A Compendium on Distributed Systems

Aneesh Khole Atharva Thakar Avadhoot Kulkarni

Computer Science Dept Computer Science Dept Information Technology Dept
(of MMCOE) (of MMCOE) (of PVGCOET)
Marathwada Mitra Mandal's College of Marathwada Mitra Mandal's College of Pune Vidhyarthi Griha's College of
Engineering Engineering Engineering and Technology
(of SPPU) (of SPPU) (of SPPU)
Pune, India Pune, India Pune, India
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]
n
Hrithik Jadhav Shreyas Shende Varad Karajkhede
Mechanical Dept Computer Science Dept Computer Science Dept
(of MMCOE) (of MMCOE) (of MMCOE)
Marathwada Mitra Mandal's College of Marathwada Mitra Mandal's College of Marathwada Mitra Mandal's College of
Engineering Engineering Engineering
(of SPPU) (of SPPU) (of SPPU)
Pune, India Pune, India Pune, India
[email protected] [email protected]. [email protected]
n in du. in

Abstract— Computer systems have evolved over the years A distributed system is a computing environment in which
starting from sizable, single-user, slow, and expensive numerous components are located across multiple
machines to multi-user, fast, cheaper, and small-sized computing devices on a network. These devices segregate
machines. The use of multi-user computer networks has given
rise to a new paradigm of computing known as Distributed the work, communicating and coordinating their efforts to
Systems. A distributed system is regarded as software appear to be a single cohesive system to the end-user. A
consisting of a collection of dependent network distributed system can be an arrangement of different
communication and computational nodes. This paradigm configurations, such as mainframes, computers,
yields high performance while also maintaining high workstations, and minicomputers.
efficiency due to the decentralization of various computer-
related tasks to several computer nodes that are
interconnected. Even if distributed systems have proven to be
This definition highlights two principal features of
beneficial over the years it also has some design flaws, security distributed systems. The first one is the idea that a
concerns and challenges. In this paper, the main objective is distributed system is made up of various computer
to define these issues, challenges and security concerns while components that can include either software or hardware
also examining the various solutions developed over the years components. They are autonomous of each other, where the
to resolve them. This paper also briefly covers the components computing elements are referred to as nodes. The second
as well as the working of Distributed Systems.
characteristic is that users feel like they are operating with
Keywords— Heterogeneity, Concurrency, Scalability, the system alone.
HTCondor, Entropia, Encryption.
1.2 Why do we need Distributed Systems?

Modern computing is possible because of distributed

I. INTRODUCTION systems. They are essential for the performance of cloud
computing services, wireless networks and the Internet.
1.1 What is a Distributed System? Distributed systems offer better availability. Without
distributed systems, these advances would not have been
Several definitions of Distributed Systems have been possible. In most cases, distributed systems are even used
presented over the years, but neither are they satisfactory in corporate positions that lack the complexity of an entire
nor in agreement with one another. Among some telecommunications network. Distributed systems
definitions by Coulouris, there is one that defines a overcome the drawbacks of monolithic systems; they
distributed system as “a system in which hardware or provide more scalability and improved performance.
software components located at networked computers
communicate and coordinate their actions only by message Distributed systems can provide features that can be
passing”. [1] difficult to upgrade for a single system because they can use
other computer devices and processes. Performing regular
Another definition to give a brief overview of Distributed backups of servers and applications, including those
Systems is: located at remote locations, is an essential task. In the event
of a restore, the necessary data can be obtained from the
off-site backup nodes by requesting the relevant segments.
Everything on a computing device works on the power of 2.2 Architectures of Distributed Systems
distributed systems virtually.
The `system-level architecture` focuses on the entire
system and the placement of components of a distributed
II. ARCHITECTURE AND WORKING OF system across multiple machines. Distributed systems are
DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS divided into four different architecture models

