Spatial Planning

Contents
Introduction to Spatial science, data & analysis
Collecting the spatial data
 Collecting and analyzing data in spatial science
• Spatial science (GIS community): A science of where
• What is spatial data?
✓ ESRI: Information about the locations and shapes of
geographic features and the relationship between them, What is spatial analysis (Anselin, 2017)
usually stored as coordinates and topology • Beyond mapping
✓ Add value
• Spatial analysis ✓ transformations, manipulations & application of
• Analyze spatial data to address a question or gain analytical methods to spatial (geographic data)
(Goodchild et al)
useful knowledge on:
• Geospatial (knowledge discovery)
✓ Where do things happen?: pattern, clusters, hot ✓ Specialized form of knowledge discovery from data
spots, disparities (bases) (KDD)
✓ From data to information to knowledge to wisdom
✓ Why thing happened where they happen? : Location
decisions • Progression
✓ start with simple tools & moving forward, we move
✓ How does where things happen affect other thing more & more refine & formal and focused process
(context, environments) & how does context affect util we discourse of complex process modelling,
what happens?: interaction reaggregation analysis modelling & simulations and
✓ Where do thing moves over the time?: Change others

✓ Where should things be located?:

Optimization/Suitability
 Collecting and analyzing data in spatial science
When Spatial analysis? (Think spatially) Components of Spatial Data Analysis
• Mapping & Geo-visualization
• Spatial analysis: When the location changes, the ✓ Showing interesting patterns
information content of the data changes • Exploratory Spatial data analysis
✓ Discovering interesting pattern
• Geo-spatial data: • Spatial Modeling
Location + value (Attribute) ✓ Explaining interesting pattern
✓ Optimization, simulation, predictions
• Non-spatial analysis:

Location does NOT matter =Location invariance

What’s involved in Spatial Data Science?
• Data manipulation (munging, wrangling)
• Data integration
• Data exploration, pattern recognition, associations
• Visualization
• Modeling (prediction & explanation), classification,
simulation, optimization
• Lots of different software tools
 Collecting and analyzing data in spatial science
Spatial Data Structures
Spatial Data Types for Analysis • Formal representation of geographic features
• Abstracted to points, lines & polygon
• Point
• Spatial databases
✓ Location as random event Spatial index: Speed up search
✓ Eg: Location of accident, crimes, school
• Surface
✓ Continuous spatial field
✓ Eg: air quality surface

• Discrete spatial data

✓ Areal units
✓ Eg: Country boundary
• Network
✓ Nodes & links
✓ Eg: Road network, drainage network ,
social network
 Collecting and analyzing data in spatial science
Spatial Data Types for Analysis
• Space-Time Data
✓ Fixed spatial locations over time
✓ Time-in-space
✓ Eg: Landsat Image (Row: 141 & Path:
41)/Kathmandu & surrounding; Crime by
neighborhood over time

• Space-Time Data
✓ Changing spatial locations over time
• Space-in-time

• Moving objects
• Eg: Animal tracking; Taxi with GPS
Out of the BOX: Spatial analysis of
Sarathi, Pathayou or Tootles as a
means of transport service
 Collecting and analyzing data in spatial science
Spatial data: The Data Supply
• Classic data sources & collection:
✓ Field survey, Geographic data originated in
various agencies of government (Topo map-layers,
Census data and others)
✓ Remote sensing data (Both temporal & spatial
resolution)
• Modern data sources & collection
✓ Open street map and other web based data
collection platform
✓ Digital profile
✓ Near real time remote sensing data (Both optical &
SAR)
✓ Social media (twitter, Facebook & others)
 Popular Models on Urban Planning & Development
• Von Thünen Model of Agricultural Land Use/The Isolated
State (1826):
• a city is centrally located in an “isolated state,”
• one of the surrounding areas around a town is
wilderness,
• land is generally flat,
• soil quality and climate are consistent,
• farmers transport goods to a market using mainly carts,
and
• farmers behave rationally in choosing where to conduct
their activities.

➢ https://www.geographyrealm.com/von-thunen-model-
of-agricultural-land-use/
➢ https://planningtank.com/planning-theory/von-
thunen-model
 Popular Models on Urban Planning & Development
• Burgess model proposed by Sir Ernest Burgess of the Chicago
School in 1925/concentric zone model:
• aimed to express the overall urban social structure by radially
mapping the distribution of social groups within urban areas
• resembled the ripple effect created by a pebble thrown into
the pond and its ultimate goal was to act as a reference for
urban land usage that is depicted in the form of 5 concentric
rings

➢ https://www.re-thinkingthefuture.com/city-and-
architecture/a2953-urban-planning-an-analysis-of-
concentric-zone-model/
➢ https://www.opengeography.org/ch-9-urban-
geography.html
 Popular Models on Urban Planning & Development
• Walter Christaller ‘s Central Place Theory (CPT) (1933):
• Hearth-Walter Christaller says- where central places in
the urban hierarchy would be functionally and spatially
distributed (hexagon shaped areas)
• -hierarchy: city,town,village, hamlet
• -assumes that all land is the same (equal, no valleys
mnts)
• ex: Iowa

➢ https://www.aboutcivil.org/C
hrystaller-Central-Place-
Theory
➢ https://www.geographyrealm.
com/central-place-theory/
 Popular Models on Urban Planning & Development

• Losch Theory of Profit Maximisation/The Modification of August Lösch (1939):

• industry will not necessarily be located within the least cost (transport cost
and labour cost) location; rather it would locate in areas where maximum
profit will occur
• System of lowest-order (self-sufficient) farms, which were regularly
distributed in a triangular-hexagonal pattern
• Lösch mathematically derived several central-place systems

➢ https://rashidfaridi.com/2020/05/05/the-modification-of-august-
losch/
➢ https://old.amu.ac.in/emp/studym/99997076.pdf
 Popular Models on Urban Planning & Development
• Sector Model (Hoyt Model)/Urban LandUse Model (1939):
• Ecological factors + economic rent concept to explain the land use pattern.
• Stress on the role of transport routes in affecting the spatial arrangement of the city.
• Both the distance and direction of growth from the city center are considered.
• Brings location of industrial and environmental amenity values as determinants in a residential place.
• Example: Sectors of high-class residential areas tend to grow towards higher grounds, sites with a better view, more open space, the
homes of influential leaders within the community and existing outlying, smaller settlements.

