ENG 417

Topic 4
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

>Functional classification of clauses

>The verb phrase in dependent clauses
a. Types based on function within
superordinate clause as clause elements
b. Types based on function within clause
elements
 Types based on function within superordinate
clause as clause elements

1. as subject, e.g.,
✓That we need more equipment is obvious.
✓Telling lies is wrong.
✓Turn off the tap was all I did.
 Types based on function within superordinate
clause as clause elements

2. as direct object, e.g.,

✓I know that she is pretty.
✓Do you know if/whether the shops are open.
✓No one enjoys deceiving his own family.
 Types based on function within superordinate
clause as clause elements

3. as indirect object
✓I gave whoever it was a cup of tea.
 Types based on function within superordinate
clause as clause elements

4. as subject complement, e.g.,

✓The point is that we’re leaving.
✓Home is where your friends and family are.
✓All I did was (to) turn off the lights.
 Types based on function within superordinate
clause as clause elements

5. as object complement, e.g.,

✓I imagined him overcome with grief.
✓John thought Mary exceptionally clever.
 Types based on function within superordinate
clause as clause elements

6. as adverbial, e.g.,
✓When we meet, I shall explain everything. = Adjunct
✓To be honest, I’ve never liked him. =Disjunct
✓What is more, he has lost the friends he had. = Conjunct
 Types based on function within clause elements

a. Postmodifier in noun phrase, e.g.,

✓A friend who remains loyal …
✓This is the baby which needs inoculation.
✓Is she the ship which is due to leave for Chipoka?
✓The girl ((who was)standing) in the corner …
✓My original question, why he did it at all, has not been
answered.
 Types based on function within clause elements

b. Prepositional complement
✓It depends on what we decide.
✓He was surprised at her remark/her saying that/what
she said.
 Types based on function within clause elements

c. Adjectival complementation
✓Ready to act promptly
✓I am sure that he is here now
✓Bob is hard to convince
✓(We are) happy to see you
>Functional classification of clauses
-Clause types in detail
-Nominal
-Adverbial
-Comparative
-Comment
-(In)direct speech
 Nominal clause
• Plays the role of a noun phrase
• May occur in some or all of such roles of a noun phrase:

Subject That she is still alive is a consolation.

Object He was explaining how to start a motor.
Subject complement My wish is to be a pilot.
Object complement You can call me what(ever) (names) you like.
Appositive His hobby, to be a straight actor, was fulfilled.
Prepositional I am tired of being treated like a child.
Complement
Adjectival I am glad to help you.
Complement
 Nominal clause types
• Generally, they are determined by subordinators
• See Eng417 Topic 4 Complex sentences handout 4a 2024

That-clauses That she is still alive is a consolation.

Wh-interrogative He was explaining how to start the motor.
Relative clauses You can call me what(ever) (names) you like.
Non-finite to-infinitive His hobby, to be a straight actor, was fulfilled.
Non-finite –ing clauses I am tired of being treated like a child.
Non-finite bare infinitives Wall-to-wall carpets is very expensive
Yes-No interrogative Whether it rains or not doesn’t concern me.
 Interrogative & relative clauses

• Relative clause is introduced by a wh-element which is a relative

pronoun e.g., what(ever), who(ever), etc, e.g.,
✓ What he is looking for is a wife = That/the thing which he is
looking for .....
• Where the wh-word chosen is available for both nominal relative
and interrogative clauses, an ambiguity arises, e.g.,
✓ They asked what I didn’t know.
➢ Nominal relative clause = They asked me that which I didn’t know.
➢ Interrogative clause = They asked me “What don’t you know?”
 Adverbial clauses
• Are used as adjuncts, disjunct or (rarely) as conjuncts
• Occur in final, initial, or (rarely) medial positions, e.g.,
✓ When I last saw you, you lived in Washington.
✓ Buy your tickets as soon as you reach the station.
✓ Our hostess, once everyone had arrived, was full of
good humour.
 Adverbial clause types
• Generally, they are determined by (semantic) function
• See Eng417 Topic 4 Complex sentences handout 4a 2024