2.1 Elements of Distributed Systems 1. Client-server - Client-server architecture is

composed of a client and a server. Data is
The three components of a distributed system include a retrieved from the server by clients, who
primary system controller, system data store, and database. subsequently format it and display it to the user.
When it comes to non-clustered environments optional The end-user can also make amends from the
components such as user interfaces and secondary client-side and restore them to the server to make
controllers can be used. them permanent. Client-server architecture has
one standard design feature: centralized security.
2.1.1 Primary System Controller
2. Three-tier - The clients in a three-tier architecture
The primary system controller is the only present controller are stateless. To simplify the application
in the distributed system that keeps everything. It is deployment, the information rather than being
accountable for management as well as controlling the kept on the client side, the client information is
dispatch of server requests throughout the system. The kept in a middle-tier. Three-tier architecture is
primary system controller keeps track of status information most common for web applications.
for the comprehensive system and has control over all other
system components. The installation of executive and 3. N-tier - In n-tier architecture, the middle layer
mailbox services automatically takes place on the primary interacts with another service to get information.
system controller. N-tier architecture is usually used when an
application or server needs to forward requests to
2.1.2 Secondary Controller additional enterprise services on the network.

The secondary controller acts as a process or a 4. Peer-to-peer - A peer-to-peer network, also called
communication controller. It’s responsible for regulating a (P2P) network, works on the concept of a
the flow of server processing requests and managing the decentralized system. There are no additional
system’s translation load. It is also responsible for machines used to provide services or manage
governing the communication between systems and VANs resources. The machines in the system, called
or trading partners. peers, have uniformly distributed responsibilities.
Both clients and servers can use them.
2.1.3 User-Interface client
2.3 Working of Distributed Systems
The user interface client is also an additional element in the
system whose task is to provide important system
Distributed systems have evolved with today’s use cases of
information to the users. The user interface controller isn’t
distributed systems which are designed to operate over the
a part of a clustered environment and doesn’t operate on the
internet and cloud. The working of distributed systems can
same machines as the controller. Its functions include
be explained through this example. The process begins with
monitoring and controlling the system.
a task like rendering a video. The video editor then manages
this task and splits the work into pieces. Multiple computers
2.1.4 System datastore (referred to as nodes) are used with each node getting a
frame of the video. These nodes work independently on a
The system’s data store is normally present on the disk vault single frame and when they complete the rendering on that
whether clustered or not and each system has only one data frame a new frame is given by the video editor to work on.
store for all shared data. In non-clustered systems, the data This process goes on until the rendering of all frames is
store can be present on a single machine or across several completed. Also due to the distributed system, there is no
machines, but all the computers should have access to this limitation on how many nodes can be used. The quantity of
datastore. nodes we use is directly proportional to the time required to
complete the rendering process. Therefore, using more
2.1.5 Database nodes means the process is finished faster. It is described in
the diagram below.
For a distributed system all the data gets stored in a
relational database. After locating the data from the
database, the data store shares the data among multiple
users. All the data systems have relational databases and it
allows multiple users to use the same information at the
same time.
 Interruption is the condition in which services or data
become hard to get, unusable, corrupt, etc. According to the
`denial of service attacks`, by which some third party
illegally attempts to make a service inaccessible to other
entities is a security threat that identifies as an interruption.

3. Modification

Modifications imply the unauthorized sabotaging of data or

tampering with a service so that it no longer coheres to its
formal specifications.

