MTE-103

Materials Science

Rajeshwar Reddy Eleti

[email protected]
6303083830 (WhatsApp)

1
Sl.No. Contact
Contents Hours

1 Introduction to crystallography: bonding in solids, amorphous and crystalline, single crystal 10

and polycrystalline material, polymorphism, lattice, unit cell, Bravais lattice, types of crystals,
linear and planer densities, crystal defects (point, line ,surface and volume defects)
2 Principles of alloy formation: solid solution, Hume-Rothery rules,binary phase diagrams: 7
Gibbs phase rule, lever rule, cooling curves, invariant reactions, types of binary phase diagrams
(isomorphous, eutectic, partial-eutectic systems), iron-iron carbide phase diagram
3 Plastic deformation: elastic andplastic deformation and strain hardening with respect to 5
stress-strain Curve, plastic deformation by slip: slip system, critical resolved shear stress, Frank-
Read source, work hardening and dynamic recovery, strengthening mechanisms, recovery,
recrystallization and grain growth, cold and hot working
4 Mechanical properties: Hardness Test (Brinell, Vickers, Rockwell and microhardness tests), 10
tensile test, impact Test (Charpy and Izod specimens, ductile – brittle transition, effect of carbon
on ductile-brittle transition in plain carbon steels), fatigue Test (fatigue testing apparatus, S-N
Curve for ferrous and non-ferrous, fatigue fracture (transgranular fracture), methods of
improving fatigue life, creep Test: creep curve, creep fracture, material consideration for high
temperature use.
5 Heat treatment: purpose of heat treatments, equilibrium and non-equilibrium cooling,nucleation, 6
grain growth and kinetics , TTT and CCT diagrams, common heat treatments like annealing,
normalizing, hardening and tempering, hardenability: Jominy end-quench test, hardenability
curves,martempering and austempering,surface hardening (carburizing, nitriding, flame and
induction hardening)
6 Ceramic, composite & polymericmaterials: ceramics: types of ceramics, fabrication and 4
processing of ceramics: (i) glass forming processes (ii) particulate forming processes (iii)
cementation, composites: advantages of composites, constituents of composites, applications of
composites, classification of composites: based on matrix and reinforcement, polymers:3
hydrocarbon and polymer molecules, molecular shape and structure, molecular configuration,
MTE103 Materials Science

Objective...
Introduce fundamental concepts in Materials Science

learning:
• material structure
• how structure dictates properties
• processing that changes the structure

benefit:
• familiarize with materials properly
• realize new design opportunities with materials
4
Resource Material

Text book:
• Materials Science and Engineering
W.D. Callister, Jr., 7th edition, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc. (2007). http://www.wiley.com/college/callister

Additional Books:
• Materials Science and Engineers: A first course, V.
Raghavan, 5th edition, PHI (2003) – Rs. 225
•The Science and Engineering of Materials, Donald R.
Askeland, Thomson Books/Cole, (2003).
5
Some Instructions …
⚫ unfair means / plagiarism in exam / tutorial
strictly prohibited.

⚫ Course Evaluation scheme.

❑ CWS – 25 Marks
❑ Mid Term Exam – 25 Marks (1.5 hrs)
❑ Final Exam – 50 Marks (2 hrs)

Slide will be emailed to CR or in group id

6
 Some definitions …
⚫ What is Materials Science?
→ Understanding the relationship between stucture and properies

⚫ What is Materials Engineering?

→ Implementing the structure to produce a predetermined
set of properties

Selecting the right material from the many

thousands that are available

Two other important components: processing and performance 7

Selection of carbonated beverage
containers
Pre-requisites:
• Strong enough to block the passage of carbon
dioxide, which is under pressure in the container.
ceramic (glass)
• be nontoxic, unreactive with the beverage, and,
preferably be recyclabe.

• Reasonable fracture toughness, and capable of

surviving a drop from a height of several meters
when containing the beverage.
polymer (plastic)
• be inexpensive and the cost to fabricate the final
shape should be relatively low.

• if optically transparent, retain its optical clarity.

• Eye catching.
8
metal (aluminum)
Structure in different scales
Civil

Mechanical

Material science

9
 Atomic structure
An atom is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary
matter that has the properties of a chemical element.
Atoms are very small; typical sizes are in Ǻ.

