D2 Lecture 4

MA 105 D2 Lecture 4
Ravi Raghunathan
Department of Mathematics
August 17, 2023

Recap: Continuity
The derivative
Arnold’s problem
Maxima and minima
Properties of differentiable functions

Continuity - the definition
Definition: If f : [a, b] → R is a function and c ∈ [a, b], then f is
said to be continuous at the point c if and only if
lim f (x) = f (c).

x→c
Thus, if c is one of the end points we require only the left or right
hand limit to exist.
lim f (x) = f (c).

x→c
A function f on (a, b) (resp. [a, b]) is said to be continuous if and
only if it is continuous at every point c in (a, b) (resp. [a, b]).
If f is not continuous at a point c we say that it is dicontinuous at
c, or that c is a point of discontinuity for f .
lim f (x) = f (c).

x→c
A function f on (a, b) (resp. [a, b]) is said to be continuous if and
only if it is continuous at every point c in (a, b) (resp. [a, b]).
If f is not continuous at a point c we say that it is dicontinuous at
c, or that c is a point of discontinuity for f .
Intuitively, continuous functions are functions whose graphs can be
drawn on a sheet of paper without lifting the pencil of the sheet of
paper. That is, there should be no “jumps” in the graph of the
function.
The basic properties of continuous functions
The sums, differences, products and quotients of continuous
functions are continuous (in the last case, the value of the
continuous function in the denominator should be non-zero).
The composition of continuous functions is continuous.
Theorem 9: Suppose f : [a, b] → R is a continuous function. For
every u between f (a) and f (b) there exists c ∈ [a, b] there such
that f (c) = u.
that f (c) = u.
Functions which have this property are said to have the
Intermediate Value Property (IVP).
that f (c) = u.
Functions which have this property are said to have the
Intermediate Value Property (IVP).
We will not be proving this property - it is a consequence of the
completeness of the real numbers. Intuitively, this is clear. Since
one can draw the graph of the function without lifting one’s pencil
off the sheet of paper, the pencil must cut every line y = e with e
between f (a) and f (b).
The IVT in a picture
Image created by Enoch Lau see

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intermediatevaluetheorem.png
(Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license).
Continuous functions on closed, bounded intervals
The other major result on continuous functions that we need is the
following. A closed bounded interval is one of the form [a, b],
where −∞ < a and b < ∞.
Theorem 11: A continuous function on a closed bounded interval
[a, b] is bounded and attains its infimum and supremum, that is,
there are points x1 and x2 in [a, b] such that f (x1 ) = m and
f (x2 ) = M, where m and M denote the infimum and supremum
respectively.
Theorem 11: A continuous function on a closed bounded interval
[a, b] is bounded and attains its infimum and supremum, that is,
there are points x1 and x2 in [a, b] such that f (x1 ) = m and
f (x2 ) = M, where m and M denote the infimum and supremum
respectively.
We defined infimum and supremum for sequences previously. The
definition for functions of a real variable is the same: Let X ⊂ R
and let f : X → R be a function. A real number M is called the
supremum of f (x) (on X ) if
1. If f (x) ≤ M for all x ∈ X .
2. If for some real number M1 f (x) ≤ M1 for all x ∈ X , then
M ≤ M1 .
Relaxing the conditions
Again, we will not prove Theorem 11, but will use it quite often.
Note the contrast with open intervals. The function 1/x on (0, 1)
does not attain a maximum - in fact it is unbounded. Similarly the
function 1/x on (1, ∞) does not attain a minimum, although, it is
bounded below and the infimum is 0.
Exercise 5: In light of the above theorem, can you find a
continuous function g : (a, b) → R for part (i) of Exercise 1.11,
with c ∈ (a, b) such that limx→c f (x)g (x) 6= 0?
Let us look at Exercise 1.13 part (i).
Consider the function defined as f (x) = sin x1 when x 6= 0, and
f (0) = 0. Is this function is continuous at x = 0.
Let us look at the sequence of points xn = 2/(2n + 1)π. Clearly
xn → 0 as n → ∞ and |f (xn )| = 1
Let us look at the sequence of points xn = 2/(2n + 1)π. Clearly
xn → 0 as n → ∞ and |f (xn )| = 1
You can easily check that f (x) has the IVP.
Sequential continuity
The preceding example showed that in order to demonstrate that a
function f (x) is not continuous at a point x0 it is enough to find a
sequence xn tending to x0 such that the value of the function
|f (xn ) − f (x0 )| remains large. Suppose it is not possible to find
such a sequence. Does that mean the function is continuous at x0 ?
Yes.
Yes.
Theorem 12: A function f (x) is continuous at a point a if and only
if for every sequence xn → a, limxn →a f (xn ) = f (a).
Yes.
Theorem 12: A function f (x) is continuous at a point a if and only
if for every sequence xn → a, limxn →a f (xn ) = f (a).
A function that satisfies the property that for every sequence
xn → a, limxn →a f (xn ) = f (a) is said to be sequentially continuous.
The theorem says that sequential continuity and continuity are the
same thing. Indeed, it is clear that a continuous function is
necessarily sequentially continuous. It is the reverse that is slightly
harder to prove.
Zeno’s paradox animated
Achilles and the Tortoise

