Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

Basics of Atomic Structure

Atoms consist of three main subatomic particles:

• Protons carry a positive charge and reside in the atom’s nucleus.

• Neutrons are neutral particles also located in the nucleus. Together with protons, they
contribute to the atom’s mass.

• Electrons are negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus in defined energy levels
or shells.

The nucleus is dense and positively charged due to protons, while electrons, though lighter,
occupy much of the atom’s volume. This arrangement forms the basis for understanding the
periodic table.

1. Introduction to Atomic Structure

• Historical Development of Atomic Models

o Start with the idea of atoms.

▪ Ancient philosophers like Democritus proposed that all matter was made of
indivisible particles called "atoms." However, this idea lacked experimental evidence
and wasn’t accepted for centuries.

o Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808):

▪ In the 1800s, John Dalton reintroduced the atomic concept based on experimental
work. Dalton suggested that atoms were indivisible and that each element consisted
of identical atoms with specific properties.

▪ Proposed in the early 19th century, John Dalton described atoms as indivisible
particles. He suggested that all atoms of a particular element are identical and that
chemical reactions involve rearrangements of atoms rather than transformations.
▪ Although foundational, Dalton’s model couldn’t explain the atom’s internal
structure.
o Thomson's Model (1897):

▪ J.J. Thomson discovered the electron through his experiments with cathode rays. He
proposed the "plum pudding model," where an atom was like a positively charged
"pudding" with negatively charged "plums" (electrons) scattered throughout.

▪ J.J. Thomson discovered the electron in 1897, showing that atoms are divisible. He
proposed a model where electrons were embedded in a positively charged “soup,”
like plums in a pudding.

This model explained electron distribution but failed to account for a structured
nucleus.

• Rutherford's Nuclear Model (1911):

 o Ernest Rutherford's gold foil experiment showed that an atom has a dense,
positively charged nucleus with most of the atom’s mass. He proposed a nuclear
model, where electrons orbit the nucleus, similar to planets orbiting the sun.

o Ernest Rutherford’s gold foil experiment in 1911 demonstrated that atoms have a
dense, positively charged nucleus, which deflects alpha particles. Electrons, he
proposed, orbit this nucleus.

o Problem: According to classical physics, electrons orbiting in this way should

lose energy and spiral into the nucleus, which didn’t match observations.

o While this model introduced the concept of the nucleus, it left unresolved why
electrons do not collapse into the nucleus due to attraction.

• Bohr Model (1913):

o Niels Bohr refined Rutherford’s model by introducing quantized energy levels. He

proposed that electrons travel in fixed orbits around the nucleus, and only specific
orbits are allowed.

o Bohr’s model explained why electrons don’t spiral into the nucleus and why atoms
emit specific frequencies of light.

o Electrons orbit at fixed distances from the nucleus without radiating energy.

o Key Idea: Electrons only occupy certain allowed orbits, each with a specific energy
level. When electrons jump between orbits, they absorb or emit light, explaining
atomic spectra.

o Limitations: While Bohr’s model worked for hydrogen, it couldn’t explain atoms with
more electrons.

• Quantum Mechanical Model (1920s):

o The most advanced model, based on the Schrödinger equation, treats electrons as
wave-particles that exist in probability “clouds” called orbitals rather than fixed
orbits.

o This model, incorporating Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle, says we can only

predict an electron's probable location, not its exact position.

o Electrons are described using four quantum numbers, which explain their
distribution and energy.

o Overview: To address limitations of earlier models, scientists developed the

quantum mechanical model, where electrons don’t follow defined orbits. Instead,
they exist in regions called orbitals with specific energy levels.

o Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle: We can’t simultaneously know the exact

position and momentum of an electron.
 o Schrödinger Equation: Erwin Schrödinger developed a wave equation that
describes the behavior of electrons as wave functions. The solutions to this
equation are orbitals (probability distributions where electrons are likely found).

2. Quantum Numbers and Electron Configuration

• Quantum Numbers:

o Electrons in an atom have specific energy levels and properties, described by

four quantum numbers:

▪ Principal Quantum Number (n): Indicates the main energy level or shell
(1, 2, 3…). Higher values mean higher energy and distance from the
nucleus.

▪ Azimuthal Quantum Number (l): Indicates the shape of the orbital (s, p,
d, f). Ranges from 0 to (n-1).

▪ Magnetic Quantum Number (ml): Describes the orientation of an orbital

in space. Ranges from -l to +l.

▪ Spin Quantum Number (ms): Represents the spin of the electron (+1/2
or -1/2).

▪ Example: For an electron in a 2p orbital, n = 2, l = 1, ml = -1, 0, or +1, and

ms = +1/2 or -1/2.

• Electron Configuration:

o Aufbau Principle: Electrons fill orbitals starting with the lowest energy level.

o Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two electrons can have the same set of four
quantum numbers, meaning an orbital can hold only two electrons with
opposite spins.

o Hund’s Rule: Electrons fill degenerate orbitals (orbitals with the same energy)
singly before pairing.

o Example Configurations:

▪ Carbon (6 electrons): 1s² 2s² 2p²

▪ Neon (10 electrons): 1s² 2s² 2p⁶

o Notations: Use shorthand notation by referencing the nearest noble gas (e.g.,
[Ne] for elements in the third period).