Figure 1. Illustration Of Distributed System 4. Fabrication

All the nodes are connected through the network and they Fabrication is the condition in which extra data or activity
communicate with each other while the process is running. are created that would normally be absent.
These nodes work in tandem to complete the process while
also being able to perform the operations. Several models 3.2 Security Requirements
and architectures are being used today like client-server and
peer-to-peer systems. Both of these architectures produce 1. Confidentiality
the same output but their methods to achieve the output are
different. The working of a distributed system is explained It consists of data being inaccessible to unauthorized
by the above example. individuals. Only after the authentication process, data is
kept accessible to concerned authorities.
Confidentiality is maintained by encryption of data.
III. SECURITY
2. Integrity
Security in distributed systems can kind of be divided into
two parts. One element guides the communication among
It avoids any unauthorized changes to the data and detects
users or processes, probably residing on special machines.
if any changes are made. Many authentication algorithms
The important mechanism for ensuring secure
are used for such validation processes. This helps only
communication is that of a secure channel. The second part
authorities to modify any piece of data.
concerns authorization, which offers with ensuring that a
process receives the access rights to only the resources of
the distributed system. It is concerned with secure channels 3. Availability
and access control that requires mechanisms to distribute
cryptographic keys, but also mechanisms to add and put off It provides the availability of data only to the concerned
users from a system. These subjects are covered using what authorities. This means that data is not available to any
is called security management. person to modify or change and hence is a security
Protection in a computer machine is firmly related to the requirement.
idea of dependability. Unofficially, a dependable computer
system is one which we believe to provide its services. 3.3 Security Mechanisms
Dependability in a computer system encompasses various
elements such as its accessibility, stability, safety, and ease 1. Encryption
of maintenance. However, to ensure that the system can be
fully trusted, it is also crucial to consider factors such as the Encryption is fundamental to computer security.
protection of sensitive information and the preservation of Encryption transforms data into an entity the attacker
data integrity. Wrong alterations in a secure computer cannot interpret easily. Encryption provides a means to
system must be detectable and recoverable. The most apply data confidentiality and allows us to check whether
important assets of any computer system are its hardware, data have been modified. The primitive approaches are:
software program, and statistics.
i. Conventional Encryption: Here the same key is used by
3.1 Security Threats a sender to encrypt a message and by the receiver to decrypt
the message. It is also known as Symmetric Encryption.
1. Interception ii. Public-key Encryption: Here two keys are used for
encryption purposes and one key is made public for anyone
The concept of interception points out the circumstance that to use. It is also known as Asymmetric Encryption.
an unauthorized entity has acquired access to a service or
some information. 2. Authentication

2. Interruption Authentication is used for verification of the claimed

identity of a user, client, server, host, or other entity. For
clients, the basic thing is that before the service starts to purpose security offers, there are a few crucial design
perform any work on the pretext of a client, the service must considerations that must be made. While considering the
learn the client's identity. protection of an application (possibly distributed), three
unique methods may be observed.
3. Authorization 1. The first approach is to concentrate on the protection of
the data and information that is associated directly with the
After a client has been authenticated, it is necessary to application. By direct, it means that irrespective of the
check whether that client is authorized to perform the action various functions that can potentially be performed on a
requested. It means checking if the client has the data item, the primary concern is to ensure data integrity.
requirements satisfied. Generally, this form of security happens in database
systems in which numerous integrity constraints can be
formulated that are routinely checked on every occasion a
4. Auditing data item is altered.

Auditing tools are used to track which clients accessed what,

and in which way. Even if this method does not provide any
protection against threats, audit logs can be exceedingly
important for the study of a security violation, and
accordingly taking measures against attackers.