The defintion
For now, if you did not understand the rigourous definition of the
limit, forget about it. You will be able to understand what follows
as long as you remember your 11th standard treatment of limits.
Recall that f : (a, b) → R is said to be differentiable at a point
c ∈ (a, b) if
f (c + h) − f (c)
lim
h→0 h
exists. In this case the value of the limit is denoted f 0 (c) and is
called the derivative of f at c. The derivative may also be denoted
df
by dx (c) or by dy
dx |c , where y = f (x).
The defintion
For now, if you did not understand the rigourous definition of the
limit, forget about it. You will be able to understand what follows
as long as you remember your 11th standard treatment of limits.
Recall that f : (a, b) → R is said to be differentiable at a point
c ∈ (a, b) if
f (c + h) − f (c)
lim
h→0 h
exists. In this case the value of the limit is denoted f 0 (c) and is
called the derivative of f at c. The derivative may also be denoted
df
by dx (c) or by dy
dx |c , where y = f (x).
In general, the derivative measures the rate of change of a function
at a given point. Thus, if the function we are studying is the
position of a particle on the x-coordinate, then x 0 (t) is the velocity
of the particle. If the function we are studying is the velocity v (t)
of the particle, then the derivative v 0 (t) is the acceleration of the
particle. If the function we are studying is the population of India,
then the derivative measures the rate of change of the population.
The slope of the tangent
From the point of view of geometry, the derivative f 0 (c) gives us

the slope of the curve, that is, the slope of the tangent to the
curve y = f (x) at (c, f (c)). This becomes particularly clear if we
rewrite the derivative as the following limit:
The slope of the tangent
From the point of view of geometry, the derivative f 0 (c) gives us

the slope of the curve, that is, the slope of the tangent to the
curve y = f (x) at (c, f (c)). This becomes particularly clear if we
rewrite the derivative as the following limit:
f (y ) − f (c)
lim .
y →c y −c
The expression inside the limit obviously represents the slope of a
line passing through (c, f (c)) and (y , f (y )), and as y approaches c
this line obviously becomes tangent to y = f (x) at the point
(c, f (c)).
Another way of thinking of the derivative
Another way of thinking of the derivative of the function f at the
point x0 is as follows. If f is differentiable at x0 we know that
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
− f 0 (x0 ) → 0
h
as h → 0.
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
− f 0 (x0 ) → 0
h
as h → 0. Since we are keeping x0 fixed, we can treat the above
quantity as a function of h. Thus we can write
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
− f 0 (x0 ) → 0
h
f (x0 + h) − f (x)
− f 0 (x0 ) = o(h)
h
for some function o(h) with the property that o(h) → 0 as h → 0.
Taking a common denominator,
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
− f 0 (x0 ) → 0
h
f (x0 + h) − f (x)
− f 0 (x0 ) = o(h)
h
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) − f 0 (x0 )h
= o(h) (1)
h
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
− f 0 (x0 ) → 0
h
f (x0 + h) − f (x)
− f 0 (x0 ) = o(h)
h
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) − f 0 (x0 )h
= o(h) (1)
h
We can use the above equality to give an equivalent definition for
the derivative. A function f is said to be differentiable at the point
x0 if there exists a real number (denoted f 0 (x0 )) such that (1)
holds for some function o(h) such that o(h) → 0 as h → 0.
The derivative as a linear map
We can rewrite equation (1) as
f (x0 + h) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )h + o(h)h