1. Clauses of time When in difficulty, consult the manual.

2. Clauses of place ?Where(ver) possible, all moving parts should
be tested./They went where(ever) they could find
work
3. Clauses of condition Had I known, I would not have gone.
4. Clauses of concession Even though given every attention, John
never behaved
5. Clauses of reason/cause I lent him the money because he needed it.
6. Clauses of circumstance The weather having improved, we enjoyed
the rest of the game
 Adverbial clause types
7. Clauses of purpose • They left the door open in order for me
to hear the baby.
• I left early to catch the bus.
8. Clauses of result We planted shrubs, so (that) the garden
soon looked beautiful.
9. Clauses of manner (Just) as a moth is attracted by a light,
(so)he was fascinated by her
10. Clauses of comparison He treated me (just) as if he had never
met me.
11. Clauses of proportion The harder he worked, the happier he felt
12. Clauses of preference Rather than a new car, he bought a colour
television
 Adverbial clauses

-Adverbial clauses of condition

-Adverbial clauses and non-finite
and verbless clauses
-Adverbial clauses of condition
 Adverbial clauses of condition

• Clauses of condition state dependence of

one circumstance(s) on another
• Types of conditions:
a) Real
b) Unreal
 Adverbial clauses of condition
Real condition
• Leaves unresolved the question of fulfilment or
non-fulfilment of the condition as well as the
truth of the proposition expressed by the main
clause, e.g.,
✓ If he comes, I’ll see him.
 Adverbial clauses of condition

Unreal condition
• Expresses the unfulfilled condition, e.g.,
✓ If he came, I would see him.
✓ If she’d been awake, she would have
heard the noise.
 Adverbial clauses of condition

Unless-clauses
• Clauses of condition introduced by unless
• Unless has an exclusive meaning only if … not or except on
condition that
• Therefore, unless is the opposite of the compound conjunctions
provided (that) or providing (that), as long as, so long
as, and on condition that
• Examples:
✓ Unless the strike has been called off, there will be no trains
tomorrow.
✓ Provided that no objection is raised, we shall hold the
meeting here.
 Adverbial clauses of condition

Subject-Operator inversion
• Occurs especially with unreal clauses of
condition, e.g.,
✓ Had I known, I would not have gone.
• This does not have a conjunction
-Adverbial clauses and non-finite
and verbless clauses
 Adverbial clauses and non-finite and
verbless clauses
• Time, reason etc relationships, as discussed
above, can be expressed by means of non-finite
and verbless clauses
• Two issues may arise when a non-finite/verbless
clause is used:
a) The subject of the clause may be implied
b) The inferred relationship may be considerably
indeterminable, resulting in semantic
diversity
 The implied subject
• The subject of non-finite and verbless clauses without
subject is implied
• The subject is assumed to be identical with the
superordinate clause subject. This is referred to as the
attachment rule. E.g.:
✓ When ripe, the oranges are picked and sorted.
✓ She hesitated, being very suspicious, to open the
door.
 The implied subject
• Violating the attachment rule leads to some
acceptable or totally unacceptable structures
• Acceptable cases are those where the superordinate
clause still provides context, e.g.,
✓ ?Since leaving her, life has seemed empty.
➢ Assumption here is that life has seemed empty to me
➢ Hence, the implied subject of the subordinate clause
is also first person
 The implied subject
• Totally unacceptable cases are called
dangling/unattached/pedant clauses, and the
superordinate clause does not provide means of
identifying subordinate clause subject, e.g.
✓ Reading the evening paper, the dog started barking.
(dog cannot be subordinate clause subject)
• With disjuncts, the attachment rule does not apply,
e.g. Speaking candidly (S = I), John is dishonest.
 indeterminacy and semantic
diversity
• Clauses introduced by subordinators such as if
necessary, since being here, etc. express explicit
relationships
• Those without subordinators express implicit
relationship. That is, there is indeterminacy of the
inferred relationship. See examples below.
indeterminacy and semantic
diversity
 indeterminacy and semantic
diversity
• The clauses above are not necessarily postmodifiers of John.
• They function as an element of superordinate clause as
suggested by their MOBILITY.
• The context may allow for any of the following relationships:
✓ a temporal relation: When he was told of his good
fortunes …
✓ a causal relation: Because he was told of his good
fortunes …
✓ a concessive relation: Although he was told of his good
fortunes …
Comparative clauses
Comparative clauses
Issues:
• What a comparative clause is
• Comp-element
• Ellipsis in comparative sentences
• Intensive relationship
• Comparative sentences of sufficiency and
excess
 Comparative clauses
• follow the comparative form of an adjective or adverb
• have appearance of both adverbial and adjectival
modifiers, e.g.,
✓ He’s not as clever as I thought.
✓ I love you more deeply than I can say.
✓ Mary is smarter than I am.
• Compare two propositions:
➢ superordinate clause proposition with that in the
subordinate clause
• the COMP(arative) ELEMENT expresses the
comparison
 The comp-element
• Specifies the standard of comparison (e.g., smart)
• Links superordinate clause to the subordinate
clause by a correlative sequence
• Identifies the comparison as equational or
differentiating:
a) equational as … as
b) differentiating less/more/-er …than
 The comp-element