• Atom size tends to increase when moving down columns,

• But decrease when moving across rows (left to right).

Atomic arrangement
 Electron Energy States
⚫ atom – electrons, protons, neutrons
• Electrons have wavelike and particulate properties.
• This means that electrons are in orbitals defined by a probability.
• Each orbital has discrete energy level determined by quantum numbers.
• Electrons tend to occupy lowest available energy state.
4d
4p N-shell n = 4

3d
4s

Energy 3p M-shell n = 3
3s

2p L-shell n = 2
2s

1s K-shell n = 1 11
Electronic Configurations
ex: Fe - atomic # = 26 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d 6 4s2

4d
4p N-shell n = 4 valence
electrons
3d
4s

Energy 3p M-shell n = 3
3s
Adapted from Fig. 2.4,
Callister 7e.
2p L-shell n = 2
2s

1s K-shell n = 1
12
Electron Configurations
⚫ Valence electrons – those in unfilled shells
⚫ Filled shells more stable
⚫ Valence electrons are most available for
bonding and tend to control the chemical
properties

⚫ example: C (atomic number = 6)

1s2 2s2 2p2

valence electrons

13
The Periodic Table
• Columns: Similar Valence Structure

inert gases
give up 1e
give up 2e

accept 2e
accept 1e
give up 3e

H He
Li Be O F Ne
Na Mg S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Se Br Kr From Fig. 2.6
Callister’s
Rb Sr Y Te I Xe Materials
Science and
Cs Ba Po At Rn Engineering,
Adapted
Fr Ra Version.

Electropositive elements: Electronegative elements:

Readily give up electrons Readily acquire electrons
to become + ions. to become - ions.

• electronegativity: ranges from 0.7 to 4.0, 14

• Large values: tendency to acquire electrons.

 Atomic bonding
Atomic bonding: Bonding forces develop as atoms are brought into
proximity to each other. The nature of the bonding forces has a direct effect
upon the type of solid structure which develops and therefore upon the physical
properties of the material.

Melting point provides a useful indication of the amount of thermal energy needed to
dissolve these interatomic (or interionic) bonds.
➢ some solids melt at relatively low temperatures (m.p. of tin = 232°C)
➢ ceramics melt at extremely high temperatures (m.p. of alumina exceeds 2000°C).

Customarily we identify four principal types of bonding in materials, namely:

➢ metallic bonding,
➢ ionic bonding,
➢ covalent bonding

However, in many solid materials it is possible for bonding to be mixed, or even

intermediate, in character.

ultimate aim: stability (e.g inert gas like)

Metallic bonding
The elements with the most pronounced metallic characteristics are grouped
on the left-hand side of the Periodic Table. In general, they have a few
valence electrons in the outermost orbital, which are relatively easy to detach.
Each atom in a metal donates one or more valence electrons forming a common pool
of electron cloud/gas. The 'free' valence electron in this way is shared among all atoms
(or more specifically among the regular array of positively-charged cations), rather than
associated with an individual atom. The bond results because the metal atoms become
somewhat positively charged due to loss of their electrons while the electron cloud
remains surrounded to them.
Metallic bonding may be seen as an
extreme example of delocalization of
electrons over a large system of
covalent bonds, in which every atom
participates. Therefore, metallic
bonding is more collective in nature
in terms of sharing of the electrons
and non-directional.
 Ionic Bonding
• Metals→ donate electrons → becomes cations
• Non-metals → accept electrons → becomes anions
• bonding occurs between + and - ions.
• Requires electron transfer.
• Large difference in electronegativity required.