3. Periodic Table: Organization and Trends

• Structure of the Periodic Table:

 o Background: Dmitri Mendeleev organized elements by increasing atomic mass
and observed repeating patterns in properties, which led to the first periodic
table.

o Modern Periodic Table: Arranged by atomic number, reflecting an element’s

number of protons and electron structure.

o Groups and Periods:

▪ Groups (Vertical Columns): Elements with similar chemical properties

are in the same group because they have similar valence electron
configurations.

▪ Periods (Horizontal Rows): Each period represents a new principal

energy level, starting from hydrogen in period 1.

• Periodic Trends:

o Atomic Radius: Decreases across a period (due to increased nuclear charge

pulling electrons closer) and increases down a group (due to additional energy
levels).

o Ionization Energy: Energy needed to remove an electron. Increases across a

period (greater nuclear charge makes it harder to remove electrons) and
decreases down a group.

o Electron Affinity: Tendency of an atom to gain an electron. Generally increases

across a period (more negative) and decreases down a group.

o Electronegativity: Measure of an atom’s ability to attract electrons in a bond.

Increases across a period, decreases down a group. High for nonmetals, low for
metals.

• Examples and Applications of Trends:

o Example: Why is fluorine highly reactive? It has a small atomic radius, high
ionization energy, and high electron affinity, making it eager to gain an electron.

o Compare Alkali Metals and Halogens: Alkali metals have low ionization
energies and are highly reactive (easily lose an electron). Halogens have high
electron affinities and react strongly with metals to gain an electron.

4. Relationship between Atomic Structure and Periodic Trends

• Effective Nuclear Charge (Z_eff) and Shielding:

o Electrons are attracted to the nucleus but are also repelled by other electrons.

o Effective Nuclear Charge (Z_eff): Net positive charge experienced by an

electron after accounting for shielding by other electrons.

o Shielding Effect: Inner electrons shield outer electrons from the full attraction
of the nucleus, explaining why atomic radius increases down a group.
 • Applications to Chemical Reactivity:

o Alkali Metals (Group 1): Low ionization energy and large atomic radius make
them highly reactive, especially with water and halogens.

o Transition Metals: Their d-electrons allow for variable oxidation states,

magnetic properties, and colorful compounds.

5. Special Topics (Optional)

• Atomic Orbitals and Hybridization:

o Hybridization describes mixing of atomic orbitals to form new orbitals for

bonding.

o Examples: sp hybridization (linear geometry), sp² (trigonal planar), sp³

(tetrahedral).

• Lanthanides and Actinides:

o f-block elements with unique electron configurations and properties. Often used
in high-tech applications like electronics and magnets.

6. Conclusion and Recap

• Review the development of atomic models, from Dalton to the quantum model.

• Reinforce how electron configuration influences the periodic table and periodic trends.

• Highlight how these concepts lay the foundation for understanding chemical behavior.

Questions and Practice Problems

Multiple Choice

1. Which model introduced fixed energy levels for electrons?

o A. Dalton’s Model

o B. Thomson’s Model

o C. Bohr’s Model

o D. Rutherford’s Model

o Answer: C. Bohr’s Model

2. What trend describes the atomic radius across a period?

o A. Increases

o B. Decreases

o C. Remains constant
 o Answer: B. Decreases

Short Answer Questions

1. Explain why ionization energy increases across a period but decreases down a group.

2. Draw the 2p orbital configuration for nitrogen, showing electron arrangement using
Hund’s Rule.

Numerical Problems

1. Ionization Energy:

o Calculate the difference in ionization energy between lithium (520 kJ/mol) and
sodium (495 kJ/mol). Explain the trend based on periodic positioning.

2. Electron Configuration Practice:

o Write the electron configurations for magnesium (atomic number 12) and
chlorine (atomic number 17).

Short Answer Questions

1. Explain why ionization energy increases across a period but decreases down a
group.

o Across a period: Ionization energy generally increases because as you move

across a period from left to right, the atomic number (number of protons)
increases. This increase in positive charge pulls the electrons closer to the
nucleus, making it harder to remove an electron. Also, the atomic radius
decreases across a period, which means the outer electrons are closer to the
nucleus and more strongly attracted to it.

o Down a group: Ionization energy decreases because as you move down a group,
atoms have additional electron shells, which increases the atomic radius. This
increase in size means that outer electrons are farther from the nucleus and
experience a weaker attractive force, making it easier to remove them.
Additionally, inner-shell electrons shield the outer electrons from the nucleus’s
pull, further reducing the ionization energy.

2. Draw the 2p orbital configuration for nitrogen, showing electron arrangement using
Hund’s Rule.

o Nitrogen (atomic number 7) has an electron configuration of

According to Hund's Rule, each of the three 2p orbitals will first get one electron
with the same spin before any pairing occurs. So the 2p orbitals of nitrogen are
filled as follows:

2p_x ↑

2p_y ↑

2p_z ↑
 o This arrangement means that each of the three 2p orbitals has one unpaired
electron with parallel spins, maximizing stability and minimizing repulsion
between electrons.

Numerical Problems

1. Ionization Energy

o Calculate the difference in ionization energy between lithium (520 kJ/mol)

and sodium (495 kJ/mol):

Explain the trend:

▪ The trend is that ionization energy decreases as we move down a group.

Lithium and sodium are both in Group 1, but sodium is lower on the
periodic table. Since sodium has more electron shells, its outer electron
is further from the nucleus, leading to a weaker attraction between the
nucleus and the valence electron, thus requiring less energy to remove it
than in lithium.

2. Electron Configuration Practice