➢ https://planningtan
k.com/settlement-
geography/sector-
model-hoyt-model
➢ https://www.albert.
io/blog/hoyt-
sector-model-ap-
human-geography-
crash-course/
 Popular Models on Urban Planning & Development
• Multiple Nuclei Model/ C.D. Harris and Edward L.
Ullman (1945):
• land use pattern in cities develop around
multiple Central Business Districts (CBDs).
• To elaborate, it was argued that there is only
one CBD, initially. With the growth of the city
size and expansion of economic activities, some
of the economic activities from primary CBD
shift to other CBDs. The new CBDs are less
crowded and more accessible.
• Therefore, the city land-use is found in cellular
pattern around these CBDs.

➢ https://pangeography.com/multiple-nuclei-model-by-
harris-and-ullman/
➢ https://planningtank.com/settlement-
geography/multiple-nuclei-model
 Popular Models on Urban Planning & Development

Core-Periphery Model of Regional Development by John

Friedmann (1966)

• The pre -industrial (agricultural) society , with localised

economies, inwhich settlement structure consisting of small
units remains dispersed & whose economic subjects
(population and merchandise) have low mobility

• The concentration of the economy from periphery to the core

begins a s a result of capital accumulation and industrial
growth

• Economic growth spreads across the country and causes

other growth centres to appear. The main reasons for
deconcentration are the lack of labour force and rocketing
prices in the core area.

• The spatial integration of the economy and achievement of

equilibrium
Popular Models on Urban Planning & Development
 Popular Models on Urban Planning & Development

➢ became stuck in
industrial society’s
economic models and
environmental static:
they presumed that
the economical
structure stabilizes
and that the
environmental
problems of the
rapidly growing cities
would be continually
insurmountable
 Popular Models on Urban Planning & Development
Galactic City Model
• It is a city where all the traditional urban elements float in space like stars
and planets in a galaxy, held together by mutual gravitational attraction
but with large empty spaces in between

• Peirce F. Lewis (1927-2018), a cultural geography professor at Penn State

University, published the concept of the "galactic metropolis" in 1983

• Galactic model has a commercial and economic central area which is

often called the central business district or CBD is at the center of the
city. The basic concept of this type of city model is high rise buildings in
the city center.

https://planningtank.com/settlement-
geography/galactic-city-model
 Popular Models on Urban Planning & Development
Urban Realms Model
• The model was proposed by James E. Vance Jr, a professor of geography
at the University of California, Berkeley in 1964

• “The urban realms model suggests that several mutually independent,

self-contained nodes of development will emerge in a large
metropolitan area, each the focus of its own market area” ( Fujii &
Hartshorni, 1995)

• A realm is a self-sufficient urban area with an independent focal point

• It is also referred to as an edge city

• Each realm of the model is separate and used for a different purpose,
but are linked together to make one large, fluid city

https://helpfulprofessor.com/urban-realms-model/
 Popular Models on Urban Planning & Development
White's model of the twenty-first century city (1987)

Comprised of seven key elements:

1. Core-still key but functions may have changed
2. Zone of Stagnation-Result of vertical not horizontal
expansion
3. Pockets of poverty and minorities
4. Elite enclaves
5. Diffused middle class-based upon life stage and history
6. Industrial Anchors & Public Sector Control-Exert pressure
on patterns of land use and development
7. Epicentres and corridors

https://cronodon.com/PlanetTech/Cities_Structure.html
 Popular Models on Urban Planning & Development
Urban planning models
a) choice of areal units of observation
b) growth (decline)
c) spatial allocation mechanism (intersectoral relations)
d) sequence of events (inter-functional relations )
e) equilibrium assumptions
f) time interval https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/papers/
g) quantitative input and output. 2008/P3673.pdf

https://www.re-thinkingthefuture.com/know-your-
architects/a3380-10-conceptual-urban-planning-
theories-by-famous-architects/

https://cronodon.com/PlanetTech/Cities_Structure.html
 Popular Models on Urban Planning & Development
Model for sustainable urban planning development
 Evolution of the process of urbanization and the built environment
Urbanisation and the built environment: Five defining facts

https://www.rics.org/s
outh-asia/news-
insight/future-of-
surveying/sustainabilit
y/urbanisation-and-the-
built-environment-five-
defining-facts/
 Evolution of the process of urbanization and the built environment

➢ urbanization, the process by which large numbers of

people become permanently concentrated in relatively
small areas, forming cities
➢ city changes from time to time and place to place, but it is
most usual to explain the term as a matter of demographics
➢ The United States, for instance, uses “urban place” to mean
any locality where more than 2,500 people live
➢ In Nepal, Hierarchy of Urban Areas
✓ Metro city: Population more than 3 Lakh
✓ Sub Metro City: 1-3 Lakh Population
✓ City: 0.4-1 Lakh Pop
✓ Sub City: corresponds to the current small towns and
population will be above 10,000 -40,000
✓ Market Center: Areas having at least 50 shops or
outlets within 100 m from the center will be
categorized as market centers
 Evolution of the process of urbanization and the built environment