Na (metal) Cl (nonmetal)
unstable unstable
electron
ex: NaCl
Na (cation)
stable + Coulombic - Cl (anion)
stable
Attraction

17

ex: MgO Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 O 1s2 2s2 2p4

Mg2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 O2- 1s2 2s2 2p6

[Ne] [Ne]
Examples: Ionic Bonding
• Predominant bonding in Ceramics

NaCl
MgO
CaF 2
CsCl

Give up electrons Acquire electrons

From Fig. 2.7, Callister’s Materials Science and Engineering, Adapted Version.
(Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 18
1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell University.
 Covalent Bonding
• Co-valent: “Co” means equal, “valent” means valancy
• similar electronegativity: share electrons
• bonds determined by valence – s & p orbitals dominate
bonding
• Example: CH4
shared electrons
H
C: has 4 valence e-, CH 4 from carbon atom
needs 4 more
H: has 1 valence e-, H C H
needs 1 more
shared electrons
Electronegativities H from hydrogen
are comparable. atoms
From Fig. 2.10: Callister’s Materials Science and Engineering, Adapted Version. 19
 Covalent bonding additional slide
The prefix co- means jointly thus a "co-valent bond", in essence,
means that the atoms share ‘valence’. The covalent bonding thus occurs by
the sharing of electrons between neighbouring atoms. This is in contrast to
the transfer of electrons from one atom to another in the ionic bonding.
It occurs when valence electrons of
opposite spin from adjacent atoms
are able to pair within overlapping
spatially-directed orbitals, thereby
enabling each atom to attain a
stable electronic configuration

Covalency is greatest between atoms of similar electronegativities.

Consider first the formation of a hydrogen molecule. When two hydrogen atoms are very
far apart, they do not interact, and the lone electrons of the atoms stay in their respective
1s ground states. When the atoms come closer , the electron probablity cloud of the 1s
states overlaps. As the 1s orbitals can have two electrons of opposite spin, the sharing
of electrons between two atoms takes place.
Furthermore, the electrons participating in the bonds are tightly bound so that covalent
solids, in general, have low electrical or thermal conductivity and act as insulators,
sometimes as semiconductors (e.g. silicon). Carbon in the form of diamond is an
interesting prototype for covalent bonding.
 Summary: Bonding

Type Bond Energy Comments

Ionic Large! Nondirectional (ceramics)

Covalent Variable Directional

(semiconductors, ceramics
large-Diamond
polymer chains)
small-Bismuth

Metallic Variable
large-Tungsten Nondirectional (metals)
small-Mercury

21
Space Lattice: The lattice is defined as an array of points in three
dimensions in which every point has identical to that every other points
in the array.

Unit cell: It is a subdivision of a lattice that still retains the overall characteristic of the
entire lattice. More precisely, a unit cell is the smallest unit which, when repeated in
space indefinitely, will generate the space lattice.

There are only 14 distinct arrangement of lattice points

possible in three-dimensional space lattice. These
unique arrangement of lattice points are known as
Bravais lattices.
They belong to seven crystal systems.

7 crystal systems
14 Bravais lattices
a, b, and c are the lattice constants
22
Fig. 3.2: Callister’s Materials Science
and Engineering, Adapted Version.
 The Bravais Lattices
Crystal Space lattice Unit cell Number of
System nearest
neighbours, i.e.
Coordination no
I. Cubic (1) Simple (Lattice
points at the eight
a=b=c corners of the unit
α=β=γ=90° cell)
Simple cubic=6

(2) Body centered CN= 8

(Points at the eight
corners and at the
body center)

(3) Face centered CN=12

(Points at the eight
corners and at the
six face centres)
 The Bravais Lattices

Crystal System Space lattice Unit cell

II. Tetragonal (4) Simple (points at the

eight corners of the
a=b≠c unit cell)
α=β=γ=90°

(5) Body centered

(Points at the eight
corners and at the
body center)
 The Bravais Lattices
Crystal System Space lattice Unit cell

III. Orthorhombic (6) Simple (Lattice

points at the eight
a≠b≠c corners of the unit
α=β=γ=90° cell)

(7) Base centered

(Points at the eight
corners and at two
face centres
opposite to each
other)
(8) Body centered
(Points at the eight
corners and at the
body center)
(9) Face centered
(Points at the eight
corners and at the
six face centres)
 The Bravais Lattices

Crystal System Space lattice Unit cell

IV. Rhombohedral (10) Simple (points at the

eight corners of the unit
a=b=c cell)
α=β=γ≠90°

V. Hexagonal (11) Simple [(i)points at

the eight corners of the
a=b≠c unit cell outlined by thick
α=β=90° lines
γ=120°
or (ii) base centered:
points at the twelve
corners of the hexagonal
prism and at the centres
of the two hexagonal
faces]
 The Bravais Lattices