a) Equational as … as
• Identifies the comparison as equivalent, e.g.,
✓ Jane is as smart as her sister (is).
b) Differentiating less/more/-er …than
• Identifies the comparison as non-equivalent, e.g.,
✓ Jane is less/more smart/smarter than her
sister (is).
• NOTE: The first item may be replaced by the
inflectional comparative.
 The comp-element

• Can be any clause element (apart from the verb), e.g.

✓ More people use this brand than (use) any other
window-cleaning fluid. (S)
✓ I’m happier about it than my husband (is). (Cs)
✓ He knows more than most people (know). (Od)
✓ That man has given more children happiness
than anyone else (has). (Oi)
✓ You have been working much harder than I
(have). (A)
NOTE
• Some more/less/-er …than constructions do not necessarily
introduce comparative clauses, e.g.
a) non-clausal comparison, e.g.,
✓ The books weigh more than four pounds.
✓ It goes faster than 100 miles per hour.
✓ The strike was nothing less than a national
catastrophe
• than = preposition followed by a prepositional
complement
b) quasi-coordination, e.g.,
✓ I was more angry than frightened.
• = I was angry rather than frightened
• *I was angrier than frightened.
 Ellipsis in comparative sentence

• Basically, a comparative sentence has two clauses

with parallel structure and content.
• Such a structure allows for ellipsis or
substitution by pronoun/pro-predication
 Ellipsis in comparative sentence
• Ellipsis/substitution involves the main clause part
repeated in subordinate clause, e.g.,
a. James enjoys the theatre more than Sue enjoys the
theatre.
b. James enjoys the theatre more than Sue enjoys it.
c. James enjoys the theatre more than Sue does.
d. James enjoys the theatre more than Sue.
e. *James enjoys the theatre more than Sue enjoys.
f. James knows more about theatre than Sue (knows)
• Note: It is ungrammatical to omit the object unless the
verb too is ellipted or the OBJECT itself is the comp-
element
Ellipsis in comparative sentence

Obligatory ellipsis
• Occur in comparative sentences with comparison
standard that cannot be specified again in the
subordinate clause, e.g.,
✓ *Jane is smarter than her sister (is smart).
• NOTE: Some sentences have different aspects of a
single standard of comparison (e.g., ‘size’, ‘ability’)
specified in each clause, e.g.
✓ The book case is wider than it is tall.
✓ Jane is as successful at sport as her sister is
successful in academics.
Ellipsis in comparative sentence

Ambiguity through ellipsis

• Arises as to whether the remaining noun
phrase is a subject or an object, e.g.,
✓ He loves the dog more than his wife.
= ‘… than his wife loves the dog’
= ‘… than he loves his wife’
 Ellipsis in comparative sentence