Urban Processes: 4 processes

➢ 1. A period of initial urbanisation where a settlement starts
to grow as a result of physical and human factors
➢ 2. A period of suburbanisation where the city grows
outwards from its central core to sprawl or spread out into
the surrounding environment
➢ 3. A period of decline in either population or industry or
both during counter urbanisation, where people and
businesses move because of push factors within the city and
attractive pull factors in surrounding areas OUTSIDE of the
city limits
➢ 4. A new phase of URBAN RESURGANCE, where economic
or political decisions make the urban area attractive again,
dragging people and businesses back to the urban
core/area.

https://www.coolgeography.co.uk/advanced/Urban_Pr
ocesses.php
 Evolution of the process of urbanization and the built environment
History
➢ It is believed that Neolithic Period, beginning at roughly 10,000 BCE,
that humans were able to form small permanent settlements
➢ In 1800 less than 3 percent of the world’s population was living in cities
of 20,000 or more; this had increased to about one-quarter of the
population by the mid-1960s.
➢ The first cities seem to have appeared sometime between 6000 and 5000
B.C. These cities were however small and hard distinguished from lawns.
By 3000 B.C., there was in existence what may be called “true” cities.
After that there was a lull, for some 2000 years. It was not until Greco-
Roman times that cities came into existence.
➢ After sometime the cities of Mesopotamia, India and Egypt, of Persia,
Greece and Rome fell mostly for the reason that they had all been Lied
Lo an economy that was primarily agricultural.
➢ In Western Europe the cities became more numerous and the growth of
cities kept going on. The nineteenth century was a period of true urban
revolution and since 1800 urbanization has gone ahead much faster and
reached proportions far greater than at any previous Lime in world
history.

https://www.indiatimes.com/trending/social-
relevance/oldest-inhabited-place-on-earth-
 Evolution of the process of urbanization and the built environment

Factors influencing Growth of

Cities
Surplus Resources:
✓ “Cities grow wherever a society, or a
group within it, gains control over
resources greater than are necessary
for the mere sustenance of life.” In
ancient times these resources were
acquired through subjugation of man
by man. Slavery, forced labour or
Taxation by the ruling or conquering
class supplied the foundations of the
growth of city life. In modern Limes
man has won over nature and
extended his power.
✓ The extension of man’s power over
nature, especially in the western
countries, has been the primary
condition of the modern growth of
cities and city population.
 Evolution of the process of urbanization and the built environment
Factors influencing Growth of Cities
Industrialization and Commercialization:
• urban growth has also been greatly stimulated by the new techniques of
production associated with industrial revolution. The invention of
machinery, the development of steam power, and the application of huge
capital in industrial enterprises led to the establishment of gigantic
manufacturing plants which brought about the mobility of immobile groups
of workers hastening their concentration around a factory area
• Jamshedpur, a steel centre in India, Chicago, Liverpool, Manchester,
Glasgow became the big industrial cities of the world.
• While industrialization has stimulated city growth, trade and commerce
also have played an important part in urban expansion. In ancient
civilizations too cities grew wherein goods were distributed and commercial
transactions were carried. Thus, Athens, Sparta, Venice, Pataliputra
(Modern Patna) were great trading centres.
• In modern times, the development of modern marketing institutions and of
methods of exchange has greatly contributed to the growth of cities. Today
face to face commercial transactions need not be carried in big cities but the
mere fact that a large percentage of their residents are engaged in “paper”
enterprises is a significant factor to add to the city growth.
 Evolution of the process of urbanization and the built environment

Factors influencing Growth of

Cities
Economic Pull of the City:
➢ Modern business and commerce
pull young men to the cities
where they are paid munificent
salaries.
➢ Employment opportunities are
more in the city than in the
village.
➢ Industrialization depends upon
transportation
➢ It is in the city that leaders,
religious or educational, receive
special and high recognition. In
short, the possibilities of greater
achievement and better living in
the city account for a good deal
for urban expansion
 Evolution of the process of urbanization and the built environment

Factors influencing Growth of Cities

Educational and Recreational
Facilities:
➢ The elementary schools in a city are
better equipped than in the village.
Most training schools, colleges, and
technical schools are urban.
➢ Examination Centres for competitive
examinations are located in cities and
the recruiting agencies are also urban
located.
➢ Recreational facilities are available in
cities.
➢ By making appeals to the feelings and
play impulses of children and adults
alike they draw them to the cities.

https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/urbanization-and-urban-growth.php
 Urban Planning Concepts

➢ Urban planning is the process of developing and designing

urban areas to meet the needs of a community. The
practice draws from a number of disciplines—geographer,
architecture, engineering, economics, sociology,
environmentalist, public health, finance, and more—and
strives to prepare cities and towns for the future. It is
typically used as part of a larger city plan, and should tie
back to your city’s mission and vision statements.
➢ Urban planning touches on numerous city-life elements—
new and pre-existing land, buildings, roads, communal
spaces, transportation, economic development,
infrastructure, and the environment, among others.

https://www.clearpointstrategy.com/types-of-urban-
planning/
 Industrial revolution and the contemporary European city building

➢ First stages of the Industrial Revolution (1780 -1849):

✓ Between 1750 and 1800, the populations of Europian
countries increased between 50 and 100 percent
✓ Industrial revolution took shape, led by Britain,
which retained leadership in industrialization well
past the middle of the 19th century
✓ Foundation led by: British steam engines in 1840;
German pig iron production 1820’s-1850’s; French
coal and iron output, 1820’s-1850’s;
✓ Steam shipping plied major waterways soon after
1800 and by the 1840s spread to oceanic transport
✓ Railroad systems, first developed to haul coal from
mines, were developed for intercity transport during
the 1820s
✓ First commercial railway line opened between
Liverpool and Manchester in 1830
✓ In communication, the invention of the telegraph
allowed faster exchange of news and commercial
information
 Industrial revolution and the contemporary European city building

➢ First stages of the Industrial Revolution (1780 -1849):

