KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SUBJECT: TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

SUBJECT CODE: CIEG 401
YEAR: FOURTH
SEMESTER: SEVENTH
1
Chapter: Three By:
Geometric Design of Highway Raju Bhele
Department of Civil Engineering
Kathmandu University

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING CIEG 401 8/29/2024

2 Right of way?

Traffic lane
Traffic lane

Typical cross section of road

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 Camber?
3

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4
camber and its types

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5
Super elevation

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6

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7

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8

Geometry design
of highway

Cross section Element of Horizontal Elements of Vertical

elements alignment alignment

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 Geometric design of highway deals with following elements:
9
a. Cross section elements b. Element of Horizontal alignment
Traffic lane  Horizontal curvature radius or
length
Carriage way  Transition curve
Shoulder  Sight distance
Right of way
Side slope c. Elements of Vertical alignment
Camber or cross slope  Grade
Super elevation  Submit curve
Sight distance across the road  Valley curve

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10 2. Design Criteria and Controls

The geometric of highway depends upon the following factors:

 Design speed
 Design vehicle
 Topography
 Traffic volume
 Traffic capacity
 Road user's behavior

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 a. Design speed
11 It is one of the basic parameter which determines the geometric
design features.
Is defined as the maximum approximately uniform speed that will be
adapted by majority of drivers.
Choice of design speed depends of terrain condition and function of road.
As per Nepal Road Standard (NRS-2070) terrain is classified as below:

Steep S.N. Terrain Type Percent Degree

Mountainous Cross slope
Rolling
1. Plain 0-10 0-5.7
Plain
2. Rolling >10-25 >5.7-14

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3. Mountainous >25-60 >14-31
8/29/2024

4. Steep >60 >31

12
Table 7.1 Design speed, kmph
Road Class Plain Rolling Mountainous Steep

I 120 100 80 60

II 100 80 60 40

III 80 60 40 30

IV 60 40 30 20

As per NRS 2070

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 Design Vehicle
13
 The design of road is governed by length, height, width and load.
The maximum dimensions of vehicles considered for design of roads in
Nepal as per NRS 2070 are as follows:

Maximum width, m 2.50

Maximum Height, m 4.75

Maximum Length, m 18.00

Maximum single axle load, KN 100

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14
c. Topography
 The topography or terrain condition influence the geometric
design of highway. Based on terrain classification, different class
of roads have different design standard. (hill road have its own
distinct design standard that are differenet from one made in plain terrain.)

d. Traffic Volume
 Traffic volume is the number of vehicle passing through a section
of road per unit time at specified period.
 Higher the traffic volume, higher should be geometric standard for
given highway.

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15 e. Traffic Capacity
 It is the sum of capacity of each lane or ability of roadway to
accommodate traffic numbers
 Therefore, it is necessary to estimate traffic capacity to determine
the numbers of lane required which in turn will help in determining
the total width of road.
𝑽
C = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 ∗
𝑺
where,
V = design speed ( km/hr )
S = Average center to center spacing of vehicle
in ( m ).
C = capacity (vehicle per hour per lane )
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 f. Road user's behaviour's
16  Once the road is constructed it is ultimately used by people
having different level of education, awareness, civic traffic
sense.
 These factors affects geometric standard of roads.

Criteria for Geometric Design

Every highway should meet following four major objectives or
criteria:
Speed
Safty
Comfort
Economy
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 3. Element of cross-section
17
Traffic lane
 It is a strip of carriage way
occupied by vehicles moving in a
single stream along road.
 Normally, the width of traffic lane
depends on width of design vehicle,
safety clearance on either sides.
 As per NRS 2070, the width of
traffic lane is given as below
Single lane Intermediate Multilane pavements
road lane width per lane
3.75m 5.5m 3.5m
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(upto 3.0m in difficult terrain)

18 The number of traffic lane required for the given road is
determined theoretically by
N
n= C1
wℎere,
N = Design hourly volume of traffic
C1 = Basic capacity of traffic lane = 1000xV/S
V = Design speed (km/hr)
S = Average center to center spacing of vehicle in m.

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 b. Carriage Way
19
 It is defined as a strip of road which is constructed for the
movement of vehicles.
It is also called pavement width. The width of pavement is
calculated by formula,
Cw = Tw x n
where,
Cw = Carriage way width lane
Tw = Width of traffic lane
n = numbers of lane

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 c. Shoulder
20  It can be defined as strip provided on
both sides of carriage way.
 It provides lateral support to carriage
way and also serve as reserve lane for
overtaking.
 Very wide shoulder are also not
desirable due to tendency of vehicles
misusing it as a carriageway
 As per NRS 2070

Road classes Class I Class II Class III Class IV

Minimum shoulder 3.75 2.5 2.0 1.5
width, m

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21 Camber or Cross slope

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 d. Camber or Cross slope
22 It is convexity provided to the cross section of
carriage way.
 In other words, it is a slope provided to road
surface in transverse direction to drain off rain
water from the road surface.
 It is provided by raising center of carriage way
with respect to edge forming a crown on the
highest point on the center line.
 It is expressed as percentage. Eg: If camber is
x%, the cross slope is x in 100.