Ellipsis and partial contrast

• Nonsense arises when two clauses in a
comparison differ solely in the comp-element, e.g.
✓ *I hear it more clearly than I hear it.
• However, lexically identical clauses in a comparison
may differ solely in tense or mood. All identical
items are ellipted except the items necessary to
express the contrast, e.g.,
✓ I hear it more clearly than I did (i.e.., hear it).
✓ I get up as early as I should (i.e.., get up).
NOTE: There are other ways to express contrast solely
in tense
a) Use of an adverbial in the subordinate clause, e.g.,
✓ She’ll enjoy it more than (she enjoyed it) last year.
b) Total ellipsis of the subordinate clause, e.g.,
✓ You are slimmer (i.e., than you were).
 Intensive relationship in comparative
sentences

• Sometimes, a comparative sentence may express an

intensive relationship
• The relationship/relation involves the noun
phrases and the comp-element. These noun
phrases are those in the superordinate and
comparative clauses
 Intensive relationship in comparative
sentences

• Occurs when a comparative adjective precedes a

noun phrase in the superordinate clause, e.g.
✓ There are more intelligent monkeys than Sue.
▪ That is, the whole noun phrase ‘intelligent monkeys’ is
in an intensive relation with the noun phrase ‘Sue’
▪ So, the sentence means:
➢ = Sue is an intelligent monkey.
 Intensive relationship in comparative
sentences

• However, placing the comparative adjective after the

noun phrase in the independent clause, the two noun
phrases are not in intensive relationship
✓ There are monkeys more intelligent than Sue.
▪ = Sue is a man (i.e., our plausible interpretation)
Comparative sentences of sufficiency and
excess

• Some comparative constructions express

sufficiency and excess
 Comparative sentences of sufficiency
and excess
Those expressing sufficiency
• Are the to-infinitive clauses introduced by
enough or by the correlative so/such …
that, e.g.,
✓ It flies fast enough to beat the speed record.
✓ It flies so fast that it can beat the speed record.
✓ They have not done enough to meet the
expectations of city residents.
✓ She is old enough to do some work.
• the assertive form shows the positive
meaning of enough.
Comparative sentences of sufficiency and
excess
Those expressing excess
• Are the to-infinitive clauses introduced by too or by
correlative so/such … that, e.g.,
✓ It’s too good a chance to miss.
✓ It’s such a good chance that we mustn’t miss it.
✓ She is too old to do any work.
▪ the non-assertive form “any” indicates the negative
meaning of too.
✓ You know men feel too threatened to approach these
women as wives.
✓ The blade moves too quickly for most people to see (it).
▪ to-infinitive clause with subject
▪ again, the object is optional
Comment clauses
 Comment clauses

• Comment clauses are loosely related to a

superordinate clause.
• They function as disjuncts or conjuncts, and
occur initially, finally and medially
• Express speaker’s attitude to the main clause,
or his manner of asserting it, e.g.,
✓ Food is cheap in Zomba, I believe.
✓ To be honest, I’m not sure what to do.
 Comment clauses
• Vary in form:
a) Like main clause, e.g.: At that time, I believe, labour
was cheap.
b) Like adverbial clause, e.g.: I’m a pacifist, as you know.
c) Like nominal relative clause (as conjunct), e.g.:
What’s more, we lost all our belongings.
d) Infinitive clause (as disjunct), e.g.: I’m not sure what
to do, to be honest.
e) -ing clause (as disjunct), e.g.: I doubt, speaking as a
layman, whether television is the right medium.
f) -ed clause (as disjunct), e.g.: Stated bluntly, he has no
chance of winning.
Clauses in (in)direct speech
a. clauses in direct speech
b. clauses in indirect speech
• Transferred negation
 Direct speech

• Has reporting words and speaker’s words

incorporated in quotation marks in writing, e.g.,
✓He said: ‘I am very angry’
 Direct speech