✓ Urbanization was a vital result of growing
commercialization and new industrial technology
✓ Factory centres such as Manchester grew from villages
into citie
✓ In Paris, the department store, introduced in the
1830s, ushered in an age of big business in the trading
sector
✓ Gas lighting improved street conditions in the better
neighbourhoods from the 1830s onward, and sanitary
reformers pressed for underground sewage systems at
about this time
✓ Belgian Industrial Revolution centred in iron, coal,
and textiles after 1810’s
✓ By 1848 France had become an industrial power
under the leadership of Napoleon-III
✓ Germany exaggerate the revolution after national
unity was achieved in 1870 Liège
✓ U.S. industrial power in the 19th and 20th centuries Belgium
 Industrial revolution and the contemporary European city building

➢ The second Industrial Revolution (19-20 th

Centuries):
➢ Despite considerable overlapping with the “old,”
there was mounting evidence for a “new” Industrial
Revolution in the late 19th and 20th centuries
✓ modern industry began to exploit many natural
and synthetic resources not hitherto utilized:
lighter metals, rare earths, new alloys, and
synthetic products such as plastics, as well as
new energy sources
✓ developments in machines, tools, and
computers that gave rise to the automatic
factory
✓ The oligarchical ownership of the means of
production that characterized the Industrial
Revolution in the early to mid-19th century
gave way to a wider distribution of ownership
through purchase of common stocks by
individuals and by institutions such as
insurance companies
 Industrial revolution and the contemporary European city building

➢ By 1900 the United States had overtaken Britain in Dark side:

manufacturing, producing 24 percent of the world’s ▪ Industrialized nations used their strong
output armies and navies to colonize many
➢ Japan too joined the Industrial Revolution with parts of the world that were not
striking success in the 19th and 20th centurie industrialized, gaining access to
➢ Soviet Union became a major industrial power early the raw materials needed for their
in the 20th century factories, a practice known as
➢ Mid-20th century witnessed the spread of the imperialism. In 1800 Europeans
Industrial Revolution into China and India. occupied or controlled about 34
percent of the land surface of the
world; by 1914 this had risen to 84
https://www.britannica.com/place/Lowell-Massachusetts percent.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The- ▪ After World War II (1939–1945)
Revolutions-of-1848 Europe’s colonies demanded their
https://www.erih.net/how-it-started/the-industrial-revolution- independence, which didn’t always
in-europe happen immediately or without conflict
but eventually took root
Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution

Industrial Revolution revolutionized the social life of

Europe and the world
➢ Population Growth:
✓ Population increases had already begun in the
18th century, but they became dramatic in the
19th century
✓ Improve food production & food supply along
with growth of medicinal capacities
✓ While growth in the mature cities of Europe and
North America accelerated in the 19th century,
most reached their peak by mid-20th century
✓ Eg: Tokyo grew by more than half a million
inhabitants each year between 1950 and 1990,
Mexico City and São Paulo by more than 300,000,
and Mumbai by around 240,000

https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/967a3098-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/967a3098-en
Social Impact of the Industrial
Revolution
Industrial Revolution revolutionized the
social life of Europe and the world
➢ The Growth of Cities:
✓ Cities and towns had already grown
dramatically in the first half of the
nineteenth century
✓ Growth and change is an uneven
distribution of urbanisation across
the globe
✓ Europe, South and North America are
the most urbanised of the five
continents – with 73%, 83% and 82%
of people respectively living in cities,
towns and other urban settlements.
Africa stands at around 40% and Asia
at 48% – and both regions are set to
experience exponential growth in the
coming decades, a combined effect of
increased birth rate and migration
Social Impact of the Industrial
Revolution
Industrial Revolution revolutionized the social life of Europe
and the world
➢ New Social Classes: The Industrial Middle Class:
✓ The rise of industrial capitalism produced a new
middleclass group
✓ New generation of entrepreneurs stemmed from the
professional and industrial middle classes
➢ New Social Classes: Workers in the Industrial Age
✓ members of the industrial middle class were seeking
to reduce the barriers between themselves and the
landed elite, they also were trying to separate
themselves from the laboring classes below them
✓ working class was actually a mixture of different
groups in the first half of the nineteenth century
✓ Workers in the new industrial factories also faced
wretched working conditions
✓ Both children and women were employed in large
numbers in early factories and mines
 Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution

Industrial Revolution revolutionized the social life of Europe and the world
➢ Standards of Living:
✓ Most historians assume that in the long run the Industrial Revolution increased living standards
dramatically in the form of higher per capita incomes and greater consumer choices
✓ Some historians have argued that early industrialization required huge profits to be reinvested in new and
ever more expensive equipment; thus, to make the requisite profits, industrialists had to keep wages low
 Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution

Industrial Revolution revolutionized the social life of Europe and the world
➢ Efforts at Change: The Workers:
✓ workers looked to the formation of labor organizations to gain decent wages and working conditions
✓ French revolutionary working classes, had passed a series of Combination Acts in 1799 and 1800 outlawing
associations of workers
✓ Grand National Consolidated Trades Union, which was formed in February 1834
➢ Efforts at Change: Reformers and Government
✓ Efforts to improve the worst conditions of the industrial factory system also came from outside the ranks of
the working classes. From its beginning, the Industrial Revolution had drawn much criticism
 Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution
Industrial Revolution revolutionized the social life of Europe and the world
➢ Economic development:
✓ The Industrial Revolution transformed economies that had been based on agriculture and handicrafts into
economies based on large-scale industry, mechanized manufacturing, and the factory system
✓ New machines, new power sources, and new ways of organizing work made existing industries more
productive and efficient
✓ New industries also arose, including, in the late 19th century, the automobile industry
✓ In 2012, large cities made up 33% of the world’s global population, but produced more than 55% of all global
economic output
 Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution
Industrial Revolution revolutionized the social life
of Europe and the world
➢ Environmental impact:
✓ People living in the highly concentrated
urbanised regions of eastern China and the
Ganges Valley in India have modest
consumption patterns compared to the oil
and petrol-guzzling habits of those in the
more sparsely populated regions of North
America and the Middle East, where people
have much higher income levels
✓ Emissions from electricity generation vary
depending on fuel source, with coal-
dependent countries such as Australia,
China and South Africa showing high
proportions
 Biophysical and socio-economic conditions and their influence on
landuse & evolution of urban spaces