f (x0 + h) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )h + o(h)h
Thus, the derivative of f (x) at a point x0 can be viewed as that

real number (if it exists) by which you have to multiply h so that
the resulting remainder goes to 0 faster than h (that is, the
remainder divided by h goes to 0 as h goes to 0).
f (x0 + h) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )h + o(h)h
Thus, the derivative of f (x) at a point x0 can be viewed as that

real number (if it exists) by which you have to multiply h so that
the resulting remainder goes to 0 faster than h (that is, the
remainder divided by h goes to 0 as h goes to 0).
A function f : R → R which has the property that
f (x + y ) = f (x) + f (y ) is called a linear function (or linear map).
All such functions are given by multiplication by a real number,
that is, every linear function has the form f (x) = λx, for some real
number λ. Thus the derivative may be regarded as a linear
function (in the variable h). This point of view will be particularly
useful in multivariable calculus.
Examples
Exercise 1.16: Let f : (a, b) → R be a function such that
|f (x + h) − f (x)| ≤ C |h|α
for all x, x + h ∈ (a, b), where C is a constant and α > 1. Show

0
that f is differentiable on (a, b) and compute f (x) for x ∈ (a, b).
Examples
|f (x + h) − f (x)| ≤ C |h|α

0
Solution:
f (x + h) − f (x)
lim ≤ C lim |h|α−1 = 0.
h→0 h h→0
Examples
|f (x + h) − f (x)| ≤ C |h|α

0
Solution:
f (x + h) − f (x)
lim ≤ C lim |h|α−1 = 0.
h→0 h h→0
Note: Functions that satisfy the property above for some α (not
necessarily greater than 1) are said to be Lipschitz continuous with
exponent α.
Calculating derivatives
As with limits all of you are already familiar with the rule for
calculating the sums, differences, products and quotients of
derivatives. You should try and remember how to prove these.
You should also recall the chain rule for calculating the derivative
of the composition of functions and try to prove it as an exercise
using the − δ definition of a limit.
You should also recall the chain rule for calculating the derivative
of the composition of functions and try to prove it as an exercise
using the − δ definition of a limit.
Note that the proof of the chain rule given in some books involves
writing
∆y ∆y ∆u
= × .
∆x ∆u ∆x
and then taking limits as ∆x → 0. This is not quite correct since
∆u could be 0 even for infinitely many values of u.
Arnold’s problem
Recall that you were asked to find the following limit (Exercise 3 of
the previous lecture).
sin(tan x) − tan(sin x)
lim .
x→0 arcsin(arctan x) − arctan(arcsin x)
Arnold’s problem
lim .
The problem above was posed by the Russian mathematician

Vladimir I. Arnold (see his book “Huygens and Barrow, Newton
and Hooke”) as an example of a problem that seventeenth century
mathematicians could solve very easily, but that modern
mathematicians, even with all their extra machinery and knowledge
can’t. In fact, it was his habit to put up this problem while
lecturing to eminent mathematicians in leading universities and
challenge them to solve it within ten minutes.
Arnold’s problem
lim .
The problem above was posed by the Russian mathematician