• The reporting clause is classed as a comment

clause and can occur before, within, or after the
speech itself, e.g.
✓‘I am your friend,’ said John/John said.
✓‘As a result,’ said John, ‘I am very angry’
 Direct speech
• If the reporting clause occurs medially or finally, its
nominal subject and verb may be inverted, e.g.,
✓‘I am your friend,’ said John
✓‘I am your friend,’ John said
✓‘I am your friend,’ he said
✓‘I am your friend,’ ?said he (= unusual and
archaic)
 Indirect speech
• Subordinates words of speaker within the reporting
sentence, e.g.
✓He said that he was very angry.
✓John asked (me) whether I was ready yet.
➢(‘Are you ready yet?’ asked John)
 Indirect speech

• May incorporate a direct speech that retains the status

of an independent clause.
• The incorporated speech functions in part as an
element in the clause of the reporting sentence, e.g.
✓He said this (Od), namely ‘I am very angry’.
Indirect speech & transferred negation

• Transferred negation in reported speech refers to a

phenomenon where negation with some reporting
verbs in superordinate clause applies in subordinate
clause.
 Indirect speech & transferred negation

• Two classes of reporting verbs can be distinguished:

a) Language activity verbs, e.g.: say, reply etc
b) Mental activity verbs, e.g.: think, believe,
suppose, imagine, expect, anticipate, calculate,
figure
 More language activity verbs

• add, advise, agree, comment, complain, object, say,

admit, conclude, observe, shout (out), announce,
confess, order, state, answer, cry (out), promise,
tell, argue, declare, protest, assert, exclaim, recall,
urge, ask, explain, remark, warn, beg, insist,
repeat, whisper, boast, maintain, reply, wonder,
claim, note, report, write
Indirect speech & transferred negation

• Negation with language activity verbs in

superordinate clauses does not apply in subordinate
clause e.g.,
✓He did not say that Mary was pretty
≠He said that Mary was not pretty.
➢ = the two sentences are different in meaning
 Indirect speech & transferred negation

• There is transferred negation with mental activity

verbs, e.g.
i. He didn’t think that Mary was pretty.
~He thought that Mary was not pretty.
ii. I don’t suppose he has paid yet.
~I suppose he hasn’t paid yet.
iii. I don’t suppose (that) he CARES, DOES he?
• The non-assertive yet in sentences (ii above) appears in
the subordinate clause though the verb is not negated.
• The tag question (in iii) is another indication of a
transferred negation. The tag question is attached to the
that-clause as indicated by the subject he.
 NOTE: Non-assertive forms
• Non-assertive forms do not occur outside negation (and
interrogative, and conditional clauses). Such forms
include: any, in any way, any series, never, rarely, at
all, yet, far, either etc., e.g.,
✓We’ve had some (lunch). = We haven’t had any
(lunch).
✓I was speaking to someone. = I wasn’t speaking to
anybody.
✓John is coming too. = John isn’t coming either.
• See more examples in the left column below.
The verb phrase in dependent
clauses

5 verb phrase types

1. The present tense with subordinate clauses

• To express future meaning, present tense is used instead of

will/shall in some temporal, conditional and
concessive adverbial clauses, e.g.,
✓When/If/Before he arrives, the band will play the
National Anthem. (temporal)
✓Even if tomorrow’s match is cancelled, Chelsea will
still be top of the league.(Conditional and concessive
meaning).
✓He will come in case we need him. (conditional; in case
= if/if it happens that)
✓Next time I will do as he says. (manner)
1. The present tense with subordinate clauses

• Examples of such subordinators:

1. The present tense with subordinate clauses

• Present tense verbs are also used in nominal that-

and wh-clauses when the clauses refer to the future.
When the main clause refers to the present, the
future will is used in the subordinate clause. EG.:
✓I shall ask him what he wants tomorrow.
✓The question is what he will want tomorrow.
• Both will and simple present may be used with
verbs like hope, suppose (in the imperative), and
assume may
✓I hope that the parcel comes in time.
✓Let’s assume our opponents win.
2. The modal past in dependent clauses