Objectives of providing camber

 To drain out surface water
 To separate traffic in two direction
 To improve the appearance of road
 To prevent infiltration of water into underlying
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pavement
 Too steep cross slope is not desirable because
23
Formation of cross ruts due to rapid flow of water.
Unequal wear and tear of tyres as well as road surface due to
thrust on wheel.
Discomfort while overtaking.
Problem of toppling over of highly loaded trucks.

As per NRS-2070 camber on different road surface is given as

below:
Pavement Cement Bituminous Gravel Earthen
type Concrete
Camber,Raju%Bhele 1.5 to 2.0 2.5 4.0 5.0 8/29/2024
 Types of Camber
24  Straight line camber
 Parabolic camber
 Composite camber

i. Straight line camber

It is that type of camber which is made of two equal straight line slopes.

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25 ii. Parabolic Camber
• Parabolic camber is provided by providing a parabolic shape to the
surface of the road.
• It is also not used in general because it has steep slopes towards
the edges, which can create the outward thrust to the vehicles
and helpful for overtaking operation

Ordinate varies with squares of distance

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 iii. Composite Camber
26
 It is either composed of partly parabola and partly straight line or 2
straight lines having different slopes.

Composite Camber

Camber in the gradient:

 The camber in gradient should be increased. If reduced the rain water tends
to flow down parallel to the center line of the road.
 Camber should not be less than half of the gradient.
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 numerical
1. The center line of double lane road has an elevation of 320.50m. Camber of the
27
pavement is 2.5% and cross fall of the shoulder is 5%. Calculate elevation of
pavement at center of the lane, edge of pavement and road edge if
 Straight line camber is to be provided.
 Parabolic camber is to be provided.

= 320.412

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28 Super elevation.
 In order to overcome effect of centrifugal forces and to reduce the tendency of
vehicle to overturn or skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised with
respect to inner edge.
 This transverse slope to the pavement is called super elevation.
 It is represented by e.

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29

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 Let us consider a vehicle moving in a circular curve of radius R
30
with respect to v m/s
Wv 2
Centrifugal forces on vehicles i.e. P 
gR

Let FA and FB be frictional force acting on wheel. Then for

equilibrium conditions

P cos   W sin   FA  FB .................1

similarly,
FA F
f  , f  AB
RA FRBB
fxRB  FB
where,
f = coefficient of lateral friction.
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 P cos   W sin   fR A  fRB
31 P cos   W sin   f ( R A  RB )......................2
again,
R A  RB  W cos   P sin  ............................3

Equating 2 and 3

P cos   W sin   f (W cos   P sin  )

P cos   W sin   fxWcox  fxP sin 
P cos   fxP sin   W sin   fxWcox
P(cos   fx sin  )  W sin   fxWcox

P cos   W sin   f (W cos  

Dividing both sides by W

P tan   fW sin   fxWcox  f

P cos
 P cos   fxP sin……….4
  W sin   f
W 1  f tan 
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W sin   f
tan


If f = 0.15, tan  is equal to 0.07, then

32 f tan   0.01
and
1  f tan   1

Then equation 4 becomes

Wv 2
e f is required equation for super elevation
gRW
where,
v= speed (m/s)
g= acceleration due to gravity
R= radius
f= lateral coefficient of friction (0.15)
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  Here, coefficient of lateral friction depends upon the speed. Considering the discomfort to passenger
33 due to centrifugal force, NRS suggests to limit the ratio of lateral to vertical forces to 0.15

As per NRS 2070

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 If v is in kmph
34 e f 
0.278v 
2

v2
9 .8 R 127 R

where, v= speed (kmph)

R = Radius (m)
Vehicles do not have the same speed on a horizontal curve, therefore in such a case, only
mixed traffic flow condition is present. For superelevation calculation in mixed traffic
flow conditions, the speed shall be taken as 75% of design speed i.e., 0.75v, and the
lateral friction 'f' shall be neglected for safe conditions. Superelevation formula now
becomes,

e f 
0.75v 
2

127 R
v2
e0 
225 R
v2
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e 8/29/2024
225 R
 DESIGN STEP OF SUPER-ELEVATION
35  Step 1: Calculate super elevation for 75% design speed neglecting friction
v2
e
225 R
Step 2:
if calculated value is less than 7%, adopt calculated value as design superelevation otherwise if
calculated value of e is greater than standard allowable value, adopt 7% and proceed step 3