Crystal System Space lattice Unit cell

VI. Monoclinic (12) Simple (points at

the eight corners of the
a≠b≠c unit cell)
α=γ=90°≠β

(13) base-centred
(Points at the eight
corners and at two face
centres opposite to
each other)

VII. Triclinic (14) Simple (points at

the eight corners of the
a≠b≠c unit cell)
α≠β≠γ≠90°
 Crystallographic Planes
1. Read off intercepts of plane with axes in terms of a, b, c for cube: a=b=c= 1 unit
2. Enclose intercepts in parentheses, no commas i.e. (110), (100) etc
3. Miller indices are always integer, that’s why is (1 3/6 4/6) is written as (634).
4. Lowest indices like (110) may be considered as full plane whereas higher indices
(200), (314),(523) are sub planes.

Draw (100) plane Draw (110) plane Draw (111) plane

X
• 1 unit from x axis • 1 unit each from x & y axes • 1 unit each from x, y & z axes
• a recatngular flat plane • a rectangular diagonal plane • a triangular plane
Crystallographic Planes
Draw (634) Draw (632) plane

• Take inverse: 1/6 1/3 1/4 • Take inverse: 1/6 1/3 ½

• convert largest (1/3) to a • convert largest (½) to a
integer : (3/6 1 3/4 ) integer : (2/6 2/3 1)

For indexing maximum one unit cell can be used, not multiple unit cell.

All parallel planes have

same Miller indices.
Crystallographic planes-indexing

Shift origin for inverse plane

Crystallographic Planes (HCP)
⚫ In hexagonal unit cells the same idea is used
z

example a1 a2 a3 c
1. Intercepts 1  -1 1
2. Reciprocals 1 1/ -1 1
1 0 -1 1
a2
3. Reduction 1 0 -1 1

a3
4. Miller-Bravais Indices (1011)
a1

From Fig. 3.6(b): Callister’s Materials Science and Engineering,

Adapted Version.

31
 Lattice/intrplanar Spacing

-The distance between two adjacent parallel planes

of atoms with the same Miller indices is called the
interplanar spacing, dhkl.
a
- for cubic materials : d hkl =
h2 + k 2 + l 2

Planes of lowest indices (111) have the greatest spacing than sub-plane
(200), (220), (634)
 Crystallographic Direction-significance

➢ Metals deform more easily, for example, in directions along which atoms
are in closest contact.

➢ Another real-world example is the dependence of the magnetic properties of iron

and other magnetic materials on the crystallographic directions.

It is much easier to magnetize iron in the [100] direction compared to [111] or [110]
directions. This is why the grains in Fe-Si steels used in magnetic applications are
oriented in the [100] or equivalent directions.
In the case of magnetic materials used for recording media, we have to make sure
the grains are aligned in a particular crystallographic direction such that the stored
information is not erased easily.

➢ Similarly crystals used for making turbine blades are aligned along certain directions
for better mechanical properties.
 Crystallographic direction-indexing

Algorithm:
1. Vector repositioned (if necessary) to pass through origin.
2. Read off projections in terms of unit cell dimensions a, b, and c
3. Adjust to smallest integer values, [1 0 ½] => [201]
4. Enclose in square brackets, no commas [uvw]
such [100], [111], [201]
5. Family of [110] directions is designated as <110>

Some directions in cubic crystals:

[210] →[1 ½ 0] [634]→[1 3/6 4/6] [3 8 9]→ [3/9 8/9 1]

Divide by largest number during drawing]
HCP Crystallographic
Directions z
Algorithm

1. Vector repositioned (if necessary) to pass

through origin.
2. Read off projections in terms of unit
a2 cell dimensions a1, a2, a3, or c
3. Adjust to smallest integer values
- 4. Enclose in square brackets, no commas
a3
[uvtw] a2
a1
a2 -a3
From Fig. 3.6(a)
Callister’s Materials Science and Engineering, Adapted Version. 2
a3
ex: ½, ½, -1, 0 => [ 1120 ]
a1
2
dashed red lines indicate
projections onto a1 and a2 axes a1
35