• The past tense is used in unreal conditional

sentences.
• The corresponding superordinate verb phrase is
would/should + infinitive except when the
past of another modal auxiliary is used, e.g.,
✓If we had enough money, I wouldn’t
have to work so hard.
✓If we had enough money, we could buy a
tape-recorder.
2. The modal past in dependent clauses

• Modal past is also used in other constructions in

which a negative inference can be drawn, e.g.,
✓It’s time you were in bed. (buy you’re not in bed)
✓He behaves as though he was/were a
millionaire. (but he isn’t)
✓It’s not as though we were poor.
✓Just suppose/imagine someone was/were
following us.
✓If only I had listened to my parents!
2. The modal past in dependent clauses

• Unreal meaning in past time is indicated by had plus

the -ed participle
• With past reference, the unreal meaning is more
absolute, and amounts to an implied rejection of the
condition.
• With present and future reference, the meaning is
merely of improbability and negative expectation. Eg.:
✓We could have got married today, if you’d really
wanted to (but in fact you didn’t want to)
✓If he had listened to me, he wouldn’t have made
the mistake (but in fact he didn’t listen)
✓If you listened to me, you wouldn’t make mistakes
(but I don’t suppose you will listen to me).
 3. The perfect aspect in dependent clauses

• Since with temporal sense used with the perfect

refers to the stretch of time up to and potentially
including the present, e.g.,
✓Since we have owned a car, we have gone
camping every year (or possibly: ... We go
camping, where own implies duration)
✓She has been drinking Martinis ever since the
party started (not: She is drinking ....where start
excludes duration)
✓Scholars have been writing English grammars
since the sixteenth century (Same applies to since
as a preposition and as a prepositional phrase)
3. The perfect aspect in dependent clauses

• After and when used to refer to a sequence of past

events can be followed by either a past perfect or by
a simple past.
• When with the simple past suggests the one event
followed immediately or happened at the
same time with the other. When with the past
perfect means one event happened after. Eg.:
✓After/when he had returned/returned from
work, his wife served dinner.
✓He went away when I visited/had visited her.
3. The perfect aspect in dependent clauses

• When with the progressive or stative verb in the

main clause indicates the simultaneity rather than
successivity of the events e.g.,
✓When he returned from work, his wife was
(working) in the kitchen.
4. The present subjunctive in dependent clauses

• More common in AmE in legal context

• Used occasionally in real conditional and concessive
clauses in formal situation, e.g.,
✓Whatever be the reasons for it, we cannot
tolerate this disloyalty (i.e. Whatever may be the
reasons ...)
4. The present subjunctive in dependent clauses

• Also used in clauses of concession and purpose to

express putative meaning ,e.g.,
✓Though he is/be the president himself, he shall
hear us.
• Used in that-clauses of wish, hope, or intention
where should would be more usual, e.g.,
✓Congress has voted/decided/decreed/insisted
that the present law be maintained.
5. The past subjunctive were in dependent
clauses

• Used in formal clause of hypothetical meaning such

as those introduced by if, as if, as though,
though, and the imperative verbs suppose and
imagine. Eg.:
✓Suppose he were here ...
✓If the truth were known ...
6. The putative should in dependent clauses

• Used in that-clauses to express not a subordinate

statement of fact, but a putative idea. Such use of
should can usually be replaced by the indicative
without much difference of meaning, e.g.,
✓I am surprised that he should feel lonely
(=he feels) = Allows doubt to linger
✓I am told that he feels lonely (≠he should
feel) = Accepts the report as a fact
✓I am surprised that he should resign. (It’s
the very idea of resignation that surprises)
✓I am surprised that he has resigned. (It’s
the resignation itself that is surprising.)
• The putative should also occurs in some idiomatic
questions and exclamations:
✓How should I known?
✓Why should he be resigning?
✓That he should dare attack me!
✓Who should come but the mayor himself!