Factors influence on land

use and evolution of urban
spaces
• The amounts of land used for
each purpose are constantly
changing
✓ Land use can be influenced
by many factors -physical - soil
fertility, soil drainage, slope Bio-physical: Topography, Soil,
Climate, Drainage, Geology;
angle, aspect, scenery, mineral Geomorphic process; & Land form

potential etc.
✓ Economic - distance from
markets, demand for different
uses.
✓ Social - population size,
legislation, government
policies
 Biophysical and socio-economic conditions and their influence on
landuse & evolution of urban spaces

Factors influence on land use and

evolution of urban spaces
Main issues and challenges associated with contemporary urban areas

1. Planning (Inadequate evidence based planning; Haphazard expansion; Unsustainable housing;

Overcrowding or weak transportation; Drainage and sewage management; Declining agriculture
productivity/unsustainability; Water shortage problems)
2. Social issues (Overpopulation; Development of slums; Sanitation problems; Health hazards; Urban crime;
Declining cultural assets & dignity; Malnutrition; Obesity/Lethargic population)
3. Economic issues (Unemployment; Increased rates of poverty)
4. Environmental issues (Degraded environmental quality; Environmental waste; Environmental Hazards;
Decline of biodiversity)
5. Policy issues (Unclear and Inconsistent Policy Regime; Informal economy; Insufficient Planning regulation;
Weak coordination & Collaboration; Weak policies implementation and compliance monitoring; Unnecessary
Political interference)
Main issues and challenges associated with contemporary urban areas

Planning (Inadequate evidence based planning; Haphazard expansion; Unsustainable housing; Overcrowding or
weak transportation; Drainage and sewage management; Declining agriculture productivity/unsustainability;
Water shortage problems)
➢ Changing climate
✓ existential threat of climate change is impacting society in several ways
✓ growing risk of natural disasters and high levels of heat, wind and rain, urban planners are looking to make
urban areas more resistant to these natural forces
➢ Increasing population density
✓ expect around 68% of the world's inhabitants to live in urban settlements by 2050
✓ world could see over 2.5 billion people living in cities in less than three decades
✓ natural disaster occurs, heavily populated urban settlements could feel devastating consequences
➢ Strain on resources
✓ rapidly growing urban population means that there's going to be a significant strain on resources in those
areas
✓ Food scarcity is a legitimate concern for urban environments as there's already limited space for farming
✓ Without proper urban planning, these strains on resources can greatly impact the quality of life in an urban
environment
➢ Disparate inhabitants
✓ ever-widening gap in society and urban poverty as a result
Main issues and challenges associated with contemporary urban areas
Social issues (Overpopulation; Development of slums; Sanitation problems; Health hazards; Urban crime;
Declining cultural assets & dignity; Malnutrition; Obesity/Lethargic population)
➢ Overpopulation
✓ Overcrowding is a situation where a lot of people accumulate in a rather limited space that is unable to
accommodate them without succumbing to the pressures around it properly
✓ people tend to compete over the limited and scarce resources such as electricity, water, transport
➢ Development of slums
✓ Urbanization and industrialization make a lot of people move to urban areas, but they do not prepare
them for the conditions they are likely to face when they arrive there
✓ growth of slums as safe havens for those who cannot afford the high costs of rent or lack substantial
money to purchase or build homes in urban areas
✓ houses in slums are often poorly constructed and, most of the time, lack basic amenities like clean water
and proper sanitation
➢ Sanitation problems
✓ fast increase in the population sometimes overwhelms the local government’s resource capacity to
construct the required sanitation and sewage systems
✓ Sometimes, the existing sewerage systems may not have adequate human as well as infrastructural
capacity to treat and manage the waste
Main issues and challenges associated with contemporary urban areas
Social issues (Health hazards; Urban crime; Declining cultural assets & dignity; Malnutrition; Obesity/Lethargic
population)
➢ Health hazards
✓ People living in congested urban areas are exposed to a lot of risks. Poor sanitation, water problems, and
living in high-risk areas like next to dumpsites lead to disease of all kinds
✓ In the slums, people are often diagnosed with diseases like infertility, food poisoning, allergies, asthma,
cardiovascular complications, respiratory failure, cancer, and death
✓ The problem that global urbanization poses can be felt even more with the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic

➢ Malnutrition
✓ Urbanization causes malnutrition, especially for poor families in the urban areas of a country
✓ As basic needs are more expensive in the cities, poor families do not have enough resources in order to
purchase healthy and complete food for themselves
➢ Obesity/Lethargic population
✓ As urbanization continues, more physical spaces are being occupied, leading to fewer spaces for people to
move about
✓ People continuously eat food from time to time while they are only doing low-energy expenditures like
working in front of a computer
✓ Due to the lack of physical movement required in an urbanized area, while the stress and mental demands
of the job are too much, leading to more calorie intake, people are becoming obese
Main issues and challenges associated with contemporary urban areas
Social issues (Urban crime; Declining cultural value & dignity)
➢ Urban crime
✓ Resources have also become scarce, and not everyone
has access to essential social services, which leads the
disadvantaged to get into substance abuse, violence,
burglary, and organized crime
✓ poverty-related crimes such as theft, conning, and
organized crime as a way of earning a living
✓ Fringe areas of most cities are the breeding ground for
crimes
➢ Declining cultural value & dignity
✓ Urbanization threatens the cultural values of indigenous
peoples, including their aspirations for self-
determination
✓ peoples struggle against the migratory encroaching on
their sacred lands
✓ peoples’ self-determination, sovereignty, and spirituality
are at the core for their historic claim to their cultures,
histories, and spiritual traditions, and to their historic
rights to specific lands, territories, and resources
Main issues and challenges associated with contemporary urban areas
Economic issues (Unemployment; Increased
rates of poverty)
➢ Unemployment
✓ job opportunities might be greater in
urban areas and also pay more, but as
the number of people continues to grow,
the jobs become even harder to find and
retain
✓ Covid-19 outbreak, the unemployment
rates have also increased manifolds
➢ Increased rates of poverty/Increased
disparity
✓ As the rate of unemployment increases,
more and more people continue to sink
beneath the poverty line
✓ In a world where the rich are constantly
becoming richer and the poor are
constantly becoming poorer, poverty is
by far one of the largest threats to
human existence
Main issues and challenges associated with contemporary urban areas
Environmental issues (Degraded environmental quality; Environmental waste; Environmental Hazards;
Decline of biodiversity)
➢ Degraded environmental quality
✓ The congestion of people in limited spaces and areas reduces the quality of air, contaminates water, and
pollutes the noise and land
✓ Industrial/Sewage/Institutional waste poured into the river and lakes contaminates the water, and the
noise brought about by the numerous human activities carried out sums up the many effects
urbanizations brings to slum areas
✓ greater the urban population, the more pollution is caused by automobiles
✓ Most of these vehicles run on fossil fuels and, as a result, cause an immense amount of air pollution and
degrade the quality of the air considerably
➢ Waste management
✓ Mountains of garbage outside the city area have become the hallmark of any metropolitan city
✓ cities produce a lot of waste daily, moreover, these cities do not have proper arrangements for garbage
disposal and the existing landfills are full to the brim that they cannot accommodate more trash, this
subjects the people living in such areas to multiple health risks like dysentery, malaria, plague, jaundice,
diarrhoea, typhoid, etc
Main issues and challenges associated with contemporary urban areas

Environmental issues (Environmental Hazards; Decline of biodiversity)

➢ Environmental Hazards
✓ Urbanization leads to the development of land areas that used to be filled with trees and other
plants that help reduce the risks of natural disasters
✓ With more urban developments, there are less areas for plants to grow in the cities, which leads
to such hot weather, contributing a lot to the emission of greenhouse gases and the severity of
global warming
➢ Decline of biodiversity
✓ Destruction of forests and agricultural land for the construction of buildings and factories
degrades the land quality and thereby decrease the biodiversity
✓ Domestic waste, industrial effluents, and other wastes that were directly channelized to the
rivers, degrade the water quality leading to decline in aquatic biodiversity
✓ Connected with more rural areas being converted to cities, the habitats of animals are being
consumed as well
✓ With more forest being cleared for more urban resources, more wildlife is being jeopardized,
leading to a decrease in their population
✓ major effects of urbanization, like global warming, are also affecting the animal population
Main issues and challenges associated with contemporary urban areas
Policy issues (Unclear Preamble; Fundamental Rights and Duties; Directive Principles, Policies and
Obligations of the State; Structure of State and Distribution of State Power;
and Inconsistent Policy Executive, Legislature, financial procedures & Judiciary of federal, province and local
government; Provision for commissions; List of Powers (Schedule-5, 6, 7, 8 & 9) &
Regime; Informal others
economy; Insufficient Apex: Landuse policy, 2015; Land Use Act, 2019
Planning regulation; Supportive sectorial policies, acts and regulations: The Fifteenth Plan (Fiscal Year
2019/20 – 2023/24); National Agriculture Policy, 2004;Irrigation Policy, 2013;
Weak coordination & National Forest policy, 2019; The Forests Act, 2019; Environment Protection Act,
2019; Environment Protection Regulation, 2020; National Agroforestry Policy,
Collaboration; Weak 2019; Wetland Policy, 2012;Rangeland Policy, 2012; NTFPs development policy,
2004; National Mineral Policy, 2017;Mines and mineral Resource Act, 1985;
policies implementation Industrial Policy, 2010; Industrial Rules, 2019; Special Economic Zones Act, 2016;
and compliance Local Government operational Act, 2017; National climate change policy,
2019;Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act, 2017; Disaster Risk Reduction
monitoring; Unnecessary and Management Rules, 2019; Annual policies & programmes, GoN & others
Byelaws and building code: https://www.dudbc.gov.np/
Political interference)
Major guiding documents: Five-year Development Plan (2019-2024); Land
consolidation Implementation Standard (2020); Guideline for Land polling and
Settlement Development (2020) & other available sources
Supportive sectorial policies, acts and regulations: Agricultural Promotion and
Development Act (2020); Provincial Environment Protection Act, 2020; Forest and
Watershed management Policy (2019); Annual policies and programmes of
Province Government & others