Step 3: check coefficient of friction for the maximum superelevation i.e 7%

v2
f   0.07
127 R
If calculated value of f is less than 0.15, the superelevation of 0.07 is safe. If the obtained value
of "f” is greater than given value. then, we have to either change radius or velocity but it is
restricted to charge radius. So, we have to change velocity.
Step 4:
Adopted velocity
e  f x127 xR
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Va 
 Design the rate of super elevation for a horizontal curve of radius 500 m
36 and speed of 100 kmph

e = 0.07
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37 V=80 KMPH
R= 200M
e=?
If e is not greater than 0.07, calculate the maximum allowable speed if it is not possible to increase
radius and f = 0.15

v2 80 2
e   0.142  0.07
225 R 225 x 200
Since, maximum allowable super elevation is 0.07, take limiting value of e i.e. e= 0.07 and calculate f
v2 80 2
f   0.07   0.07  0.18  0.15
127 R 127 x 200
Here, the obtained value of "f” is greater than given value. So, we have to either change radius or velocity but
it is restricted to charge radius. So, we have to change velocity.
Therefor, Adopted velocity
Va  e  f x127 xR  0.07  0.15x127 x200  74.753Kmph
Thus, allowable speed may be restricted to more than 74 kmph.
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 TYPES OF SUPER-ELEVATION
38
i. Maximum super elevation
ii. Minimum super elevation
i) Maximum super elevation

v2
e f 
gR
From the above relation, it is cleared that 'e' increases with increase in speed and
decrease in radius for the constant value of 'f' but from the practical point of view, it is
necessary to limit maximum super elevation. So, as to avoid topping of loaded vehicles,
the maximum super elevation for mix traffic is 7% ( 0.07)., in hilly areas not bound by snows
10%
ii) Minimum super elevation:
 It is necessary to have a maximum cross slope to drain off surface water. If super
elevation is equal or less than camber, then the minimum super elevation to be
produced on the horizontal curve maybe limited to a camber of road way
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39
Methods of introducing super elevation
1. Elimination of crown of camber section.
It can be done by 2 methods:
 Rotating order edge about crown.
Rotating order edge about crown
 Shifting of crown progressively outward
In first method, outer half of cross section is
rotated about crown at a desired rate such
that the surface falls on the same plane as
the inner half and elevation of central line is
not changed.
In the second method, the crown is
progressively shifted outward. Thus, increases
the width of inner half of cross section. Shifting of crown progressively outward
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40
2. Rotation of pavement of attain full super elevation.
 There are two method of rotation of pavement to attain full super elevation:
 By rotating the pavement about central line the outer edge is raised and inner edge
is depressed each by half the total amount of super elevation. i.e. E/2
 By rotating the pavement about the inner edge by raising outer edge such that the
outer edge is raised by full amount of super elevation. i.e. E

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 How much should be the outer edge of pavement to be raised with respect to center line on the two lane road
design for mixed traffic at a speed of 80 kmph on a horizontal curve of radius 200m if the super elevation
41 is obtained by rotating the pavement with respect to
a) Center line.
b) Inner edge.

E
E
E 7m
7m

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42
Extra Widening
On the horizontal curves, carriage way width is increased than normal
width on straight portion. The increased width is called extra widening.
The purpose of providing extra widening are:
 Drivers have tendency to keep away edge of carriage way while
driving.
 The clearance between the vehicles passing each other in the
horizontal curve is caved more than on the straight road due to
psychological effect.
 Because of off tracking, more width of road is occupied by vehicles.
So, width is increased in horizontal curves.
 All the beginning of curves, drivers wished to follow outer edge to
have better visibility.
 Trailer unit required large width at the curve.
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 Types extra widening of curve
43
Extra widening on horizontal curve is of two types:
 Mechanical widening
 Psychological widening

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44 Mechanical widening
 The widening provided to account for off tracking
due to rigidity of wheel base is called mechanical
widening.
 Due to off tracking, the rear wheels follow a path of
shorter radius than the front ones and thus it
increases the effective width of road space
required by the vehicle
 So we provide extra width to provide some
clearance between vehicles, to provide safety
against transverse skidding during high speeds
and also to provide stability for vehicles like
trailer trucks.
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45

 R1= radius of path traversed by outer rear wheel

 R2 = radius of path traversed by front wheel
 Wm = Mechanical widening.

R1= radius of path traversed by outer rear wheel

R2 = radius of path traversed by front wheel

Wm = Mechanical widening.