3.4 Use of Cryptography in Security Measures

The use of cryptographic techniques is an important

fundamental to security in distributed systems. Its use
cannot ensure the security of a system but it is a very
important component for building secure distributed
systems. Figure 2. Protection Of Data Against Invalid Operations [2]
The application of these techniques is very simple.
Consider a situation where a sender wants to transmit a 2. The second approach is to concentrate on security by
message to another receiver. The sender converts the same specifying exactly which operations may be called, by
message into an unintelligible message and sends it to the whom, and when certain data or resources are to be
recipient in order to protect the message from various accessed. In this case, the power of control is strongly
security concerns. For obtaining the message in its original related to access control methods. Access control methods
form, the receiver must decrypt the message. Such can be applied to an entire interface offered by an entity, or
encryption-decryption methods are made possible by to the entire object itself. This approach, therefore, allows
cryptographic methods parameterized by keys. Here the for various granularities of access control.
original message is termed plaintext whereas its encrypted
form is termed ciphertext.
There are three different attacks that we need to protect
against while transferring the ciphertext message. The first
possible threat is an intruder, intercepting the message
without the sender or receiver being aware. If the plaintext
is encrypted in such a way that decryption is not possible
with the appropriate key, interception is of no point. The
intruder will be able to view only unintelligible data. The
second type of possible attack is modifying or making any
changes to the message. Although modifying the plain text
is not difficult, making changes to ciphertext which has
been encrypted is tougher because the message needs to be
decrypted first to modify it meaningfully. Also, the
encryption post modifying the message has to be accurate,
otherwise, the recipient might notice that the message has
Figure 3. Protection Of Data Against Unauthorized Invocations
been meddled by some unauthorized personnel. [2]
The last type of attack which is possible is when the intruder
inserts encrypted messages by itself and the receiver thinks
that the messages are being sent by the sender. [2] 3. A third approach is to concentrate directly on users by
taking measures by which only selected personnel to have
3.5 Design Issues access to the application, irrespective of the functions they
want to carry out. In effect, control is focused on defining
A distributed system, or any computer system, has to use cases that users have, and once a user's role has been
provide security systems by which a huge variety of safety verified, access to a resource is either granted or denied. As
guidelines may be carried out. When imposing general- part of designing a secure system, it is thus necessary to
characterize roles that people may receive, and provide heterogeneity of the core networks, programming
mechanisms to support role-based access control. languages, and operating systems hardware. A portable
code is nothing but a program code that can be transferred
from one computer system to another and can be
redistributed from a single computer. One such example of
a portable code is Java Web Start as the Java applet is now
deprecated.

4.2 Transparency

The idea of a distributed system as a single unit of the

centralized system rather than a congregation of
independent elements is the main idea behind transparency
in distributed arrangements. A distributed systems
developer aims to conceal the intricacies as much as
feasible. Transparency criteria may be custom permissions,
removal, concurrency, break-down, duration, and customer
resources. Transparency is also delineated as the isolation
of components in a distributed system so that the system is
considered as a whole rather than as an asset of autonomous
components. In other words, distributed systems
Figure 4. Protection Of Data By Checking The Role Of Invoker
[2] developers must conceal the complicatedness of the system
as doable as they can. The motive behind Total
Transparency is to completely conceal the experience that
IV. CHALLENGES OF DISTRIBUTED the computation is being offered by a distributed System.
SYSTEMS
4.3 Openness
Designing a distributed system does not come as easy.
Several challenges need to be overcome to get the ideal The motive behind openness in distributed systems is to
system. The major challenges in distributed systems are devise the network in a way that can be simply configured
listed in the diagram below. or modified. Developers are often required to add new
features or revise and replace any existing aspect in any
distributed node, which is easily facilitated if there is
appropriate support for interoperability based on some
standard protocols. Openness issues are exacerbated when
content that has been published is either revoked or
abruptly deleted. Besides, most of the time there is no
central authority in distributed open systems, as different
systems may have their arbitrator. For example,
organizations like Meta, Tinder, etc. Allow developers to
build their software interactively through their API.