Vladimir I. Arnold (see his book “Huygens and Barrow, Newton
and Hooke”) as an example of a problem that seventeenth century
mathematicians could solve very easily, but that modern
mathematicians, even with all their extra machinery and knowledge
can’t. In fact, it was his habit to put up this problem while
lecturing to eminent mathematicians in leading universities and
challenge them to solve it within ten minutes.
Notice that the limit that we have to calculate has the form
f (x) − g (x)
.
g −1 (x)− f −1 (x)
The solution to Arnold’s problem
The solution to Arnold’s problem
V. I. Arnold
The preceeding picture was taken from V. I. Arnold’s book
“Huygens and Barrow, Newton and Hooke (Birkhauser 1990)
V. I. Arnold
V. I. Arnold
V. I. Arnold (1936-2008)
worked in geometry,
differential equations and
mathematical physics. He
was one of the most
important mathematicians
of the twentieth century.
Maxima and minima
Let X ⊂ R and let f : X → R be a function (you can think of X as

an open, closed or half-open interval, for instance).
Maxima and minima

Definition: The function f is said to attain a maximum (resp.
minimum) at a point x0 ∈ X if f (x) ≤ f (x0 ) (resp. f (x) ≥ f (x0 ))
for all x ∈ X .
Maxima and minima

for all x ∈ X .
Once again, I remind you that, in general, f may not attain a
maximum or minimum at all on the set X . The standard example
being X = (0, 1) and f (x) = 1/x
Maxima and minima

for all x ∈ X .
Once again, I remind you that, in general, f may not attain a
maximum or minimum at all on the set X . The standard example
being X = (0, 1) and f (x) = 1/x (can you find an example on the
closed interval [0, 1]?). However, if X is a closed bounded interval
and f is a continuous function, Theorem 11 tells us that the
maximum and minimum are actually attained. Theorem 11 is
sometimes called the Extreme Value Theorem.
Maxima and minima and the derivative
If f has a maximum at the point x0 and if it also differentiable at
x0 , we can reason as follows. We know that f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) ≤ 0
for every h > 0 such that x + h ∈ X . Hence, we see that (one half
of the Sandwich Theorem!)
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
lim+ ≤ 0.
h→0 h
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
lim+ ≤ 0.
h→0 h
On the other hand, when h < 0, we get
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
lim ≥ 0.
h→0− h
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
lim+ ≤ 0.
h→0 h
On the other hand, when h < 0, we get
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
lim ≥ 0.
h→0− h
Because f is assumed to be differentiable at x0 we know that left
and right hand limits must be equal. It follows that we must have
f 0 (x0 ) = 0. A similar argument shows that f 0 (x0 ) = 0 if f has a
minimum at the point x0 .
Local maxima and minima
The preceeding argument is purely local. Before explaining what

this means, we give the following defintion.

Definition: Let f : X → R be a function and x0 be in X . Suppose
there is an sub-interval x0 ∈ (c, d) ⊂ X such that f (x0 ) ≥ f (x)
(resp. f (x0 ) ≤ f (x)) for all x ∈ (c, d), then f is said to have a
local maximum (resp. local minimum) at x0 .

Sometimes we use the terms global maximum or global minimum
instead of just maximum or minimum in order to emphasize the
points are not just local maxima or minima. The argument of the
previous slide actually proves the following