Major guiding documents: Municipal plans and programs (e.g., municipal periodic
plans, Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) Policies and Strategic Action Plan,
Comprehensive Plan, Urban Resilience Roadmap, among others), SMART city plan
Waling Municipality’s plans,
and relevant municipal planning documents
policies and priorities
Integrated or Hybrid Approach: Top-down approach; Bottom-up approach;
Inputs from expert teams; Inclusive; Participatory; and Evidence-based
 Demographics elements: location, structure and evolution of the
population
What is Demography?
• Demography is the scientific study of human populations
primarily with respect to their size, their structure and
their development
• Demography is the statistical and mathematical study of
the size, composition, and spatial distribution of human
populations, as well as how these features vary over time
• Demography is defined as the statistical study of
people/human population.
• Demography refers to the concepts and methods used to
examine human populations
• The word ‘Demography’ is derived from two Greek words:
‘demos’ which means people, and ‘graphy’, which means
science.
• The examples of demographic data are employment,
education, income, marriage rates, birth and death rates,
and other socioeconomic indicators.
 Demographics elements: location, structure and evolution of the
population
Major Demographic Process?
• Demographers investigate the three key demographic
processes: birth, migration and death to better
understand population dynamics
• All three factors influence how people inhabit the globe,
build nations and societies, and produce culture
• Births are affected by fertility, death by mortality and
migration by the process of migration
• In this way population is related to population growth
and mortality to population decrease. Similarly,
migration is also related to population due to in and out
going migration
• Marriage on the other hand is also responsible to cause
population change especially in women
• Therefore, birth, death and migration are the key
demographic processes that cause change in the
population size, composition and distribution
 Demographics elements: location, structure and evolution of the
population
Major Demographic Process?
• Demographers investigate the three key demographic
processes: birth, migration and death to better
understand population dynamics
• All three factors influence how people inhabit the globe,
build nations and societies, and produce culture
• Births are affected by fertility, death by mortality and
migration by the process of migration
• In this way population is related to population growth
and mortality to population decrease. Similarly,
migration is also related to population due to in and out
going migration
• Marriage on the other hand is also responsible to cause
population change especially in women
• Therefore, birth, death and migration are the key
demographic processes that cause change in the
population size, composition and distribution
 Demographics elements: location, structure and evolution of the
population
Modern Demographic Theories
1) Malthus’s Demographic Perspective (1798):
✓ population grows exponentially, food supply grows arithmetically; poverty is the result in the absence of
moral restraint
 Demographics elements: location, structure and evolution of the
population
Modern Demographic Theories
2) Neo-Malthus’s Demographic Perspective
(~1800):
✓ Birth control measures are appropriate checks
to population growth
✓ Zero Population Growth-Ehrlich’s (1968) ideas
suggest that the human population is moving
rapidly toward complete environmental
collapse, as privileged people use up or pollute
a number of environmental resources such as
water and air. He advocated for a goal of zero
population growth (ZPG), in which the number
of people entering a population through birth
or immigration is equal to the number of people
leaving it via death or emigration

Paul Ehrlich: Population Bomb

Garrett Hardin: Tragedy of the Commons
 Demographics elements: location, structure and evolution of the
population
Modern Demographic Theories
3) Cornucopian Theory (~’s):
✓ Cornucopian theory asserts that human ingenuity can
resolve any environmental or social issues that
develop
✓ Theory contends, agricultural scientists will figure out
how to grow it, as they have already been doing for
centuries
✓ Human ingenuity has been up to the task for
thousands of years and there is no reason for that
pattern not to continue (Simon 1981)

A “cornucopia” is a horn-shaped container overflowing

with sources of nourishment; it traditionally symbolizes
abundance
 Demographics elements: location, structure and evolution of the
population
Modern Demographic Theories
4) Marxian Theory (~’s):
✓ each society has its own law of population
that determines consequences of population
growth; poverty is not the natural result of
population growth
 Demographics elements: location, structure and evolution of the
population
Modern Demographic Theories
5) Demographic Transition Theory
(1945’s):
✓ Demographic transition in its
original form: the process
whereby a country moves from
high birth and death rates to low
birth and death rates
✓ Demographic transition theory
(Caldwell and Caldwell 2006)
suggests that future population
growth will develop along a
predictable four-stage
(sometimes five-stage) model.
 Demographics elements: location, structure and evolution of the
population
Fertility Demographic Theories
1) Wealth flows theory (John Caldwell
(1976):
✓ Fertility patterns depend on the
intergenerational flows of wealth and
services –
▪ When flows run from children to
their parents, parents will want to
have large families
▪ When flows run from parents to
their children, parents will want to
have small families
▪ The “emotional” nucleation of the
family is crucial for lower fertility
Parents become less concerned
with ancestors and extended
family than with children and
grandchildren
 Demographics elements: location, structure and evolution of the
population
Fertility Demographic Theories
2) Human ecological theory:
✓ Focus on societies, not individuals
✓ The level of organization and
complexity of a society is
negatively related with fertility
growth
 Demographics elements: location, structure and evolution of the
population
Fertility Demographic Theories
3) Political economic theory:
✓ This framework is multileveled: macro
and micro
 From the city to the region: homogeneous region; polarized region;
functional region; metropolitan areas
Concept of city
• word “City” comes from the Latin word
“civitas”, which is also the root of the
words citizen and civilization
• For concrete planning implementation,
it is necessary that cities’ definitions
correspond to some administrative
levels in each country.
• larger perimeter for city governments
was proposed in many countries, and
most of the time, the process has been
established by taking successive steps
Eg-KVDA (Kathmandu valley
Development Authority)
 From the city to the region: homogeneous region; polarized region;
functional region; metropolitan areas
Concepts to define harmonized cities and urban areas
• despite the universal phenomenon of urbanization, we cannot strictly have unique criteria of
measurement at the world scale because of the unevenness of the densities, the culture and the histories
of territorial appropriation and management
Delineating cities by “urban fields”
• delineation of cities addresses the identification of the
neighboring urban spaces in the daily lives of
individuals, groups or institutions, having numerous
mutual common economic and social interests,
interdependencies and sharing services, local urban and
infrastructural planning or common economic or cultural
strategic development
• In the urban field approach, a fundamental assumption is
that strong socioeconomic interactions link people in
local spaces and that the local administration of
territories is more advantageous for policy coordination
than is separate administration. A large zone around each
city benefits from spillover effects from the central core
(or sometimes from several cores) where most of high-
level services and functions are concentrated.
 From the city to the region: homogeneous region; polarized region;
functional region; metropolitan areas
Delineating cities by “urban fields”
• A centrifugal pattern often emerges when there is a large
city with historically strong regional power and in which
most of the political, economic or religious functions are
concentrated.
• The incorporated model appears in regions that are
generally denser and where the power has been
historically more fragmented