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46 Now,
Wm = OC-OA = R2-R1
or, R1 = R2 - Wm----------------------(i)
Again,
In triangle AOB
OA2 = OB2 - BA2 (BY USING PYTHOGORUS
THEOREM)
R12 = R22 - L2
(R2 - WM)2 = R22 - L2
or, R22 - 2R2 x Wm + Wm2 = R22 - L2
or, L2 = 2 x R2 x Wm -Wm2
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= Wm (2R2 -Wm) 8/29/2024
47 l2 l2
Wm  
2 R 2  Wm 2 R 2

If there are numbers of lane, then Mechanical widening

nl 2
Wm 
2R

In normal condition, ( l = 6.1m)

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48 ii) Psychological Widening
 Sometime extra width is provided for extra space required for overhangs of
vehicles and to provide greater clearance for crossing or overtaking
vehicles. Such widening provided to pavement is called psychological
widening.
 Mathematically, it is represented by

V
W ps 
9.5 R
Where,
V = speed ( kmph)
R = radius (m

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49 Total widening (We)
(We) = Wm+ Wps

nl 2 V
We  
2 R 9.5 R
Where,

n = number of lanes

l = length of wheel base in meter = 6.1 m

v = design speed

R = radius (m)

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50 METHODES OF PROVIDING EXTRA WIDENING:

i. Widening of pavement on horizontal curve

ii. Widening of pavement on sharp curve

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 51

B C

Widening is provided in both side of curve D

(half extra width is provided at either side of curve)
A

Fig 1: Widening of pavement on horizontal curve

A-B: Extra widening is uniformly increased
B-C: Full extra width is provided
C-D: Extra widening is uniformly decreased

C
B
D
Widening is provided in inner side of curve only
A (Full extra width is provided at inner curve)

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Fig 2: Widening of pavement on sharp curve
  Normally, widening is provided at the beginning of transition curve and uniformly
increased till full widening is provided at the end of transition curve.
52  The full width i.e. (W+We) remains same throughout the circular curve.
 In the case of horizontal curve, We/2 is provided on the both side of the curve.

half extra width is provided at either side of curve

 But, in the case of sharp curve full extra width is provided at the inner side of the
curve

Full extra width is provided at inner curve

On curvesRajuhaving
Bhele
no transition two third of it should be attained before the 8/29/2024
start of
the circular curve and one third on the curve.
 Determine the total width of pavement on a horizontal curve for a national
53
highway in plain area with a ruling minimum radius. Assume data as follows
design speed = 100kmph
pavement width = 7m
number of lane = 2
wheel base length = 6.1 m
ruling minimum radius = 360 m

Hint:
Total pavement width = pavement width + extra-widening
nl 2 V
We  
2 R 9.5 R

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 4. Elements of Horizontal Alignment
54  Horizontal alignment is a series of straight line called tangents with
provision of curves at each change in direction.
The different element of horizontal alignments are:
 Tangent
 Horizontal Curve

a. Tangent
It is a straight line obtained by joining
two successive points of intersection of
two straight traverse line along road route.

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 b. Horizontal Curve
55  It is a curve in a plan to provide change in direction to center line of
road. Deviation are necessary due to following reasons:
 Topography of terrain
 Restriction imposed by property
 To use existing right of way
 Other factors controlling
highway alignment

Types of horizontal curves

 Circular Curve
 Transition Curve

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 i. Circular curve
56 It is a curve having constant radius. It is classified into following types:
 Simple curve
 Reverse curve
 Compound circular curve
a. Simple curve
 It consists of single arc connecting two straight lines.
b. Reverse circular curve
 It consists of two or more arc of one or different radius turning in two
opposite direction.
c. compound circular curve
 It consists series of simple circular curve of one or different radius
turning in same direction and meet at common tangent point.
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57

Curve with single arc

Curves with different radius

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curve of one or different radius turning in8/29/2024
same
or different direction
 ii. Transition Curve
58 A curve whose radius varies from infinity
at the tangent point to a designed radius of
circular curve.
Functions of transition curve
 To introduce centrifugal force gradually
between the tangent point and the
beginning of the circular curve so that
sudden jerk on vehicle can be avoided.
 To introduce design super elevation and
extra widening at the start of curve.
 To provide aesthetic appearance of road.
 To enable driver to turn steering gradually
for his own comfort and safety.
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59

Calculation of length of Transition Curve

The length of transition curve is designed to fulfill three
conditions:
Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
Rate of introduction of super elevation
Minimum length by IRC empirical formula. (Indian Road
Congress)

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60
i. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
 Let, the length of transition curve be Ls meter. If ‘t' be time taken to travel transition length at
uniform speed 'v' m/s.

