle of balance must be more than 15º for
a heeling moment half the one needed for
heeling the vessel up to 60º or downflooding
angle if this is less. Therefore, the
recommended maximum wind pressure is
half the maximum wind in gust.

The navigation category that corresponds to

the vessel according to this criterion will be
imposed by the angle of steady heel that
fulfils the condition mentioned in the
previous paragraph:

Class Minimum value of the angle of steady

heel
> 20 miles 28º
B 23º
C 19º
DyE 15º

13
Appendix C: Characteristics of the References Yachts

Yacht A
- Class A, unlimited ocean voyages
- Displacement, W = 26.3 t
- Total sail area, Osail =151.3 m²
- Total lateral area, A = 182.82 m²
- Lateral area in of the hull above the water, including the deckhouse, Orl = 22.81 m²
- The total wind area of the rigging, Origging = 8.7 m²
- The vertical distance between the center of gravity of Orl and the center of flotation, Arl =
2.21 m.
- Half the vertical distance from the top of the highest mast to the center of flotation, Arigging
= 18.89 m.
- Vertical distance between the center of effort of sails to the center of flotation, Asail = 10.1
m.
- Vertical distance from the center of the projected lateral area above the waterline to the
center of the underwater lateral area, H = 10.45 m
- Vertical distance between the center of gravity and waterline, OG = 0.6 m
- Initial metacentric height, GM = 1.32 m
- Draught = 2.3 m GZ (m)

- Length, L = 15.52 m 1

- Beam, B = 4.7 m
0,8
- Deck immersion angle = 30º
- Downflooding angle > 60º 0,6

- Angle of vanishing stability = 128º 0,4

0,2

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Figure 6: Righting arm curve of Yacht A -0,2

-0,4

Yacht B
- Class A, unlimited ocean voyages
- Displacement, W = 81.9 t
- Lateral area in of the hull above the water, including the deckhouse, Orl = 56.96 m²
- The total wind area of the rigging, Origging = 26.15 m²
- Total sail area, Osail =466 m²
- Total lateral area, A = 549.11 m²
- The vertical distance between the center of gravity of Orl and the center of flotation, Arl = 1
m.
- Half the vertical distance from the top of the highest mast to the center of flotation, Arigging
= 14.2 m.
- Vertical distance between the center of effort of sails to the center of flotation, Asail = 15.8
m.
- Vertical distance from the center of the projected lateral area above the waterline to the
center of the underwater lateral area, H = 16.1 m
- Vertical distance between the center of gravity and waterline, OG = 0.428 m
- Initial metacentric height, GM = 1.887 m
GZ (m)
- Draught, d = 3.848 m
- Length, L = 29.174 m 1,2
1
- Beam, B = 7.1 m
0,8
- Block coefficient, CB = 0.429 0,6
- Deck immersion angle = 30º 0,4

- Downflooding angle = 114º 0,2

0
- Angle of vanishing stability =104º -0,2 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

-0,4
-0,6

Figure 7: Righting arm curve of Yacht B -0,8

-1
-1,2

14