4.4 Concurrency
Figure 5. Challenges Of Distributed Systems
Concurrency manages synchronal access to resources. It
4.1 Heterogeneity
stops multiple users from making changes to the same
record at the same time and also organizes transactions in a
Providing access to various services and executing
specific order for backup and recovery purposes. For
applications across a diverse set of computers. Utilities and
example, during an auction multiple participants bid on the
praxis span a significantly varied group of computer
same object, similarly in a distributed environment, as
networks that can be used, run and accessed by clients and
servers may attempt to access shared resources, there is,
end-users over the internet.
therefore, a chance that several clients will try to access the
Hardware devices: computers, tablets, mobile phones,
shared service at the same time. Object to be safe in the
embedded devices, etc.
same place, its functions must be performed in a critical
Different OS variants like the Windows OS, Linux OS, mac
environment and processes need to be harmonized in such
and Unix. Different types of networks that may be used
a way that its data remains consistent. This can be achieved
include a local network, the internet, wireless networks, and
in ways such as the use of semaphores, which are widely
satellite connections. Programming languages such as Java,
used in many applications. Multiple users when trying to
C/C++, Python, and PHP can be utilized. For
access the same set of data or shared resources, led to
communication to be implemented, standardized internet
concurrency issues. This significantly changes or affects
protocols are required and needed to be accepted. The term
the final output of the process as without synchronization
middleware pertains to a tier of software that supplies a
programming abstraction in addition to impersonating the
the processes get executed in the order in which they are diminution of dependability. In other words, in a distributed
inputted. system, there may be some elements that are inoperable
while others remain functional. This phenomenon is
regarded to as partial malfunction. Due to the non-
4.5 Security deterministic nature of time, the message and the time
required to travel to its destination are also non-
Most of the information resources that are made availed and deterministic, therefore we say that partial failures are
maintained in distributed systems have a high inherent unpredictable. We get no acknowledgment to know
value to their users. Their security is therefore significantly whether the system has succeeded or failed. Partial failure
important. While public networks are being used, security includes node crashes or communication connectivity
is the biggest issue concerning the distributed environment. issues in distributed systems.
Security for information resources has three components:
V. SOLUTIONS TO CHALLENGES IN
1. Confidentiality- (protection against divulgence to DISTRIBUTED SYSTEM
unauthorized persons)
Integrity- (protection against alterations or deception).
5.1 Heterogeneity solution
2. Availability- (protection against interfering with ways to
client resources), must be provided in DSS. Encryption is In the effort to solve issues related to heterogeneity, we
one of the methods to avoid security concerns. Ensuring show how selected approaches in the field of distributed
that only authorized and legitimate users can access the computing handle different kinds of heterogeneity. While
resources, modify and perform operations. Presently many there are numerous systems for sharing computation, this
institutions and organizations in the world have designed overview presents selected frameworks that represent the
and developed systems with distributed environments that full spectrum. We introduce a batch workload management
possess all of the security features mentioned above. system (HTCondor), a project-based volunteer and grid
computing system (BOINC), a service-oriented desktop
4.6 Scalability grid approach (Aneka), an enterprise grid (Entropia), and a
library-based programming model for distributed
A system encounters scalability issues when it lacks the computing (libWater).
capabilities to handle an abrupt boost of resources and or The development of Distributed Systems is the main focus
several users. In such situations, efficient use of of this proposition. Following things of tasks are not being
architecture and algorithms must be done. A system considered i.e. Accessibility and their nature.
demands scaling on specifications like size, Geography, or We have presented frameworks with different approaches
Administration. in general. Each system has a different focus point for
instance - high throughput, security, or application
• Size: Size is the number of users and resources to integration.
be processed. Problems that may arise due to size The table below shows us how they handle different
include overloading. dimensions of heterogeneity.
• Geography: Geography is the distance that links
users and resources. Communication reliability is
one such issue that arises due to geographic Hard Opera Program Accessi
limitations. ware ting ming bility
• Administration: Nodes of distributed systems Nat
Syste Languag ure
need to be controlled as the dimensions steadily m e of
increase. Administrative chaos and its related
Tas
difficulties arise due to scalability problems
ks
associated with administration.

4.7 Failure Handling

Computer systems may fail sometimes. When such failures

occur in hardware or software, programs may produce
incorrect results or may terminate before they have ✗ ✗ ✗ ✓ ✓
HTCo
completed the intended task. The handling of such failures ndor
is extremely difficult. A distributed system comprises a
group of autonomous computing devices that present a
unified front to clients, operating as a cohesive and
integrated whole. The system is composed of a variety of
constituent parts that synergize in the accomplishment of a ✓ ✗ ✗ ✓ ✗
particular objective. As the system expands and scales itself BOIN
vertically, As the system becomes more distributed, the C
chances of system failures increase, resulting in a
 5.2.3 Replication Transparency
Aneka

✗ ✓ ✗ ✓ ✓ If the system provides repetition (for availability or

performance reasons) it should not affect the user. For all
openness, we include an app editor as a user.