Ls
t
V
2
Similarly, the maximum centrifugal acceleration V is introduced through the transition
length Ls R V 2 
 
Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is given by 'C'. C
R 
t
V2
C
Rt
V2
C
L  V=m/s
R s 
V  R= m
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C
V3 Ls=m
…………..i
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RLs C= m / s 2 
61 As per IRC
 The value of 'C' for the design speed V (Kmph) is

C
80
75  V

m / s2 
Where C varies from 0.5 to 0.8
If the design speed is in V (Kmph)
Then, from equation i
3 V3
Ls 
V Ls 
CR 3.63 CR
where, 0.0215V 3
Ls 
 V= design speed in m/s CR

 R= radius of circular curve

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  Formula
a. V3
62 Ls 
CR
Where V=m/s
R= m
Ls=m
C= m / s 2 

V3
b. Ls  , where v = kmph, R = m, Ls = m and C=
3.6 3
CR
0.0215V 3
Ls 
CR

m / s 
2

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 (ii) Rate of introduction of super-elevation
63
Center line
Center line
E2 (W+We)/2
E1 e
e
e (W+We)/2 E2

W+We
E2 = [e (W+We)]/2
e(W+We) = E1

Let, 'e' be rate of super elevation designed for a highway curve having normal
pavement width 'W'. Let, We be extra widening provided at the circular curve.
Therefore, the total pavement width is (W+We).

The total raising of pavement with respect to inner edge = eB = e(W+We) = E1

Similarly, the maximum amount by which the outer edge is to be raised8/29/2024
Raju Bhele
at the
circular curve with respect to the centre is given by E2 = e(W+We)/2
Contd… (ii) Rate of introduction of super-elevation
64

 If the pavement is rotated about the inner edge length of transition curve
Ls= E1xN=e(W+We)N
 If the pavement is rotated about the center line, Length of transition
Ls  E 2 N
e(W  We ) N
Ls 
2
Where N is rate of introduction of super elevation
N = 1 in 100 in built up area
 1 in 60 in hill roads.

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65 (iii) Minimum length by IRC empirical formula.

a) For plane and rolling terrain

2.7V 2
Ls 
R

b) For mountainous and steep terrain

V2
Ls 
R

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66 Design step of Transition Curve

a) Calculate the length of transition curve based on allowable rate of

change of centrifugal acceleration.
b) Find out the length of transition curve based on rate of change of
super elevation.
c) Similarly, calculate the length of transition curve as per IRC.
d) Adopt highest value of length of transition curve calculated in
above three step.

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 67 Calculation of shift
Due to the application of transition
curve on both sides of the circular
curve, the circular curve gets
shifted towards inner side and this
shift is called lateral shift and is
given by:

Where, R is the radius of the circular

curve and Ls is the designed length
of the transition curve

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68
Elements of transition curve

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 Factors affecting length of Transition Curve required on
69
Horizontal curve:
 Radius of circular curve.
 Design Speed
 Allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration.
 Maximum amount of super elevation (E), total pavement width (B).
 Whether the pavement cross section is rotated about inner edge or
central line.
 Allowable rate of introduction of super elevation which depends
on terrain and environmental condition.

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 Calculate the length of transition curve using the following data.
Design speed: 65 kmph.
70
Radius of circular curve: 220m.
Allowable rate of introduction of super elevation is 1 in 150 (pavement is rotated
about center line), pavement width including extra widening is 7.5 m
Methods 1 Methods 2 Ls  E 2 N
80
 
2
C m / s2 v
e  0.085  0.07 e(W  We ) N
75  V 225 R Ls 
2
V3 adopt
Ls  Methods 3
3.63 CR e  0.07
v2 652
0.0215V 3 f   0.07   0.07  0.0.8  0.15 2.7V 2
Ls   47.1m
CR
127 R 127 x 220 Ls   51.9m
E2 = e(W+We)/2=(0.07x7.5)/2=0.26 m R

Adopt highest transition length for

design

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71 Sight Distance:

 Sight distance is defined as the length of carriage way that is

visible to driver at any instant from the specified height of driver's
eye above the road surface.
 According to NRS, the height of driver's eye is 1m and height of
object is 0.15m above the road surface.
Sight distance

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 Restriction to sight distance
72 i) Horizontal curve
 Building curve
 Visibility restriction
due to head light limitation
 Restriction due to the tree

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 ii) At vertical summit curve
73  Restriction of visibility for night driving.

iii) At valley curve

 Problems of night visibility
iv) At intersections
 Restrictions to visibility due to presence of building.