• Most largest cities in the world are structured

according to a centered city-region pattern (Fig.4-A).
In many other cases of middle-size cities, either some
regions encompass several cities (Fig.4-D), one city
(and its field) is spread among several regions (Fig.4-
C), or the city overpasses the limits of its region
(Fig.4-B).
• to identify different kinds and levels of urban fields, a
specific delineation based on the smallest units and a
combination of different criteria is necessary
 From the city to the region: homogeneous region; polarized region;
functional region; metropolitan areas
Delineating cities by “urban fields”
1) Urban localities: Defined by the town’s administrative boundaries or by its status in law

2) Morphological Urban Areas/Urban agglomerations or urban units: embrace continuously

built urban centers forming either a part of one administrative unit or a group of several
units

3) Functional urban areas: comprising a nucleus town and its sphere of influence or
employment catchment area, which are frequently defined in terms of commuting

4) Polynuclear urban regions, or conurbations: when continuously built comprise a number of

centers polarizing human dealings. They are frequently the product of a number of
agglomerations or regions that, though initially separate, have become merged as a result
of their geographical spread”.
 From the city to the region: homogeneous region; polarized region;
functional region; metropolitan areas
Delineating cities by “urban fields”: Urban localities (Defined by the town’s administrative boundaries
or by its status in law)
• Urban localities are very diverse in size and
power from one country to another.
• Basic bricks (also called “blocks”) of territorial
governance and planning management
• Political and administrative level that the
statistics on sociodemographic and economic
data are important
• The criteria of population or employment
numbers are often used in many countries to
characterize these localities as “urban”
• some countries give an urban status to all
municipalities meeting only the minimal
threshold of population and do not consider
other indicators that could specify an urban
character
• Another extended arbitrary delineation is the
territory of local government encompassing
several urban localities in metropoles
 From the city to the region: homogeneous region; polarized region;
functional region; metropolitan areas
Delineating cities by “urban fields”: Morphological Urban Areas/Urban agglomerations or urban units
(MUA): embrace continuously built urban centers forming either a part of one administrative unit or a
group of several units
• Morphological urban areas (MUAs),
also called urban agglomerations,
refer to the continuity of the built-up
area without being restricted to the
administrative boundaries
• they often go beyond the strict
administrative unit of the city center,
leading to the agglomeration of
several contiguous units forming the
whole urban agglomeration
• In general, for an area to be
considered an urban area, the
continuity of the built-up areas is
supposed to encompass all the urban
functions, including parks and
infrastructures
 From the city to the region: homogeneous region; polarized region;
functional region; metropolitan areas
Delineating cities by “urban fields”: Functional Urban Areas (FUA)

• Functional urban areas (FUAs) were

introduced to address the issue of the
noncompact form of urban sprawl, which
appeared with the rapid development of the
individual motor vehicle.
• Living far away from the city center where
most of the jobs were still concentrated, many
workers began to travel long distances every
day to go to work.
• This form of cities represented a change in
the spread of urban areas and exploded
structures that were no longer determined by
morphologic continuous shapes
 From the city to the region: homogeneous region; polarized region;
functional region; metropolitan areas
Delineating cities by “urban fields”: Polynuclear urban regions that we called Large Urban Regions
(LUR)
• The Large Urban Regions can have different
configurations according to the presence of
unique and quite isolated MUAs or FUAs or if
there are several ones being close each
other.
• The polynuclear urban regions or
conurbations concept is complementary to
the functional urban areas’ one, especially
when several urban regions are close to each
other, forming a continuous urbanization
• “conurbation” appeared for the first time in
Geddes (1915) in order to designate
“coalescing clusters of overgrown British
cities”
• “Mega-city-regions” (MCRs) through the
polycentrism development of numerous
satellites cities in the surrounding regions of
European global cities
 From the city to the region: homogeneous region; polarized region;
functional region; metropolitan areas
Delineation of cities in four nested levels

1. Identification of MUAs
• dentification of the morphological urban
areas (MUA) starts with the selection of cores
that will constitute the centers
• do not use any threshold of population but
rather identify the presence of multinational
firms and of an airport, which often indicates
an area with a higher density of population
than that in the surrounding areas
• Following the concept of a morphological
urban area (MUA), the surrounding built-up
area is adapted to represent an aggregation
of entire contiguous local units
(municipalities) in which it is estimated that
more than the half of their population
comprises the built-up area
 From the city to the region: homogeneous region; polarized region;
functional region; metropolitan areas
Delineation of cities in four nested levels

2. Delineation of FUAs
• delineation of functional urban areas (FUAs)
follows the usual concept of the dependent
zones based on the workers’ daily mobility
• The contiguous municipalities sending a
relevant part of their workers to the MUAs
are significantly dependent on the MUAs
and are part of the Urban field forming the
FUA
• Simultaneously, the existence of an urban or
regional institutional area with a strong
governance structure reinforces this
dependence.
• FUA can encompass a single center MUA or
several MUAs if they are close and exchange
a significant proportion of workers or are
intertwined in a dense transportation
network
 From the city to the region: homogeneous region; polarized region;
functional region; metropolitan areas
Delineation of cities in nested levels

3. Delineation of LURs
• Grouping entire regions connected to the
world by the strong transportation network
• The delineation extends to the
encompassing of some single FUAs or can
be defined by regrouping different FUAs
and the zones separating them
• for the two first steps, bottom-up approach
can be used, selecting the implementations
corresponding to the concepts of MUA and
FUA
• For LURs evidence-based scientific
approach shall be used in Top-Down
approach
 From the city to the region: homogeneous region; polarized region;
functional region; metropolitan areas

Large urban region in

Nepal (NUDS, 2017)
The Process Of Planning And Urban Management