5.2.4 Fault Transparency

✗ ✗ ✗ ✓ ✓ If software or computer components fail, this should be

Entrop
ia hidden from the user. This can be difficult to provide in a
distributed system, as a failure of the lower part of the
communication system is possible, and this may not be
reported. As far as possible, open errors will be provided by
procedures related to public access. However, when errors
lib are found in a distributed system environment, then
Water ✓ ✓ ✗ ✗ ✗ accessibility light may not be maintained. Methods that
allow the system to hide errors may cause changes in access
methods (e.g., access to trusted objects may be different
from access to simple objects). It can be challenging to
Table 1. Dimensions Of Heterogeneity [3]
differentiate between a sluggish process or processor in a
software program, particularly one that is network-based.
5.2 Transparency solution This distinction is either obscured or revealed.

5.2.1 Access Transparency 5.2.5 Migration Transparency

There should be no apparent difference between local and During migration of processes or data for improved
remote access methods. In other words, open performance, reliability, or to conceal differences between
communication can be kept secret. For example, from a hosts, the user should not be aware of the changes. This is
user's point of view, access to the remote-control service as known as migration transparency.
a printer should be the same as access to a local printer.
From the programmer's POV, access to a remote object 5.2.6 Performance Transparency
may be the same as access to a local object in the same
category. This transparency has two parts: Performance transparency dictates that the system's
Maintaining syntactical or mechanical coherence between configuration should not affect the user's perception of
distributed and non-distributed access, Maintaining the performance. This may necessitate the utilization of
same semantics. Because remote semantics are very advanced resource management systems. This may require
complex, especially failure methods, this means that local sophisticated resource management systems. In cases
access has to be a minimum set. Remote access will not where resources are only accessible through low-
always look like local access because certain services may performance networks, the distinction may not be possible.
not make sense to support (for example, a complete global
search for a single-factor distributed system may not make 5.2.7 Scaling Transparency
sense in terms of network traffic).
Scaling transparency requires the ability for the system to
5.2.2 Location Transparency expand without impacting the application algorithms. The
capacity to grow and evolve is crucial for many businesses
The details of the topology of the system should not bother and the system should also be able to reduce in size when
the user. The location of an item in the system may not be necessary and allocate necessary space and/or time.
visible to the user or editor. This differs from open access
in that both the design methods and the access methods can 5.3 Openness Solution
be the same. Words may not provide any space.
Users of Concurrency and Applications should be able to To make a distributed system open, it is necessary to
access shared data or items without interruption among publish a clear and well-defined interface between
others. This requires a much more sophisticated approach components. The interfaces must be standardized and new
to a distributed system, as there is more realistic components should be easily incorporated into the existing
compatibility than a central system simulation. For system.
example, a distributed printing service should offer the
same level of access to files as a central system, avoiding 5.4 Concurrency Solution
unpredictable interference during printing. The replication
of the system for availability or performance reasons should Take it case-by-case: - The simple solution here is to add a
not impact the user, including an app editor. conditional statement for this event ordering. If the next
message is a link failure notification, store the notification recovery action. A common approach to detecting failures
in memory in case you become a master later. is end-to-end timeouts, but using timeouts brings problems.
Replicate the computation: - In a system comprising of a
solitary node, there exists a unified, global sequence of
events without any conflict.
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Following are how we can make our distributed system

more scalable

• Vertical Scaling (Stronger and faster)

• Vertical Partitioning (Divide work)
• Horizontal Scaling - Application Server (Delegate
and Balance)
• Caching (Respond Fast)
• Horizontal Scaling and Replication - Database
Server (Create copies)

5.7 Failure Handling Solution

Fault-tolerant distributed systems often handle failures in

two steps: first, detect the failure and, second, take some