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 Types of sight distance
74
Stopping sight distance
safe overtaking or passing sight distance
Stopping sight distance

OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE

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 Stopping sight Distance
75
 It is a total distance needed by a vehicle to stop before
meeting other object in his path.
Stopping sight distance = Lag distance + Braking distance
Lag Distance
It is a distance travelled by vehicle during total reaction time.
According to NRS, the total reaction time is 2.5secs.
Mathematically, Lag distance = v*t
Where,
V= design speed (m/s)
t = total reaction time (sec)
If V is in kmph,
Lag distance. = 0.278 vt
8/29/2024

Raju Bhele
  Braking Distance
76 It is a distance travelled by vehicle after application of brake.
Mathematically, if F is the maximum frictional force developed and l be the
braking distance, the work Done against frictional force is F x l = f x W x l
2
The kinetic energy at design speed v m/s is
Wv
This will be zero when the vehicle stopped 2g
Equating work done and Kinetic energy
Wv 2
fWl 
2g
v2
l
2 fg
If V is in kmph, braking distance = V2/254f
Where, f = coefficient of lateral friction
Stopping sight distance = Lag distance + Braking distance
= Vt+V2/2gf [v = m/s]
8/29/2024
= 0.278vt+v2/254f [v = kmph]
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 Stopping Sight Distance At Slope
77

 Let us consider a slope with ascending gradient (+n%) on which a vehicle is

moving with speed v m/s and l be the braking distance (distance cover
after break is apply)
 The component of gravity acting parallel to the surface which acts to
breaking force, each equal to W sin 𝜃 = wtan 𝜃 = wn = Wn
100
 Kinetic energy due to inertia of motion is Wv
2

2g

 Work done by frictional force and components

of weight opposite to motion is
Wn
( fW  ) *l
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100 8/29/2024
78

Equating kinetic energy and work done

Wn Wv 2
( fW  ) *l 
100 2g
n Wv 2
(f  )W * l 
100 2g
v2
l
n
2g( f  )
100

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79
 similarly, in the case of descending gradient
v2
l
n
2g( f  )
100
Therefore, stopping sight distance =
v2
SSD  vt 
n
2g( f  )
100
If speed is in kmph ,
Stopping sight distance is
v2
SSD  0.278vt 
n
254( f  )
100
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 Headlight sight distance = stopping sight distance
80
Intermediate sight distance = 2* stopping sight distance
Coefficient of friction as per Nepal Road Standard 2070
Speed (kmph) Coefficient of friction (f)

20 to 30 0.48
40 0.38
50 0.37
60 0.36
65 0.36
80 0.35
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100 0.35
 81 Overtaking sight distance:
Vehicle to be overtaken

Overtaking vehicle

Vehicle coming from opposite lane

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82

 Let, A be the vehicle which overtakes B and A1, A2, A3 are it's different position
at different interval of time.
 B be vehicle to be overtaken and B1 and B2 are it's position at different interval
of time.
 C be the vehicle coming from opposite lane and C1 and C2 are it's position at
different interval of time.
 Vb = speed of overtaken vehicle
 V = design speed of vehicle A and C
 d1 = distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A during reaction time 't'
second from A1 to A2
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83

 d2 = distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A during overtaking

operation from A2 to A3 during the time interval 'T' second.
 d3 = distance travelled by vehicle C from C1 during the time interval 'T'
sec.
 Distance travelled by vehicle A during reaction time’t’ sec is d1.
d1 = Vb * t --------------(i)
From position A2 the vehicle A overtakes B and goes back to it's previous
lane in the position A3 in the time interval 'T' secs. The distance between A2
and A3 is d2 and the minimum distance between A2 and B1 is S. Similarly,
the minimum
Raju Bhele
distance required between B2 and A3 is S. 8/29/2024
84

d2=s+b+s = b+2s
Where, b= distance traveled by vehicles B during overtaking time, T sec
b = vb*T
d2=s+b+s = vbxT+2s………..(i)

By Empirical formula,
s = (0.69vb+6.1)m = (0.7vb+6) m, where vb is m/s
Using general formula for the distance traveled by a uniformly
accelerating body with initial vb and acceleration a,
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d2 = vbT+0.5aT2. ………..(ii)
 From equation i and ii,
85
vb*T+2s = vbT+0.5aT2
4s
T
a

If, a= acceleration (kmph/sec)

14.4 s
T
A
where
s = 0.2vb + 6
vb= velocity of the overtaking vehicle (kmph)
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86

 The distance traveled by the vehicles coming from the

opposite lane i.e. from the position C1 to C2 is d3
 Therefore,
Overtaking sight distance = d1+d2+d3 = vbt+vbT+2s + VT
 t = reaction time = 2.5 secs as per NRS 2070
 If velocity is given in terms of kmph
O.S.D = 0.278 vbt+.278vbT +2s+ 0.278VT

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 NOTE,
87
 In the case, if the velocity of overtaken vehicles i.e. vb is not given, the
overtaken speed is assumed as
(v-4.5) m/s, Where, v= design speed in m/s
Or
(v-16)kmph, Where, v= design speed in kmph