Sometimes we use the terms global maximum or global minimum
instead of just maximum or minimum in order to emphasize the
points are not just local maxima or minima. The argument of the
previous slide actually proves the following
Theorem 13: If f : X → R is differentiable and has a local
minimum or maximum at a point x0 ∈ X , f 0 (x0 ) = 0.
Rolle’s Theorem
Theorem 13 is known as Fermat’s theorem. It can be used to prove
Rolle’s Theorem.
Rolle’s Theorem
Rolle’s Theorem.
Theorem 14: Suppose f : [a, b] → R is a continuous function
which is differentiable in (a, b) and f (a) = f (b). Then there is a
point x0 in (a, b) such that f 0 (x0 ) = 0.
Rolle’s Theorem
Rolle’s Theorem.
Proof: Since f is a continuous function on a closed bounded
interval Theorem 11 tells us that f must attain its minimum and
maximum somewhere in [a, b]. If both the minimum and maximum
are attained at the end points, f must be the constant function, in
which case we know that f 0 (x) = 0 for all x ∈ (a, b).
Rolle’s Theorem
Rolle’s Theorem.
which case we know that f 0 (x) = 0 for all x ∈ (a, b). Hence, we
can assume that at least one of the minimum or maximum is
attained at an interior point x0 and Theorem 13 shows that
f 0 (x0 ) = 0 in this case.
Rolle’s Theorem
Rolle’s Theorem.
One easy consequence: If P(x) is a polynomial of degree n with n
real roots, then all the roots of P 0 (x) are also real.
Rolle’s Theorem
Rolle’s Theorem.
One easy consequence: If P(x) is a polynomial of degree n with n
real roots, then all the roots of P 0 (x) are also real. (How do we
know that polynomials are differentiable?)
Problems centered around Rolle’s Theorem
Exercise 2.3: Let f : [a, b] → R be continuous and suppose f is
differentiable on (a, b). If f (a) and f (b) are of opposite signs and
f 0 (x) 6= 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then there is a unique point x0 in (a, b)
such that f (x0 ) = 0.
Solution: Since the Intermediate Value Theorem guarantees the
existence of a point x0 such that f (x0 ) = 0, the real point of this
exercise is the uniqueness.
Suppose there were two points x1 , x2 ∈ (a, b) such that
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = 0. Applying Rolle’s Theorem, we see that there
would exist c ∈ (x1 , x2 ) such that f 0 (c) = 0 contradicting our
hypothesis, This proves the exercise.
Let us look at Exercise 2.8(i): Find a function f which satisfies all
the given conditions, or else show that no such function exists:
f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ R and f 0 (0) = 1, f 0 (1) = 1.
Solution: Apply Rolle’s Theorem to f 0 (x) to conclude that such a
function cannot exist.
The Mean Value Theorem
Rolle’s theorem is a special case of the Mean Value Theorem

(MVT).

(MVT).
Theorem 15: Suppose that f : [a, b] → R is a continuous function
and that f is differentiable in (a, b). Then there is a point x0 in
(a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
= f 0 (x0 ).
b−a

(MVT).
(a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
= f 0 (x0 ).
b−a
Proof: Apply Rolle’s Theorem to the function
f (b) − f (a)
g (x) = f (x) − f (a) − · (x − a)
b−a

(MVT).
(a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
= f 0 (x0 ).
b−a
Proof: Apply Rolle’s Theorem to the function
f (b) − f (a)
g (x) = f (x) − f (a) − · (x − a)
b−a
(Why does one think of the function g (x)?)

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MA 105 D2 Lecture 4

August 17, 2023

Maxima and minima

Properties of differentiable functions

lim f (x) = f (c).

lim f (x) = f (c).

lim f (x) = f (c).

Image created by Enoch Lau see

Achilles and the Tortoise

From the point of view of geometry, the derivative f 0 (c) gives us

From the point of view of geometry, the derivative f 0 (c) gives us

f (x0 + h) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )h + o(h)h

f (x0 + h) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )h + o(h)h

Thus, the derivative of f (x) at a point x0 can be viewed as that

f (x0 + h) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )h + o(h)h

Thus, the derivative of f (x) at a point x0 can be viewed as that

Exercise 1.16: Let f : (a, b) → R be a function such that

for all x, x + h ∈ (a, b), where C is a constant and α > 1. Show

Exercise 1.16: Let f : (a, b) → R be a function such that

for all x, x + h ∈ (a, b), where C is a constant and α > 1. Show

Exercise 1.16: Let f : (a, b) → R be a function such that

for all x, x + h ∈ (a, b), where C is a constant and α > 1. Show

The problem above was posed by the Russian mathematician

The problem above was posed by the Russian mathematician

Let X ⊂ R and let f : X → R be a function (you can think of X as

Let X ⊂ R and let f : X → R be a function (you can think of X as

Let X ⊂ R and let f : X → R be a function (you can think of X as

Let X ⊂ R and let f : X → R be a function (you can think of X as

The preceeding argument is purely local. Before explaining what

The preceeding argument is purely local. Before explaining what

The preceeding argument is purely local. Before explaining what

The preceeding argument is purely local. Before explaining what

Rolle’s theorem is a special case of the Mean Value Theorem

Rolle’s theorem is a special case of the Mean Value Theorem

Rolle’s theorem is a special case of the Mean Value Theorem

Proof: Apply Rolle’s Theorem to the function

Rolle’s theorem is a special case of the Mean Value Theorem

Proof: Apply Rolle’s Theorem to the function

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