Overtaking sight distance (O.S.D)

A) One way road = d1+d2
B) Two way road = d1+d2+d3
C) The minimum length of overtaking zone for One way road = 3(d1+d2)
D) The minimum length of overtaking zone for Two way road = 3(d1+d2+d3)

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 problem
88 A. The speeds of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are 80 and 60 kmph respectively. If
acceleration of overtaking vehicle is 2.5 kmph per second, calculate safe passing sight
distance for
One way traffic.
Two way traffic.

hints
d1 = Vb * t
d2=s+b+s = b+2s
b = vb*T
d2=s+b+s = vbxT+2s
14.4 s
T
A
s = (0.69vb+6.1)m
= (0.7vb+6) m,
where vb is m/s One way road = d1+d2
d3 = vT B) Two way road = d1+d2+d3
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 B. Calculate the minimum sight distance required to avoid a head on collision if truck
speeding at 40 kmph along a certain 5 % grade downward in a single lane road
89 encounters with another vehicle coming toward it at a speed of 90 kmph.
Assume a total reaction time of 2.5 sec and f = 0.35

v2
SSD  0.278vt 
n
254( f  )
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 C. Calculate minimum sight distance needed to prevent a
90 head on collision of two cars approaching from opposite
direction at 90 kmph and 60 kmph. Assume a reaction time
as 2.5 sec, f = 0.7 and brake efficiency as 50% for each case.

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 Factors affecting stopping sight distance
91 Total reaction time
 It is time taken from the instant the object is visible to driver to the
instant the brakes are effectively applied. It is of two types.
i. Perception time
ii. Braking reaction time

i. Perception time
The time required for driver to realize that brake must be applied is
called perception time.
ii. Braking reaction time
It is the time that elapses between moments, the foot is removed
from accelerator and placed on the brake paddle and time to
activate brake action.
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 PIEV Theory
92

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 Perception:
93
 Time for sensation by eyes and transmission to brain from nervous
system.
Intellection:
 Time to understand situation.
Emotion:
 Emotional sensation and disturbances such as fear, anger, etc.
Violation:
 Time taken for final action.

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 b)Speed
94 The braking distance or distance moved by the vehicles after application
of brakes depends upon the speed of vehicle. Greater the speed,
greater will be stopping sight distance.
c) Efficiency of brake
Break efficiency is said to 100%, if wheels are fully locked preventing them
from rotating on the application of breaks. This results in skidding which is
not acceptable. So, breaking force should be greater than frictional
force between wheels and pavement.
d) Friction between road and wheel
It depends upon the nature of road and condition of road. The breaking
distance increases with decreases in skid resistance.
e) Gradient
If there is positive gradient, stopping distance is less and if there is
negative gradient, stopping sight distance is high.
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95
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
1:X
Gradient: A B
n%
 Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect
to the horizontal.
 It is expressed as the ration of 1:x (1 vertical unit : x horizontal unit).
 Sometimes the gradient is expressed as n percentage. i.e. n%.
 A rising or ascending gradient is donated by positive sign such as +n1,
+n2, etc. and the descending gradient is donated by negative sign such
as –n1, -n2 etc

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B
96 Types of gradient
a)Ruling gradient
b)Limiting gradient
c) Exceptional gradient
d)Minimum gradient.

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 Ruling gradient
97  It is the maximum gradient with which the designer attempts to design a vertical
profile of the road.
 Ruling gradient is also known as the design gradient.
 IRC recommend ruling gradient of 1 in 30 in plain and rolling terrain and 1 in 20
in mountainous terrain and 1 in 1.7 on steep terrain.
Limiting gradient
 It is gradient steeper than ruling gradient. On rolling terrain and hilly terrain it is
necessary to exceed ruling gradient and adopt limiting gradient.
Exceptional gradient
 It is gradient steeper than limiting gradient which is provided in exceptional
cases only. Eg hair pin bend. The disadvantages are
 More fuel consumption
 More friction losses
 Reduces engine efficiency
 Wear and tear to pavement and wheel
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98 Minimum gradient
 The road can be level with little or no gradient.
 In such cases there will be problem of drainage system thought
the surface water can be drain off providing camber and cross
slope and additional longitudinal slope is needed to drain water.
 The minimum gradient depends upon rainfall, types of soil,
topography and other site condition.

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 Curve resistance for turning vehicles.
99  Automobiles are steered by turning the front wheel
but rear wheels do not turns.
Tcosα  So during the movement of vehicle on the
horizontal curve, direction of rotation of rear and
front wheel are different and there is loss tractive
force.
 AB is rear wheel which gives tractive forces (T)
along PQ directions. The front wheel CD is turned
along the horizontal curve and the tractive force is
produced along RS and the tractive force is equal
to Tcosα. This tractive force is less than actual force
 Loss in the tractive force is T- Tcosα = T(1- cosα)
 This loss of the tractive force due to turning of
vehicle on the horizontal curve is called curve
resistance.
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 Compensation in gradient
100
 Due to turning angle, the curve resistance i.e T(1- cosα) is
developed.
 Similarly, when there is horizontal curve in addition to gradient,
there will be increase in resistance due to grade and the curve and
it should not exceed the resistance due to maximum gradient
specified.
 So during design of sharp horizontal curve, the gradient should be
decreased to compensate the loss of the tractive force due to
curve.
30  R
 Grade compensation =
R 75
 The maximum limit of grade compensation =
R
Where R is the radius of circular curve
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
 Problem: While aligning a hill road with ruling gradient of
101 6% in horizontal curve of 60 m is encountered. Find the
compensated gradient at a curve
 Ruling gradient is 6%
30  R
 Grade compensation =
R

30  60
=
60

= 1.5%
75 75
Maximum limit of grade compensation is = = 1.25%
R 60
Compensated gradient = 6% - 1.25% = 4.75%

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102
Vertical curves
The vertical curves used in highway may be of two
types
A.Summit curves
B. Valley curves

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103
Summit curves
 The vertical curve having convexity upward is called summit
curve. The summit curves develops in following cases as shown in
fig

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  While designing the length of summit curve we need to consider
104
stopping sight distance and overtaking sight distance.

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105
Two cases are to be considered while designing
length of summit curves for the stopping sight
distance.
Case A:
 When the length of summit curve is greater than stopping sight
distance
Case B
 When the length of summit curve is less than stopping sight
distance

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 Case A:
106 When the length of summit curve is greater than
stopping sight distance (L>SSD)
 The general equation for the length of summit curve of the parabolic curve i.e

NS 2
L = ( 2 H  2h ) 2

L = length of summit curve

S = stopping sight distance
N = Angle of deviation
H = height of eye level of driver above the road surface = 1.2m (IRC)
h = height of object above the road surface = 0.15m (IRC)
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 NS 2
 L = 4.4
107

Case B
 When the length of summit curve is less than sight distance
(L<SSD
( 2 H  2h ) 2
Length of summit curve = 2S 
N

If,
H= 1.2m
h = 0.15m
4.4
L = 2S 
N
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 Two cases are to be considered for designing the
108 length of summit curve for overtaking sight
distance

Case A
 Length of summit curve is greater than overtaking sight distance
Case B
 Length of summit curve is less than overtaking sight distance

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 Case A
109 Length of summit curve is greater than overtaking sight
distance (L>OSD)

NS 2
L=
( 2 H  2h ) 2

NS 2
=
9.6

if H = h = 1.2m (IRC)
S = overtaking sight distance

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 Case B
110 Length of summit curve is less than overtaking sight
distance (L<OSD)

( 2 H  2h ) 2
L = 2 S 
N

9.6
= 2S 
N

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 problem
111 A. Design length of summit curve formed at intersection of two gradient +3.0% and -5.0% in
order to provide stopping sight distance for design speed of 80 kmph. Assume all
necessary data.

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 B. A ascending gradient of 1 in 80 meets descending gradient of 1 in
112
100. Design a summit curve for 100 kmph so as to have a overtaking
sight distance of 500m.

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 Valley curve
113  A vertical curve having convexity downward or concavity
upward is called valley curve

Length of valley curve is designed for two cases

 Allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration 0.6 m3/s
 Head light sight distance
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 Case A
114 The length of valley curve for the comfort conditions is given by
1
NV 3 2
L = 2[ ] where v is in m/s
C

When
V = Kmph
C = rate of change of centrifugal acceleration = 0.6

L = 0.38x(NV3)0.5

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 For stopping sight distance
115 Case A :The length of valley curve is greater than stopping sight
distance

NS 2
L=
2h1  2 s tan 

h1 = height of head light from road surface = 0.75 m

 = inclined angle of head light beam = 1 degree

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116
Case B : The length of valley curve is smaller
than stopping sight distance

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117

2h1  2s tan 
 L = 2S –
N
1.5  0.035 XS
 L = 2S - if h1 = 0.75 and α is 1o
N

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 a)Design the length of valley curve for both
118
comfort and head light sight distance
requirement for a design speed 80 kmph
if it is formed with a descending grade of
1 in 25 meets an ascending grade of 1 in
30. Take c = 0.6 m/s3

n2 = 1/30
n1 = -1/25
N = n1-n2
=-1/25-1/30
=-11/150

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